Sugarcane

Dr. Gururaj Hunsigi

Director
Kamataka Institute of Applied Agricultural Research (KIAAR)
Sameerwadi, Bagalkot

Prism Books Pvt Ltd

• Bangalore • Calcutta • Hyderabad
A2281096XB

Sugarcane
in Agriculture and industry

Prism Books Pvt Ltd

1865, 32nd Cross,
BSK II Stage, Bangalore - 560 070
http://www.prismbooks.com

© 2001 by Publisher

Author: Dr. Gururaj Hunsigi

Price: Rs. 950/- US $ 49.95 (including postage)

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

ISBN: 81-7286-149-4

Printed in India at Eastern Press Pvt Ltd., Bangalore.

 DEDICATED TO

PADMA BHUSHAN, PUJYA K.J. SOMAIYA

 Foreword
Sugarcane is one of the most important commercial crops in our country, next only
to cotton, since ages. Of late, however, it has had a roller-coaster ride with cycles of
surplus and shortage. It has come to occupy an important position as a crop both in
tropics and subtropics.

The earliest reference to sugarcane is in Atharvaveda (5000 years ago). The ancient
India knew the art and science of making sugar. Sugar was made as early as 3000 B.C.
By 100 A.D., bagasse was used as captive fuel. The Sanskrit word 'Sarkara' is adopted
in many languages; Sugar (English), Zucker (German), Azacar (Spanish), Sucre
(French), Shakhar (Marathi), Sakar (Gujarati), Shakkar (Hindi) etc. Interestingly,
sugar does not find a place in Holy Quran or Holy Bible. Instead, honey is mentioned.
Thus, Alexander the Great called it as 'honey reed' and noted it as a 'closely spaced
well husbanded garden crop'. There is ample evidence to claim that India is the home
of sugarcane and the world owes it to India for cane sugar and its derivatives.

Sugarcane plays a key role in the Indian economy. With 480 sugar factories located in
the rural areas through out the country, the Indian sugar industry is a prime catalyst
in converting the potential agro-industrial rural sector into economic strength of the
country. Over 45 million farmers are involved in sugarcane cultivation, harvesting
and ancillary activities. The industry employs over 5 lakh skilled and unskilled workers
mainly from the rural areas. Thus, over 7.5% of our rural population is directly or
indirectly dependent on the sugar industry.

The industry's contribution to the Indian economy is enormous. With a total turn
over of more than Rs. 20,000 crores per year, the Indian sugar industry is amongst
the largest tax payers to the Central and State exchequers contributing around
Rs. 1000 crores per annum. In any other country, an industry of this size and
contribution would have received utmost attention and assistance from the
Government. In India, the sugar industry remains comparatively neglected and its
potential has not been fully harnessed.

Be that as it may, during the past 50 years, this crop has metamorphosed from sugarcane
to fibre cane to alcohol cane and to energy cane. Hence a few factories have diversified
into by-products based industries and have invested and put up distilleries, organic
chemical plants, paper and board factories etc. But the emphasis is now on cogeneration
of power. The sugar industry has the potential to generate 3000 MW of surplus
power. The emerging technologies indicate that 5000 T C D plant can easily export
about 18 MW power to the grid with high pressure (above 60 ATA), high temperature
(above 480°C) and high efficiency boilers with a double extraction cum condensing
turbines with hardly any additional consumption of fuel.

Sugarcane in Agriculture and Industry authored by Dr. Gururaj Hunsigi is a

comprehensive handbook. It deals with every aspect of sugarcane, both from agricultural
and industrial point of view. There are 28 chapters dealing with topics such as the
origin, distribution and botany of sugarcane, varieties, production practices etc.

The varietal development since 50s to present day rich, short duration and early
yielding varieties finds a prominent place in the book. The soil and climatic
requirements of cane are well documented. The author has not lost sight of ratoon
cane management since ratoons cost less but add to the sugarcane economy and
hence this aspect has received due attention. The recenr innovations in transgenic
sugarcane and simulation models are very well narrated.

As suppliers of raw material, sugarcane farmers play a key role in the sugar industry.
Therefore, various cane developmental activities have been described. The readers
would find it useful to also know about the various sugar policies evolved from time
to time, since independence.

The main advantage of growing cane lies in its economics. Hence, there has been an
appreciable endeavour to present the economics of cane cultivation. A chapter on
tissue culture deals with the basics of this technology with special reference to sugarcane.
Lastly, the fundamental steps involved in sugar processing are given in the chapter on
the manufacturing of sugar.

In a very modest way, Dr. Gururaj Hunsigi's book on sugarcane aims to ultimately
achieve higher productivity of cane and sugar. It is hoped that this book would be
useful to cane development staff, factory personnel, administrators, policy makers,
students, cane growers and the general elite who are interested in this 'honey reed'.

Dr. Shantilal K. Somaiya

Chairman
Somaiya Group of Industries
 Preface
Sugarcane cultivation and jaggery making is one of the oldest occupations in India,
strengthening the rural economy. With the passage of time, great strides have been
made in improving the yield and quality of sugarcane. The percapita consumption of
sugar has nearly doubled since independence. Keeping in pace with the demand,
there has been a phenomenal increase in the number of sugar factories in the country.

The book Sugarcane in Agriculture and Industry is written in the backdrop of this
scenario. It is meant to serve as a complete handbook for students, teachers, planners,
administrators, farmers, sugar industry personnel and the general elite interested in
the sweet crop. The book deals with future farming of sugarcane and sugar processing
to meet the demands of 2 1 " century.

Great emphasis is placed on the production practices, varieties, pest, disease and
weed management. Recent innovations in tissue culture and precision engineering
through sugarcane simulation models and transgenics with environmental safety are
elaborately discussed.

A great deal of work has gone into making the book comprehensive by incorporating
an introductory chapter on sugar manufacture, glossary, bibliography and subject
index. I do hope the readers will find the book informative, instructive, engaging and
worth reading.

I take this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. S. K. Somaiya, Chair-

man of the Somaiya Group of Industries as well as Sri Samir S. Somaiya and Sri P. M.
Kavadia for their constant patronage.

The book is made possible by the love and affection showered by my family
Indumathi, Satish, Rajashree, Dr. Prahallad, Pusrushottam, Dr. Pratibha, Roopa and
grand children Nitin, Vibha and Kartik.

