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Interference of light:

It is defined as “Modification of Resultant Intensity of light obtained by the superposition of two or more light
waves”. OR

The intensity variations obtained by superposition of two or more than two light waves is called interference.
The bright & dark fringes (bands) that appear on the screen are known as interference pattern or interference
fringes

Superposition Principle
It states that when two or more light waves interfere at a given medium, the resultant displacement at any point
in the medium is the vector sum of displacements due to individual waves

Coherent Sources: If the phase difference between two light waves emitted from two sources is zero or
have a constant value then the sources are said to be coherent.

Incoherent- sources: If the phase difference between two light waves coming from two sources changes
with time, the sources are called as “In-coherent Sources

Types of interference
Constructive interference: When the two light waves reach a point in phase the resultant displacement is
always equal to algebraic sum of individual displacements of the light waves. It is known as constructive
interference
Destructive interference: When the two light waves reach a point i.e. out of phase. The resultant
displacement is always equal to the difference of displacements of the light waves. It is known as
destructive interference.

Thin film

An optical medium of thickness in the range between 0.5µm to 10 µm may be considered as thin film

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Interference in a Thin Film of uniform thickness Due to Reflected Light

When light is incident on a (plane parallel) thin film, some portion gets reflected from the upper surface and the

remaining portion is transmitted into the film. Again, some portion of the transmitted light is reflected back into the film
by lower surface and emerges through the upper surface. These reflected light beams superimpose with each other,
producing interference and forming interference patterns.

Consider a thin film of thickness‘t’ and refractive index µ. Let a monochromatic light ray AB be
incident at an angle of incidence of ‘i’ on the upper surface of the film. BE and BC are the reflected and
transmitted light rays. Let the angle of refraction is ‘r’. The ray BC will be reflected into the film and emerge
through the film in the form of the light ray DF.

These two light rays superimpose depending upon path difference between them producing
interference patterns. To know the path difference, let us draw the normal DG to BE. From D and G onwards,
the light rays travel equal distances. By the time the light ray travels from B to G, the transmitted light ray has
to travel from B to C and C to D.
The path difference between light rays (1) and (2) is

∆ = μ (BC+CD) (in film) –BG (in air) (1)

HC t
From triangle BCH BC = =
cos r cos r

HC t
From triangle DCH CD = =
cos r cos r

t t 2t
⇒ (BC + CD) = + ⇒
cos r cos r cos r

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BH BH
triangle BHC tan r = =
CH t

BH = t tanr

Similarly HD = t tanr

BD = BH+HD

= t tanr + t tanr

= 2t tanr (∵ BH=HD)

BG
From triangle BGD, sin i =
BD

⇒ BG = BD sin i

BG = 2t tanr sin i

Sini
But µ=
Sinr
Sini = μ sin r

BG = 2μt tan r sin r

Substituting the above values in equation-(1)

The path difference between light rays (1) and (2) is

µ2t
= cos r - 2μt tan r sin r

2µt
= (1− sin2r )
cos r

PATH DIFFERENCE  2t

In the above case, the ray BE is reflected at the surface of a denser medium and hence it suffers an
λ
additional path difference equal to
2
The ray BC suffers reflection at C, at the surface of a rarer medium and hence on emerging out at D,
it suffers no additional path change.

Hence the net path difference between the two reflected rays DF and BE

λ
Total path difference = 2μt cos r +
2

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\When the path difference is an integral multiple of λ then the rays (1) and (2) will be in phase and appear as
constructive interference.

When the path difference is half integral multiple of λ, the rays (1) and (2) meet in out of phase and undergo destructive
interference

(Condition for the bright fringe)

λ
2μt cos r = nλ −
2

λ
2μt cos r = (2n −1)
2

Where n= 0, 1, 2……….

(Condition for the dark fringe)

λ λ
2µcos r + = (2n −1) 2
2

2µcosr = n λ where n = 0, 1, 2, ….. .

Colours of thin films: When white light is incident on a thin film only few wavelengths will satisfy
the condition of maxima and therefore corresponding colours will seen in the pattern. For other wavelengths condition of
minima is satisfied, and so corresponding colours will be missing in the pattern. The coloration of film varies with t and r.
Therefore, if one varies either t or r a different set of colours will be observed.

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Wedge shaped film

The wedge-shaped film as shown in Figure 4.5. Let a ray

from S is falling on the film and after deflections produce
interference pattern. The path difference between PQ and
EH

(The total path difference between rays reflected from top and bottom surfaces of the film will be equal to )
λ
2µcos (r + θ) + 2

Condition for maxima

−λ
2µcos (r + θ) =nλ ⇒ 2µcos (r + θ) = (2n + 1) λ/2 where n = 0, 1, 2…
2
This is the condition for constructive interference and the film will appear bright

Condition for minima

λ λ
2µcos (r + θ) + 2 = (2n −1) 2

2µcos (r + θ) = n λ where n = 0, 1, 2, ….. . ..

This is the condition for destructive interference and the film will appear dark

Applications of interference

1) Antireflection coating

Antireflection coatings (ARCs) are optical coatings that reduce reflection from the surface of lenses, optical
elements, and photovoltaic cells. They improve efficiency by reducing light loss due to reflection

The optical instruments such as camera or telescope use the lenses to capture the images. When light incident
on lens some light get reflected and some get transmitted. Due to reflection the light gets lost and quality of
image is poor. to improve the quality of image reflection should be minimum.

A thin layer of transparent dielectric material whose refractive index is in between that of air and glass is coated on the
surface of glass. The thickness of coating and the refractive index is carefully adjusted such that light reflected form top
and bottom surfaces interface destructively hence no reflected light comes out.