Dr. Gururaj Hunsigi

 Acknowledgements
The author places on record his deep sense of gratitude to:

Sri Mydur Anand, Sugar Consultant, Bangalore

Sri S. C. Srivastava, Lucknow
Dr. K. Krishna Murthy, Former Vice Chancellor, UAS, Bangalore
Dr. K. Perumal, Bangalore
Dr. K. Mohan Naidu, Dr. T. V. Sreenivasan, Dr. T. R. Srinivasan,
Dr. B. Sundara and Dr. K. V. Bhagyalaxmi, Sugarcane Experts, Sugarcane Breeding
Institute, Coimbatore
Dr. D. G. Hapase, Dr. G. K. Zende and Dr. G. P. Gokhale, Pune
Dr. R. L. Yadav, Meerut
Dr. H. N. Shahi, Dr. S. Solomon and Dr. S. R. Mishra, IISR, Lucknow
Sri V. B. Bagal, Director (W), Godavari Sugar Mills, Sameerwadi
Sri EG. Satpute, Asst. Director, KIAAR, Sameerwadi
Sri Vithal Rao Bakshi, Mudhol
Sri B. S. Gurumurthy, Sugar Consultant, Bangalore
Dr. M. A. Singlachar and Dr. B. R. Hegde, Former Directors of Research, UAS,
Bangalore
Dr. B. Shivaraj, Dr. H. V. Nanjappa and Dr. Andani Gowda, Professors, UAS,
Bangalore
Dr. C. Shankariah, Dr. N. Krishna Murthy and Dr. L.G. K. Naidu, UAS, Bangalore
Dr. Prabhanjan Rao, Hyderabad.
Contents

1. Exordium 1
1.1 Table top sweeteners 2
1.2 Cane vs beet sugar 3
1.3 Economic importance 4
1.4 Productivity of sugarcane 6
1.5 Sugarcane growing regions of India 8
1.6 Non-sacchariferous plants 10

2. Origin, history, and distribution 14

3. Related species and genera 16

3.1 Related species and general description 16
3.2 Nobilization products 20

4. Botany of sugarcane 22

5. Physiology of sugarcane 26
5.1 Sucrose: the main currency 29

6. Varieties in sugarcane 30

6.1 An era of the early and short duration variety 43

7. Flowering: a bane in commercial plantation 47

8. Sugarcane soils 51
8.1 Problem soils 57
Contents

9. Ecology of sugarcane 60
9.1 Temperature 65
9.2 Rainfall 66
9.3 Relative humidity (RH) 66
9.4 Atmospheric CO2 concentration 67
9.5 Sunlight 61
9.6 Frost 69
9.7 Wind 69
9.8 Microclimate 69
9.9 Effect of greenhouse gases (GHGs) 70
9.10 Effect of climate on ripening 70

10. Production practices 72

10.1 Preparatory tillage 72
10.2 Green manuring and application of bulky manures 75
10.3 Seed material and seed rate 76
10.4 Geometry of planting and planting depth 77
10.5 Planting period 78
10.6 Agronomy of late planted crop 80
10.7 Planting methods 81
10.7.1 Flat method of planting 81
10.7.2 Trench or Java method of planting 81
10.7.3 Partha method of planting 82
10.7.4 Deep trench planting 83
10.7.5 Rayungan method or Rajoeng method of planting 84
10.7.6 Seblang or sprouted bud method of planting 84
10.7.7 Distance planting method 85
10.7.8 Align method of planting 85
10.7.9 Tjeblock method of planting 85
10.7.10 Modified trench system of planting 86
10.7.11 Contour system of planting 87
10.7.12 Single bud direct planting 87
10.7.13 Chip bud or bud chip technique of planting 87
 Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

10.7.14 Pit planting 88

10.7.15 Skip-furrow planting 89
10.7.16 Paired-row planting 89
10.7.17 IISR 8626 method of planting 91
10.7.18 Ring planting 91
10.7.19 Spaced transplanting technique (STP) 93
10.7.20 Polybag seedling transplanting method 94
10.7.21 Ridges and furrows method of planting 95
10.8 Mechanical planters 96
10.9 Aftercare 97
10.10 Managing canes under stress conditions 97
10.10.1 Cold stress 98
10.10.2 Agronomy of waterlogged or excess moisture conditions 98
10.10.3 Moisture stress conditions 100
10.10.4 Managing acid soils 102
10.10.5 Managing saline-alkali soils 103
10.10.6 Sugarcane in Tilah land and shallow black soils 105
10.11 Sugarcane based cropping and farming systems 105
10.11.1 Companion cropping in sugarcane 112
10.11.2 Sugarcane based farming systems 118

11. Nutrition and fertiliser management 124

.1 Nutrient uptake and removal 124
11.2 Nitrogen 125
11.2.1 Nitrogen losses 129
11.2.2 N carriers 130
11.2.3 Varietal response 132
11.2.4 Time and method of N application 134
11.2.5 The rhizosphere 135
11.2.6 Nitrogen cycle in sugarcane 138
11.2.7 Biofertilizers 140
11.2.8 Time and method of applying biofertilizers 144
11.2.9 N2 fixers and environmental protection 145
Contents

11.2.10 Ex situ composting of trash and press mud

(modified Japanese method) 145
11.2.11 Vermicomposting 147
11.3 Phosphorus 150
11.3.1 Sources of P 152
11.3.2 Phosphate Solubilising Microorganisms (PSM) 155
11.3.3 Mycorrhizal symbiosis 157
11.4 Potassium 159
11.4.1 Forms of potassium 160
11.4.2 Soil K extractants 162
11.4.3 Source, method and time of K application 163
114.4 Rate of K application and response studies 163
11.4.5 Response to NPK fertilizers 164
11.5 Sulphur 169
11.5.1 Sources of S 171
11.6 Calcium and magnesium 172
11.7 Silicon 173
11.8 Micronutrients 174
11.8.1 Iron and manganese 176
11.8.2 Zinc 176
11.8.3 Other micronutrients 177
11.9 Visual symptoms of nutrient deficiencies and disorders 178
11.10 Nutrition management 180
11.10.1 Soil and tissue testing 180
11.10.2 Crop logging 180
11.10.3 Diagnosis and Recommendations Integrated System (DRIS) 181
11.10.4 Integrated Nutrient Management System (INMS) 182
11.10.5 Constraint analysis 185
11.11 Biological software in sugar industry 186

12. Water management 189

12.1 Evapotranspiration (ET) or consumptive use (CU),
Irrigation efficiency (IE), and Water use efficiency (WUE) 190
12.2 Soil moisture status and leaf water potential (YL) 192

mm
 Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

12.3 When to irrigate? 194

12.4 How much to irrigate? 195
12.5 How to irrigate? 198
12.5.1 Sprinkler irrigation 198
12.5.2 Furrow method of irrigation 199
12.5.3 Drip or trickle irrigation 201
12.6 Drainage 203

13. Managing the ratoon cane 206

13.1 Ratooning defined 206
13.2 Why ratoons? 206
13.3 The root system in ratoons 207
13.4 Fertilization 209
13.4.1 Nitrogen 209
13.4.2 Phosphorus 214
13.4.2 Potassium 216
13.4.3 Secondary, minor, and beneficial elements 219
13.5 Foliar diagnosis 224
13.6 Time and method of fertilizer application 226
13.7 Yield attributes of ratoon cane 227
13.8 Quality: ratoon vs plant cane 229
13.9 Cultural requirement 229
13.10 Number of ratoons 231
13.11 Ratooning power of cultivars 232
13.12 Water requirement 234
13.13 Gap filling 236
13.14 Trash management 237
13.15 Management of weeds, pests, and diseases associated with ratoons 238
13.16 Effect of growth regulants on sprouting and ratoon yield 238
13.17 Allelopathy in ratoon cropping 240
13.18 Environmental concern: a plea for integrated nutrient management (INM) 242
14. Management of seed cane 249
14.1 Sett treatment 250
14.2 Agronomy of seed cane 250
14.3 Thermotherapy or Heat therapy 251
14.4 Three-tier seed programme 252

15. Integrated weed management 254

15.1 Integrated weed control 256
15.2 Herbicide protectants, antidotes or safeners, surfactants and adjuvants 264
15.3 Weed control in crop rotation and intercropping system 265
15.4 Control of noxious perennial weeds 265
15.5 Methods of application 266

16. Pest and disease management 268

16.1 Pests 268
16.1.1 Shoot borer (Chilo infescatellus Snellen) 269
16.1.2 Top borer (Scirpophaga excerptalis walker) 269
16.1.3 Internode borer (Chilo sacchariphagus indicus.Kapur) 270
16.1.4 Stalk borer (Chilo auricilius, Dudgeon) 270
16.1.5 Gurudaspur borer (Acigona steniellus, Hampson) 271
16.1.6 Root borer (Emmalocera depressella, Swinhoe) 271
16.1.7 White Grubs (Anomala sp., Holotrichia sp., Pentodon sp.,
Alissonotum sp., and Hetronychus sp.) 272
16.1.8 Termites 272
16.1.9 Scale insect: Melanapsis glomerata (Green) 273
16.1.10 Pyrilla (Pyrilla purpusilla, Walker) 274
16.1.11 White files 274
16.1.12 Non-insect pests 275
16.2 Biological control of sugarcane pests 278
16.2.1 Parasites 278
16.3 Diseases 280
16.3.1 Red rot (Colletotrichum falcatum) 281
16.3.2 Smut (Ustilago scitaminea Sydow) 282
 Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

16.3.3 Wilt (Cephalosporium sacchari Buller or

Fusarium moniliformae Sheldon) 282
16.3.4 Pineapple disease (Ceratocystis paradoxa de Seyner) 283
16.3.5 Leafspots 284
16.3.6 Ratoon Stunting Disease (RSD) (Clavibacter Xyli) 285
16.3.7 Grassy Shoot Disease (GSD) 285
16.3.8 Mosaic 285
16.4 Nematodes 286

17. Transgenic sugarcane: some applications of biotechnology 288

18. Sugarcane simulation models 293

18. 1 Generalia 293
18.2 Empirical models 295
18.3 Mechanistic models. 297

19. Ripening, maturity and harvest 300

19.1 Ripening methods 303
19.2 Methods of cane purchase 307
19.3 Harvest strategy 310
19.3.1 Pre-harvest maturity survey 312
19.3.2 Methods of harvest 312
19.3.3 Mechanised harvesting 314
19.3.4 Post-harvest losses 315
19.4 Cane fires 316

20. jaggery manufacture and allied products 318

20.1 Allied products 323
20.1.1 Khandasari 323
20.1.2 Liquid jaggery (Kaakavi/Kakumbi/Golnupa) 323
20.1.3 Rab 323
20.1.4 Bura 323
20.1.5 Misri 324
20.1.6 Shakkar 324
Contents

20.2 Preservation of sugarcane juice 324

20.3 High fructose syrup (HFS) 324
20.4 Nutrient sweeteners from cane sugar 325

21. By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends 330

21.1 Environmental system 330
21.2 Production system 330
21.3 Economic system 330
21.4 Fibre cane system 333
21.4.1 Factors affecting fibre in cane 333
21.4.2 Role of varieties 334
21.4.3 Bagasse storage 336
21.4.4 Biodegradation of bagasse 337
21.4.5 Development of wet-pile technology 338
21.4.6 Bagasse for paper making 338
21.4.7 Bagasse newsprint (BNP) 338
21.4.8 Agglomerated products of bagasse 340
21.4.9 Other products of bagasse 341
21.5 Energy cane system 346
21.5.1 Efficiency of phytomass production in energy cane 348
21.5.2 Food vs fuel farming 349
21.5.3 Ethanol from fermentable solids 350
21.5.4 Ethanol from cellulosic materials 351
21.5.5 Fuel alcohols 352
21.5.6 Molasses 353
21.5.7 Press mud or filter cake 357
21.5.8 Distillery effluents 359
21.6 Power cane system 360

22. Pollution problems and control measures 362

22.1 Effluent treatment Methods for the sugar industry 362
22.1.1 Physical treatment methods 363
22.1.2 Chemical treatment methods 363
 Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

22.1.3 Biological treatment methods 363

22.1.4 Air pollution 367
22.2 Effluent treatment for distillery units 367
22.2.1 General process 368
22.2.2 Anaerobic digestion and methane production 368
22.2.3 Aerobic process 370
22.3 Biocomposting 371

23. Cane farmers and sugar policy 372

23.1 Sugar policy 373
23.2 Enactments 375
23.3 High powered committee recommendations 376

24. Economics of cane cultivation 379

25. Tissue culture 389

25.1 Basic steps in micropropagation 391
25.2 Major advantages of tissue culture 391
25.3 Rapid multiplication of sugarcane by tissue culture 394
25.4 Some terminologies 396

26. What ails the sugar industry? 398

27. Processing of sugarcane into white sugar 399

27.1 Extraction of juice from sugarcane 400
27.1.1 Milling 400
27.1.2 Imbibition 401
27.1.3 Juice weighing 409
27.2 Clarification process 409
27.2.1 Clarification process for manufacturing raw sugar 410
27.2.2 Clarification process for manufacturing white sugar 411
27.2.3 Filtration of sediments 414
Contents

27.3 Evaporation of water 4l4

27.3.1 Vapour Bleeding 415
27.3.2 Comments 426
27.3.3 Extraction of non-condensables 427
27.3.4 Condensate extraction 428
27.3.5 Flashing of condensates 428
27.3.6 Syrup sulphitation 428
27.4 Crystallization in vacuum pans (Pan boiling) 428
27.4.1 Cooling of condenser water (injection water) 432
27.5 Crystallisers 432
27.5.1 Reheating 433
27.6 Centrifuging 433
27.6.1 Superheated water wash 435
27.6.2 Molasses separation 435
27.6.3 Magmising 435
27.7 Sugar drying, grading, packing and storing 435
27.7.1 Sugar drying 435
27.7.1 Sugar grading 436
27.7.3 Warehouse 436

Glossary 437

References 438

Appendixes 458

Index 461
 Exordium

Sugarcane is a pluriannual plant with a cycle that can last 4-10 years (Fauconnier,
1993). It occupies a unique position in the vertex of cultivated eukaryotes (higher
plants) producing a high biological yield. Perhaps, the plasticity of Saccharum
spp. is their key to success in the acme of evolution. In plant cladistics, it is said
that only the high-sugared ones would survive any aberrance in the ecosystem—
and this giant grass has survived through several millennia. Thus, it has come to
stay as one of the most important crops supporting an agro-based industry in the
world.
Sugarcane is ecofriendly. It alters the microclimate, perhaps reduces CO2 fixa-
tion and enhances O2 emission. This plant has been so far regarded as a mono-
lithic crop (sugar crop). But it deserves a niche as a multi-product crop providing
food, fuel, fibre, and fertilizer. Thus, though the primary product of sugarcane is
sugar, it also provides biofuel, fibre, and fertilizer, and a myriad by-products be-
sides ensuring ecological sustainability (Hunsigi and Singlachar, 1994). Sugar-
cane is an important crop of commerce. It ranks sixth in total production among
crops—wheat, corn, rice, barley, soya bean, cane sugar, oats, other food crops
(Moore and Fitch, 1990).
In sugar production, nearly 60% of centrifugal sugar comes from sugarcane
and the rest from sugar beet. Sugar consumption symbolises affluence. But per
capita consumption mirrors geographical and cultural differences. The developed
countries like USA, Australia, Cuba, Brazil consume over 50 kg per capita per
year. But the developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America consume
less sugar. The lowest consumption of sugar of 2 kg per person per year is in the
Central African countries of Burundi and Rwanda. The world average per capita
sugar consumption stands at 20 kg per year. It is difficult to prognosticate the
future pattern of sugar consumption. Increasing health concerns point to an era
of reduced sugar consumption. Reduced sugar consumption is likely in many
countries except, perhaps, Russia and Japan. A substantial reduction in sugar con-
sumption is expected due to changes in lifestyle. The reasons attributed are: age-
ing population, obesity, cardiac troubles, and fear of being diabetic. Sociologists
warn us that even criminal behaviour is attributed to increased sugar consump-
tion. It is reasonably postulated that sugar is neither a devil nor an angel. Hence
'eat sugar with pleasure but with a measure'. The food and nutrition experts ad-
vise that except dental caries, sugar consumption has no health hazard. Hence