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λ
We have the condition for destructive interference is 2µtcosr = (2n+1)
2
-------- (1)
For normal incidence i = r = 0

For minimum thickness n = 0

λ
2µtcos0 = (2(0) +1)
2

λ
2µt (1) =
2

λ
t=
4µ

Where µ is reflective index of coating

This is the minimum thickness of coating for no reflection for a wavelength λ

λ
When the light of wavelength λ reflected form top and bottom surfaces of layer of thickness t = there will be
4µ
destructive interface in reflection light and they vanishes and entire light in transmitted.

2) DETERMINATION OF OPTICAL FLATNESS OF THE SURFACE

The phenomenon of interference is used in testing the plainness/flatness of the surface.
If the two surface OA and OB are perfectly plane, the air film between them gradually varies in thickness
from O to A. The fringes are of equal thickness as each fringe is the locus of the points at which the
thickness of film has a constant value. If the fringes are not of equal thickness, it means that surface is not
plane.

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To Test the optical flatness of the surface the specimen surface to be tested (OB) is placed over the
plane surface (OA). The fringes are observed through microscope if fringes are of equal thickness the
surface OB is plane. if not then surface OB is not plane. The surface OB is polished and again tested till
fringes of equal width (thickness) are observed.

Polarization
Unpolarized light

It is a light which has vibrations in all possible directions perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

Plane polarized light

It is a light which has vibrations only in one plane and in one direction which is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation is called Plane polarized light

Plane of Vibration

It is a plane in which the electric field vector of plane polarized light vibrates

Plane of polarization

It is a plane perpendicular to the Plane of Vibration

Circularly polarized light

Circularly polarized light is that type of light in which electric field vector rotates at a constant rate in a circular path as
Wave propagates. Circularly polarized light is obtained when two waves of equal amplitudes but differing in phase
0
by 90 oscillating mutually perpendicular to each other superimpose with each other.

Elliptically polarized light

Elliptically polarized light is that type of light in which electric field vector describe an ellipse in a plane perpendicular
to the direction of propagation. Elliptically polarized light is obtained when two waves of different amplitudes but
0
differing in phase other than 90 oscillating mutually perpendicular to each other superimpose with each other.

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Malu’s Law
According to malus, when completely plane polarized light is incident on the polarizer. The intensity I of the light
transmitted by the analyzer is directly proportional to the square of the cosine of angle between the transmission axes
of the analyzer and the polarizer.

I.e. I ∝ cos2θ

To derive the Malus Law, let us consider the amplitude' A 0 ' of Light transmitted by the
polarizer and the

angle between the polarizer’s planes and the analyzer is θ

Now resolving the amplitude’ A0’ in two components:

When the incident polarized light of amplitude Ao strikes the analyzer at an angle θ, it is resolved into two
components Aocosθ and Aosinθ as shown in Fig. The component Aosinθ is eliminated in the analyzer

Since, only the component Ao cosθ passes through the analyzer the amplitude of the transmitted light is
therefore,

A= Aocosθ

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(∵ Intensity ∝ Amplitude2)
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I ∝ a2

I ∝ (A02Cos2θ)

But A02 = I0 =constant

I = I0 Cos2θ

Or

I ∝ (Cos2θ)

This is Malu's Law, termed as Malu's Formula

DOUBLE REFRACTION

When a single ray of unpolarized is incident on a calcite crystal two refracted rays are produced hence two images
of single object are formed this phenomenon is called double refraction

HUYGEN’S THEOREY OF DOUBLE REFRACTION

Huygens explained the phenomenon of double refraction based on the following assumptions

1] Every point in a double refracting medium is a source of two types of wavefronts

a) Ordinary wavefront which is spherical, as ordinary waves travel with same velocity in all directions.
the refractive index of the crystal is same for these waves in all directions

b) Extra ordinary wavefront which is ellipsoidal, as extraordinary waves travel with different velocities in
different directions. The refractive index of the crystal for these waves is different in different directions.

2] The O- ray and E-ray travel with same velocity along the optic axis hence the two wavefronts meet at the optic axis

3] In some crystals the velocity [vo] of the ordinary waves is greater than the velocity [ve] of extraordinary waves in
all directions except along the optic axis. For such crystal µ o¿ µe such crystals are known as positive crystals.

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4] In some crystals the velocity [ve] of extraordinary waves is greater than velocity [v o]of the ordinary waves in all
directions except along the optic axis. For such crystal µe¿ µo such crystals are known as negative crystals.

Negative Crystal Positive Crystal

Applications of polarization

Applications of polarization in 3D movie

The phenomenon of polarization is used in recording and projection of 3D movies. If both eyes receive the same image
the picture will be two dimensional. In a polarized 3D movie set up two projectors are used each projecting a slightly
different image one for left eye and one for right eye. Each projector has polarizing filter one projector uses horizontal
lypolarized light and other uses vertically polarized light. The audience see the movie with glasses which has two
Polaroid filter one is vertical other is horizontal thus each eye receives slightly different image the effect of these
projectors and filter gives 3D effect.

Applications of polarization in communication and Radar

In Radar system electromagnetic waves in radio region are transmitted by transmitting antenna the waves get reflected
from the object like ( Missiles, ships, aircraft, spacecrafts, vehicles etc) these waves are received by receiving antenna
and gives information about location position and speed of the object.

In Radar horizontal, Vertical, Circular polarization is used to detect different types of waves reflected from different
targets. Horizontal polarization is more effective in detecting ground based targets or objects that reflects waves
horizontally like vehicles on road providing better signal reception. Horizontal polarization can help reduce interference. ,

Circular polarization is used to reduce the impact of rain on detection of aircraft. Vertical polarization is used for
detecting the targets that are vertically oriented such as tall buildings etc.. Choosing the appropriate polarization can
enhance target detection rates.

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