1
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

natural sugar provides a cheap source of energy, (one teaspoon releases 18 cal of
energy) which is easily digested. What worries health experts is that sugar is al-
ways accompanied by fat in sweetmeats—the fat being instrumental in creating
innumerable health problems.
In addition to white crystal sugar, low grade non-centrifugal sugars are con-
sumed in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. They are variously called as panela in
Venezuela and Columbia, panocha in the Philippines, piloncello in Mexico, chancaca
in Peru, and raspadura in Caribbean. In the Indian subcontinent, it is given differ-
ent names like gur, gula, jaggery, and desi sugar.
Sucrose is a disaccharide, made up of two monosaccharides, namely, glucose and
fructose. The empirical formula of sucrose is C12H22O11 with a molecular weight of
343.2 daltons. It is soluble in water and ethanol. Beside being food, it has great
potential as an industrial chemical intermediate. Sucrose and sucrose derivatives
have been widely used as components of polyurethane resins. A rough estimate
indicates that over 65000 tones/annum of sucrose is currently used in the manufac-
ture of polyurethane foam resins.

1.1

TABLE TOP SWEETENERS

Artificial sweeteners have offered a challenge to natural sugar. They are aptly called
'nutritional terrorists'. They are expensive and leave a bitter aftertaste. T h e oldest
artificial sweetener is saccharin which is 300 times sweeter than natural sugar.
Due to high-tech marketing and advertisement, these sweeteners are gradually
being accepted. T h e important artificial sweeteners are Aspartame, Acesulfame-
K, hydrogenated glucose syrup, Isomalt, Thaumatin, and Zylotol. Of these, As-
partame and Acesulfame-K are of great commercial value. The former is 180 times
sweeter than sucrose and is an organic salt. Acesulfame-K is 130 times sweeter
than 4% sugar solution. No bitter aftertaste is noticed. These sweeteners are syn-
ergistic and their 'cocktails' (blending 2 or more synergistic sweeteners) are be-
coming popular among the elite. Non-saccharide sweetening agents are increas-
ingly being used in Japan, USA, Australia, Europe, China, and Brazil (Dwivedi,
1999). The artificial sweetening agents along with their sweetness are given in
Table 1.1. Among the artificial sweeteners, sweet proteins like thaumatin and
monellin are in great demand in many developed countries of the world.

2
 1 Exordium

T a b l e 1.1 Commercial Non-Saccharide Sweeteners (NSS), intensity of

sweetness and consuming countries
Commercial Sweetness NSS consuming
products NSS compared to countries
sucrose (on unit
wt. basis)
1. Stevoiside 300 Japan, China, Brazil
(diterpenoid)
2. Ammoniated 100 USA, worldwide
glycyrrhizin triterpenoid
3. Phyllodulcin 400 Japan, Australia,
(dihydroisocoumarin) Thailand
4. Thaumatin 10,000 European countries,
(protein) Japan, Australia, USA
Source: Dwivedi, 1999.

While it should be conceded that these sweeteners provide 'hollow calories', it can
be said that natural sugar from cane/beet will always find a place of prominence.
For example, natural cotton, silk, and wool are always preferred to synthetic fi-
bres. The use of High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS) in the soft drinks and food
industry is dauntingly complex. It is presumed that HFCS will replace at least
10% of the natural sugar market.
Members of the sugarcane family have also found use as fencing, shelter, and
building material. Sugarcane plantations serve as windbreaks. Some members are
of medicinal value. In some countries the young shoots are eaten as lalab.

1.2

CANE VS BEET SUGAR

The introduction of slavery and peopling of America with blacks is the direct result of
sugarcane cultivation.
Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris), a temperate crop, got established during the early
part of the 18th century. It was introduced from Europe to USA, and the first beet

3
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

process factory was commissioned in 1870, in California (USA). Today, beet sugar
contributes 40—44% of the world sugar production. Beet sugar was well-pro-
tected for trade at the cost of cane sugar. Several agreements were made to pro-
mote international trade of cane sugar. T h e Lome convention (Lome, capital of
Togo) is a unique convention between EEC (European Economic Community),
and 46 countries of Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific (ACP) which guaran-
tees international trade of 1.37 million tons of sugar. The International Sugar
Agreement (ISA) was signed in 1937 but was scrapped due to the outbreak of
World War II. T h e ISA was revived after the war and became effective only from
1 January 1954. Many international agreements such as the US Sugar Act and the
Commonwealth Sugar Agreement (CSA) aim at equitable and stable prices for
sugar sold in the world free trade market. This also promoted internal consump-
tion of sugar since many countries of Africa and Latin America started producing
sugar. Some sugar was also traded under bilateral agreements.
The early part of the 18th century witnessed an era of advancement in factory
technology. The vacuum pan was invented by Howard in 1813, and the concept
of triple-effect evaporation was conceived and developed during 1830-1860. T h e
centrifugals which provided drier crystals were invented much later. T h e Interna-
tional Society of Sugarcane Technologists (ISSCT) was formed in 1923 and the
first Triennial Conference was held in Hawaii, in 1924. Many ISSCT Congresses
were held in different sugarcane growing countries and the 23rd Congress was
held in February 1999 in India.
T h e international sugar trade has been complex and at present 7 8 % of it is for
domestic consumption; 1 5 % is sold in the 'free market' with 7% traded under
bilateral agreements. It should be emphasised that a fair deal has to be given to a
vast section of cane growers.

1.3

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Sugarcane is one of the most valuable global crops with an estimated worth of
US$143 billion (Gallo-Meagher and Irvine, 1996). Worldwide, it occupies an
area of 17 million hectares with a total production of 1076 million tons (FAO,
1996). By the turn of the century, the total production is anticipated to be 1496
million tons. The productivity of sugarcane is highest in Oceania followed by

4
 1 Exordium

South America (Table 1.2). The sugar production during 1994 was 110 million
tons. The trends of sugar production follow a linear relationship with time,

Y = a + bt,

where t is the time in years, and a, b are constants. By 2010 AD, the expected sugar
production in India is about 97 million tons. These figures are much lower than
the figures reported by others. Naidu (1989) expected a production of 141 mil-
lion tons while Kulkarni (1971) expected a value of 150 million tons. The latter
seems more realistic. These assumptions will hold if there are no drastic changes
in sugar consumption or imbalance in the international trade.

T a b l e 1.2 Area, production of sugar and sugarcane in the world

Continent Sugarcane Production Yield Centrifugal sugar
area (million tons) (tons/ha) production (raw
(million ha) sugar) (million tons)
World 17.6 1075.89 61.1 109.9
Africa 1.31 69.78 53.2 7.37
North/Central 2.75 152.08 55.2 19.17
America
South America 5.22 355.81 68.1 17.49
Asia 7.87 461.29 58.6 33.57
Oceania 0.44 36.75 83.1 5.50
Source: FAO, 1996.

In the Indian economy, sugar industry plays a vital role for it provides raw
materials to over 25 industries. It provides sustenance for over 8 million sugar-
cane planters. The area under cane is nearly 4 million hectares with a production
of about 270 million tons (Box I). There are more than 400 sugar factories in the
country with the crushing capacity ranging from 800-10,000 TCD (tons cane
per day). The average crushing period ranges from 160-165 days. The average
sugar recovery stands at 9.95 to 10.0%. Sugarcane contributes about Rs 800 crores
per annum to the central exchequer in excise duties and a further Rs 400 crores

5
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

per annum to the state governments as purchase tax and cane cess (Mann, 1995).
It also provides direct employment to 400,000 workmen and indirect employ-
ment to over 4 million people from rural areas. Thus, the sugar industry is a
source of livelihood for about 35 million people, (ISSCT, 1997). The sugar in-
dustry pays annually about US$350 million (present exchange rate US$ 1 = Rs 42)
towards cane price to the planters. Besides, the industry annually spends around
US$100 million towards the construction and maintenance of the feeder roads
and bridges on rivers/canals in the operational areas of the mills. The liquid efflu-
ents from the mills are treated by activated sludge method to remove the sus-
pended solids and impurities. Apart from this, effluents with a biological oxygen
demand (BOD) of around 30 m g l - 1 after treatment are used for irrigation pur-
poses.
There is acute power shortage in the country. The sugar industry has taken a
giant step in the adoption of cogeneration of power. The total cogeneration po-
tential of the industry is estimated at 3500 MW (op. cit.). During 1996-97,
surplus power totalling 70 MW was fed to the grid. Surplus bagasse of several
mills is used for the manufacture of cultural paper, newsprint, and particle board.
Our estimates show that 0.37 million tons of bagasse is used exclusively for the
manufacture of newsprint and particle board.

1.4

PRODUCTIVITY OF SUGARCANE

There is hardly any field crop that would exceed the dry matter production of
sugarcane. The production potential of sugarcane (a C4 plant) is very high due to
the distinct anatomical and biochemical features associated with C4 plants. These
include among others, twilight photosynthesis, high specific leaf weight, porosity,
and LAI. Depending on the agro-climatic conditions, the dry matter production
ranges from 2 0 - 4 0 g m - 2 d - 1 . The ultimate or maximum possible yield of any
crop is unknown. But efforts have been made to estimate the theoretical maxi-
mum yield based on incident radiation, quantum efficiency of photosynthesis,
and assumed rate of respiration (Moore, 1989). Moore (1989) has placed the
theoretical maximum yield at 129 g m - 2 d -1 , which is equivalent to 1.29 t h a - 1 d -1
or 470 t ha - 1 yr - 1 . Assuming a photosynthetic efficiency of 3.6%, Naidu (1989)
has calculated a net dry matter production of 198 t ha - 1 yr - 1 with a biological

6
 1 Exordium

Box I

Some highlights of the Indian sugar industry, 1 9 9 5 - 9 6

1. Area under sugarcane 3.93 million ha

2. Cane production 267 million tons
3. Average yield 68.0 tons/ha
4. No. and size of sugar factories 444 (capacity range: 800-
10,000 TCD)
5. Cane crushed by factories 173 millions tons
6. Cane utilised by jaggery/khandsari 70 million tons
7. Crystal sugar production 16.45 million tons
8. Domestic consumption of sugar 13.2 million tons
9. Per capita consumption per year
White sugar 14.1 kg
Gur and Khandsari 8.1 kg
10. Sugar exports 1.0 million tons
11. Projected sugar requirement
-2010AD 27-28 million tons
Source: ISSCT, 1996, 1997.

yield of 566 t ha -1 or a cane yield of 339 t ha -1 . The theoretical maximum cane

yields and recorded yields in peninsular India are presented in Table 1.3. Accord-
ing to Dr. Paroda (1998) there is a wide gap between the potential and existing
productivity. The yield gap is 188 t ha - 1 in tropical India and 134 t ha -1 in
subtropical India. In terms of energy approximately 204 million calories are re-
quired to yield 240 million calories, giving an output-input ratio of 1.18. At least
ten times energy conversion can possibly be achieved by sugarcane via photosyn-
thesis (Hunsigi, 1998).

7
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Table 1.3 Theoretical maximum and recorded yields of cane, percentage of

sucrose in juice, sugar yield and sugar recovery
Parameters Theoretical Recorded yield
maximum yield
Cane yield (t ha -1 ) 339.0 255.0
Percentage of sucrose in the juice 26.0 22.5
-1
Sugar yield (t ha ) 55.9 42.0
Sugar recovery 16.47 12.5*
* Average sugar recovery observed in some South Indian sugar factories.
Source: Naidu, 1989.

1.5

SUGARCANE GROWING REGIONS OF INDIA

Basically there are two sugarcane growing regions in India, tropical and subtropi-
cal. The tropical region consists of the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, and Kerala. The subtropical re-
gion comprises Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, and
the North Eastern states. In the tropics, ideal weather conditions favour high
production and higher sugar recovery. Sugarcane receives 30—36 irrigations. The
growth period is quite long, i.e. 10 months or more. The crop cycle ranges from
12—14 months and can extend up to 16—18 months. Bright sunshine and cooler
nights favour sugar accumulation leading to higher sugar recoveries. Smut and
grassy shoot are the major diseases, while early shoot borers cause extensive dam-
age to cane, particularly the late planted one. Red rot is a serious disease in coastal
regions.
In the subtropics, extreme climatic conditions and shorter growth period are
the major causes for low yield and lower sugar recoveries. The number of irrigations
is restricted to 6—8. Moisture stress during summer, floods, and waterlogging in
the monsoon period are factors limiting the yield. Poor cane quality leads to lower
sugar recovery. The pest and disease problems are also serious. Red rot and wilt are
the major diseases. The top borer and pyrilla are pests of serious concern.

8
 1 Exordium

For the purpose of varietal improvement, the Sugarcane Breeding Institute (SBI)
has recognised seven agro-climatic zones, 4 in the subtropical belt and 3 in the
tropical region. However, for practical purposes, 5 sugarcane growing zones have
been identified.

1. North Western Zone Haryana, Punjab, and Western Uttar Pradesh

2. North Central Zone Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal
3. North Eastern Zone Assam and other North Eastern States
4. East Costal Zone Coastal Tamil Nadu, Coastal Andhra Pradesh, and
Orissa
5. Peninsular Zone: Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu (barring coastal area), Kerala, and inte-
rior Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
The tropical region contributes about 4 0 % of the total cane production in the
country.
Srivastava et al. (1988) have delineated the efficient zones of production. Ac-
cording to them Zone-I is of high yield and high spread. T h e Zone-II is high yield
and low spread. The Zone-Ill is low yield with high spread. Judging by these
parameters, parts of western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, and Assam have high yield accompanied by high
spread. Most of the areas of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Punjab have low yield and
high spread. The rest of the area in the country has relatively high yield and low
spread (op. cit.).
A priori, fertilizers, cultural practices and good seed contribute 6 5 % towards
cane production. Varieties play an important role and contribute 2 0 % , while irri-
gation contributes 15% towards cane production.
Analysis of the yield gap has been carried out by Arulraj (1995). T h e yield gap
depends on the soil type and management practices—the highest yield gap of 68—
6 9 % was observed in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, while it was as low as
3 1 % in Punjab. In general, on an all-India basis, the sugarcane yield gap is around
50% (Table 1.4). This can be reduced to achieve the sugarcane requirement of the
country, i.e. 300 million tons of cane by the turn of the century.

9
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

T a b l e 1.4 Yield gaps in different states

Potential Existing Yield gap
States productivity productivity (%)
(t ha -1 ) (t ha -1 )
1. Andhra Pradesh 169.01 72.1 57.34
2. Bihar 97.16 45.4 53.27
3. Gujarat 139.77 85.5 38.83
4. Haryana 111.21 48.9 56.03
5. Karnataka 150.00 86.0 42.67
6. Madhya Pradesh 107.25 33.4 68.86
7. Maharashtra 182.33 76.4 58.10
8. Orissa 108.70 64.6 40.57
9. Punjab 82.60 56.7 31.36
10. Tamil Nadu 193.70 104.0 46.31
11. Uttar Pradesh 172.72 55.4 67.92
12. West Bengal 105.07 57.7 45.08
Source: Arulraj, 1995.

1.6

NON-SACCHARIFEROUS PLANTS

Among field crops, sugarcane, sugar beet, and sweet sorghum are sacchariferous
plants. It is estimated that by 2025-2030, the world's requirement of sweeteners
will be around 250 million tons. India's requirement will be about 40 million tons
(Dwivedi, 1999). Sacchariferous plants alone may not be able to meet the huge
global demand of sweeteners. Sweeteners from non-sacchariferous plants could
help fill the gap. The sweet principle in these plants is 100-10,000 times sweeter
than sucrose on a unit weight basis. These natural sweetening agents have a low
calorific value as compared to sucrose (3600-4000 cal g -1 ). The sweet principle in
these plants is in leaves, roots, shoots, fruits, etc. and comprises terpenoids, ster-

10
 1 Exordium

oids, steroidal sponins, dihydrochalcones, dihydroisocoumarins, proteins, etc. The

natural sweetening agents from non-sacchariferous plants are increasingly being
used in developed countries like Japan, USA, Australia, and those in Europe.
At present, 15 species of non-sacchariferous plants have been identified. India
is the natural habitat for as many as 13 species (loc. cit.). The important ones are:
Perrillafrutescens, Stevia rebaudiana, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Abrus precatorius, andAchras
sapota. The sweet principle of these species is 100 to 2000 times sweeter than
sucrose. It is stated that Abrus precatorius is a substitute for Glycyrrhiza glabra.
Some important sweet species, the active principle, and the parts containing it
along with the method of propagation are presented in Table 1.5. There are also
shrubs and woody trees like Hydrangea macropkylla, Smilax glycyphilla, Symplococos
paniculata, and many citrus species which produce sweetening agents. In fact,
Symplococos paniculata is well-known as sweet leaf and the principle Trilobatin is
400—1000 times sweeter than sucrose. There are also super sweet trees/shrubs
grown in the tropical/subtropical regions of India.
There are sweet inducer plants such as Cynara scolymus L (Compositae). It is
propagated by seeds/suckers/offshoots. The sweet principles present in the leaves
are cynarin, chlorogenic acid, and caffeic acid. Dwivedi (1999) argues that 0.1 mil-
lion hectares under non-sacchariferous plants is enough to meet the national re-
quirement of sweetening agents as against the vast cultivable area required for
sugarcane. However, this author asserts that the propagation and culture of these
plants are difficult for widespread adoption. Hence, these non-sacchariferous plants,
though highly beneficial and ecofriendly, have remained in the backyard and may
not achieve a stage of commercial exploitation in the near future.

11
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

12
1 Exordium

13
 Origin, history, and distribution

Sugarcane has held the attention of many, from monks to monarchs. Legend has
it that Gautama, who became Lord Buddha, was born of sugarcane. T h e first
offerings to Lord Buddha were 'sticks of sugarcane'. Alexander the Great, during
his invasion of India noted that this 'honey reed' was a closely spaced, well-
husbanded garden crop. It is also related to Indian mythology in many ways. T h e
wild species Saccbarum locally called as Kans is used in many rituals. Saccharum
spontaneum has a mention in Valmiki's Ramayana. The plant was used in cloning
and culturing of a new child in the place of the lost child 'Lava' (son of Goddess
Sita). The earliest reference to sugarcane is in Atharva veda and Rig veda (10000—
5000 BC). Cane planting was well established in the Indus valley. T h e term sarkara
for sugar is known only in the Hindu scriptures. Sugar does not find a mention in
the Holy Quran, the Holy Bible or the Talmud (the Jewish Holy scriptures). It
can be reasonably postulated that the Indians knew the art and science of sugar
making. It is believed that sugar was made in India in 3000 BC. Saccharum seems
to originate from the Sanskrit word Sarkara.
Derr (1948) has extensively delved into sugarcane in Indian mythology. It is
suggestive of prosperity, for the Goddess of Wealth holds the stick of a well-grown
sugarcane. According to the inhabitants of Solomon Islands, mankind seems to
originate from the cane variety tohononu. Derr (1948) provides evidence that ba-
gasse was used as fuel in India in AD 100.
Sugar and sugarcane have been highly prized since pre-historic times. Sugar-
cane has spread to more than 79 countries between the latitudes, 36.7° N and
31.0° S. Figure 2.1 shows the global distribution of sugarcane. It is worth noting
that the perennial grass is concentrated in the tropical and subtropical regions of
the globe. However, in the regions lying between 18° North and South of the
equator, sugar accumulation is much higher—these regions can be said to make
up a sugar bowl.
The origin of sugarcane is controversial, but the West as the original home is
ruled out. It seems reasonable that the cultivated canes originated in the south Pa-
cific, that is, to the east of 'Wallece's line' (Alexander, 1973). It has been suggested
that there was a continuous 'land bridge' between the gigantic Asian and Austral-
ian continents during the Cretaceous period, which assisted the spread of canes to
Melanesia.

14
 2 Origin, history and distribution

Fig. 2.1 Sugarcane growing areas of the world

The geographical distribution was widespread and, sugarcane was established

as a domestic crop in 8000 BC by Neolithic horticulturists in New Guinea. From
there, it went to China and India and to the Pacific Islands. The thin canes of
India (S. barberi) was found in 6000 BC and the Persians brought these canes to
the Mediterranean around 500 BC. The Arabs are credited with establishing the
cane in Morocco in the 8th century AD. Sugar refining was perfected by Egyp-
tians.
From Spain sugarcane spread to the Canary Islands and west Africa. The Span-
iards and Portuguese were responsible for the spread of cane culture in the New
World during the 16th century. On his second voyage in 1493, Columbus intro-
duced cane to Santo Domingo, now the Dominican Republic. By the 17th cen-
tury, it spread to the sugar isles of the Caribbean and from there to the Latin
American countries including Brazil, Mexico, and Peru. Independent of the Western
movement, scientific cane culture was practised in Mauritius, Reunion, Australia,
Fiji, and South Africa (Irvine, 1977).

15
 Related species and genera

3.1

RELATED SPECIES AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION

T h e species recognised in addition to S. officinarum (2n = 80) include

S. spontaneum (2n = 40-128), S. barbari (2n = 82-124). S. sinense (2n = 88), S.
robustum (2n = 60—194), S. sanguineum (2n = 60), and S. edule (2n = 80). But S.
edule can hardly be called as sugarcane. It has aborted inflorescence and is eaten by
natives of Melanesia. S. edule originated in New Guinea by natural hybridization
between S. robustum and Miscanthus floridulus. These are low in sucrose and high
in fibre content. However, Purseglove (1988) considered that S. edule is probably
the sterile form of S. robustum. The recognised 5 species are: S. spontaneum, S.
robustum, S. sinense, S. barbari, and S. officinarum. According to Parthasarathy
(1948) cultivated sugarcanes belong to two main groups: (a) thin and hardy canes
of North India, botanically classified as S. barbari and S. sinense and (b) thick
noble canes, S. officinarum.
The saccharum complex consists of all six species of Saccharum, and the genera
like Narenga, Erianthus, Miscanthus, and Sclerostachya. Mukherjee (1957) opines
that Sclerostachya and Narenga should be considered more primitive than Erianthus
but Saccharum is more advanced than any of the related genera. The area of origin
of this complex is Indo-China-Myanmar border (Roach and Daniels, 1987).

(1) Saccharum spontaneum. It is an extremely variable species with high ploidy (2n =
40-128), occurring in the wild from Africa to the Middle East, China, Malaysia
through the Pacific to New Guinea. It occurs in the wild, preferring the habit of
swamps and marshy places, but occurs in the uplands as well. It originated probably
in the colder regions of tropical India. It is a perennial grass, free tillering with
robust rhizomes, and its leaves are upto 200 cm long with variable width. Sheath is
persistent with high fibre and low in sugar. Panje (1933) recognised two sub-spe-
cies, namely, indicum and aegypticum. S. spontaneum has contributed the most to-
wards the development of modern cultivars by offering resistance to most of the
major diseases and providing vigour and hardiness.

16
 3 Related species and genera

(2) Saccharum robustum. It originated in New Guinea. Its growth is very vigorous
and luxuriant; it attains a height of 10 m. The stems are of medium girth, and have
high fibre and low sugar content. It grows along river banks. The stems are hard,
woody, and have pithy centres with little juice. It is susceptible to Fiji disease,
mosaic viruses, leaf scald, downy mildew, and root rot. Hence, it is not extensively
used in breeding programmes. A sub-species of S. robustum is recognised, i.e.
sanguineum. Brandes and Sartoris (1936) reiterate that the 'cradle of cultivated
sugarcanes' is the region where the two wild species, namely, S. spontaneum and S.
robustum are found.

(3) Saccharum barbari. It is a small group indigenous to North India and suited to
subtropical and temperate regions. Based on vegetative characteristics, Barber classed
them into 4 groups, namely, Mungo, Nargori, Saretha, and Sunnabile. Among these,
the most important one is Saretha which has contributed to the development of
noble cane Co 213 and PoJ 213. The Saretha group is well represented by Chunee
canes and has produced a number of useful hybrids. T h e clones of S. barbari are
short, medium to short in thickness with high fibre content, medium sucrose
content and poor yields. But it tillers abundantly which is a useful trait in breeding
of cultigens.

(4) Saccharum sinense. This is a native of China and is well represented by the
Pansahi group. The clones are tall, hardy, and vigorous with wide adaptability,
and early maturity. The stems are slender with high fibre content and poor juice
quality. The leaves are broader than those of S. barbari. The variety Uba spread
worldwide due to is frost resistance and immunity to gummosis, mosaic, and
sereh diseases. It is however, susceptible to red rot and rust. It was later replaced by
noble canes with better yield potential and juice quality.

(5) Saccharum officinarum. It is a noble cane, distinctly thick and juicy. It is supe-
rior in quality with less fibre. S. officinarum does not occur in the wild. Its origin
has been contentious but sufficient evidence suggests that it is a native of the
Indo-China-Myanmar border with New Guinea as a prime centre of diversity.
The probable putative ancestor is S. robustum with introgression from Erianthus
maximus. The genetic origins of Saccharum sp. are presented in Fig. 3.1. The
clones have a bewildering range of local names with an astonishing assortment of
colours (Purseglove, 1988). Some important noble canes which are in commer-

17
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

cial cultivation are Tahiti, Otaheite, Bourbon, Blanche, Lahaina, Vellai, etc. The
noble cane 'Cheribon' originated in Java and is also known as light Cheribon,
black Cheribon, or stripe Cheribon. In the account of Caption Cook's voyages
there is a reference to the cultivation of 'Calodina' in New Hebrides. A prominent
noble cane 'Badila was in cultivation for long in South East Asia and Oceania.

Fig. 3.1 Genetic origins of Saccharum sp. (Source: Fauconnier, 1993.)

S. officinarum is suited to tropical conditions and requires favourable soil and

climatic conditions, and careful husbandry. The stems are stout, thick, high in
sucrose, low in fibre, and have a soft rind—hence, they are also the chewing canes.
But the noble canes are highly susceptible to all major diseases.
With the march of human civilization, sugarcane has evolved from a garden crop
for chewing purposes to being used for making syrup and jaggery and later crystal
sugar—it has got established as an important industrial crop of the world. By 1925,
the noble canes (S. officinarum) were out of cultivation as they were highly suscep-
tible to major diseases. Now the complex hybrids of Saccharum sp. are bring used
in commercial cultivation to suit the different agro-ecological regions of the world.
The future will witness an era of transgenic plants with multiple resistance to
pests, diseases, herbicides, etc. and with augmented yield, sugar output and value-
added products. The evolution of sugarcane {Saccharum) as outlined by Simmonds
(1976) is presented in Fig. 3.2.

18
3 Related species and genera

19
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

3.2

NOBILIZATI0N PRODUCTS

The process of nobilization in sugarcane is modified back crossing. The word

'nobilization' means the crossing of wild cane, S. spontaneum with S. officinarum
and repeat back crossing with the noble parent, i.e. S. officinarum. Nobilization
means the ennobling of the wild species with thick stalks and good quality. Re-
cendy, Mudge et al. (1996) have presented the genetic map of Saccharum officinarum
which contributes 90% of the genomic composition in commercial clones. Of
secondary importance is S. spontaneum which contributes approximately 5 - 1 0 %
of genomes to commercial cultivars. The female parent is S. officinarum and S.
spontaneum is the male parent.
In back crossing, doubling of chromosomes occurs in the noble parent and the
progeny inherits 2n chromosomes from S. officinarum and n chromosomes from
the wild species S. spontaneum. The result is progeny with 3n chromosomes. Thus,
most of the commercial varieties are derived from S. officinarum x S. spontaneum
and are high polyploids (aneuploids). On record, the greatest of all nobilized prod-
ucts is PoJ 2878 which ruled the 'sugar world' for a long time and earned the
sobriquet 'wonder cane'. From then on, a large number of interspecific hybrids
have been released which outclassed each other. But in the long history of sugar-
cane culture, there has been a continuous procession of varieties which on com-
mercial cultivation for some time become extinct. This is termed as 'runout' of
varieties or yield decline.
Varietal yield decline is a syndrome, the causes of which are unknown. A ruling
variety after some years of commercial cultivation loses its vigour and yielding
ability. Humbert (1959) asserted that the yield decline is due to a number of biotic
and abiotic stresses. Lack of aeration, high soil bulk density, and accumulation of
toxic elements are some of the factors causing yield decline. Reduced O2 supply
restricts root proliferation causing runout of varieties. Similarly, soil erosion, re-
duced availability of trace elements, loss of organic matter due to oxidation in
tropics, and poor drainage with anaerobic conditions for long periods of growth
can cause the varietal yield decline. Poor management and gradual build-up of
pests and diseases can cause decline in yield of many commercial cultivars. Dis-
eases like ratoon stunting (RSD), mosaic, red rot, root rot, etc. are instrumental in

20
 3 Related species and genera

varietal yield decline. The chief causal agent for this malady is the pink mealy bug
(Saccharicoccus sacchari) which carries a viral vector. Many major varieties like Co
419, Co 740, Co 421 are showing various shades of yield decline. Profusely flow-
ering canes show early yield decline as compared to shy or non-flowering canes.
Typical symptoms of yield decline are (a) premature drying of older leaves,
(b) stunted growth, reduced height and girth, (c) only top 5-6 leaves remain green,
and (d) a gradual tapering of the apex. Since sugarcane is vegetatively propagated,
genetic deterioration of cultigens is ruled out. It is reasonably argued that heat
therapy, good husbandry, and judicious use of organics and inorganics including
micronutrients would greatly contain the varietal yield decline. Replacement by
superior genotypes leads to a fairly permanent solution.

i 21
 Botany of sugarcane

T h e taxonomic classification of sugarcane is that the genus Saccharum belongs to

the family Poaceae (Graminae), sub-family Panicoideae, tribe Andripogoneae, and
sub-tribe Saccharininae. According to Heinz (1987), the sub-tribe has two natural
groupings, namely, Saccharastrae and Eulaliastrae which are not, however, the for-
mal taxonomic units.

Fig. 4 . 1 Stem of sugarcane

An elegant treatment of the botany of sugarcane is given by Van Dillewijn

(1952). The basic structure of cane is like any tropical grass. T h e economic part is
the culm—the stem/stalk. T h e stem is unbranched, circular or oval in cross-sec-

22

<J9MNWMKBa«HeMM»<>>».
 4 Botany of sugarcane

tion. It is differentiated into joints, each comprising a node and internode. T h e

node consists of a lateral bud, a band of root primordia, and a growth ring (Fig. 4.1).
Sugarcane is propagated asexually by stem cuttings or setts having 1-3 buds. Nodes
are very close to each other at the base and top portions. The basal portion, due to
closeness of buds, assists in the formation of shoots or tillers and multiple cuts
(ratoons). The buds vary in size and shape and may be oval, rounded, triangular,
etc. These variations help in distinguishing the varieties. The internodes vary in
length from 5—25 cm and in girth from 1.5—6.0 cm in diameter. Sugar accumu-
lates in the internodal region and the long internode is a characteristic feature of
quality cane. A well-ripened cane gives a metallic sound when tapped. Moisture
stress leads to shortening of internodes. At maturity, each stem may have 2 5 - 3 0
internodes. The cross-section of the stalk/stem could be cylindrical, conoidal,
barrel, circular or oval. The stem can be striped, yellow, green, purple or vari-
egated. The colour of the stem is controlled by the environment and modified by
a coating of epidermal wax. Stem colour should not be used as a diagnostic tool or
identifying varieties. The surface of the internode, save the growth ring is coated
with wax. The wax coating consists of densely crowded tiny threads or rods (Van
Dillewijn, 1952) and is conspicuous in the upper section of the internode where
it forms a wax ring (Fig. 4.1). In some varieties, a pronounced depression or the
vertical channel known as bud groove or bud furrow is prominent. At the nodal
region, a root band is present with rows of root primordia which give rise to sett
roots. Just below the stem epidermis, a narrow cortex or rind is observed. T h e
rind is made up of cortical cells; many of them are sclerenchymatous. Rind hard-
ness is of practical importance at both the field and factory levels. At the field
level, a hard rind gives protection against rodents, jackals, pigs, rabbits, etc. At the
factory level, rind hardness leads to 'slippage' and reduced juice extraction. Rind
hardness depends mostly on the varieties and external factors like irrigation. It is
generally observed that the rind is relatively softer in noble canes and varieties
grown under irrigation, as compared to commercial hybrids and non-irrigated
canes. Rind hardness is measured by an instrument, which works on the same
principle as that of 'presometer' (Van Dillewijn, 1952). As reported by Van
Dillewijn (op. cit.), the softest cane has a rind hardness of 1.4 kg, tropical canes
1.8-2.7 kg, and the North Indian canes 3.18—3.60 kg. T h e hard rinded canes
have a hardness of 3.6-4.09 kg, whilst the wild cane Saccharum spontaneum has a
hardness of 4.5 kg. Lakshmikanthan (1983) has presented snapping stress to sug-
gest rind hardness in cultivated species. Quoting other sources, Van Dillewijn

23
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

(1952) indicated that rind hardness is associated with the distribution of vascular
bundles, the number and size of sclerenchymatous cells and their lignification.
The leaves are the important functional parts. They are attached to the stem at
the base of the nodes, alternately in two rows on opposite sides of the stem. Each
leaf consists of a sheath and a blade separated by a blade joint, i.e. the dew lap or
collar. The sheath is a tubular structure with a broad base and tapering end. The
sheath is an important diagnostic tool, and in some varieties, the sheath is closely
attached, while in others it is detrashing or free trashing. It protects the buds and
the self-detrashing varieties are preferred as clean cane can then be supplied to the
factories. A membraneous appendage of the sheath called ligule separates it from
the leaf blade. T h e ligule can be used as a distinguishing characteristic between
varieties. The sheath may be smooth or covered with spiny hairs. A projection from
the leaf sheath near the blade joint (dew lap) is the auricle (ear shaped) which may
not occur in all varieties. A fully grown leaf may be as long as 60-150 cm, with a
width of 2 - 1 0 cm. A well-grown crop can have a leaf area 8-10 times the ground
area at grand growth phase.
In sugarcane, two types of roots are distinguishable, namely, sett roots and
shoot roots (Fig. 4.2). As the sett is planted in well-tilled moist soil, sett roots
strike from the root primordia of the seed piece. These roots are thin, branched,
and transient. W i t h the formation of the shoots, shoot roots are formed, which
perform the main function of absorption of water and nutrients, and provide
anchorage. With the formation of shoot roots, sett roots cease functioning and
die (Fig. 4.2). Each shoot produces its own root system. Hence, tillering parallels
the shoot root formation; as the tillering stops root formation also ceases. Shoot
roots are thicker and whitish in colour.
Evans (1935) has described three types of roots: superficial roots, buttress roots,
and the rope system. The superficial roots absorb water and nutrients; the buttress
roots provide anchorage; and in the rope system, the roots can penetrate to a
depth of 3—6 m is search of moisture and fight drought. This author has observed
stubble roots to a depth of 1.5 m after the cane was harvested and ratoons are
raised. The stubble roots of ratoons are suberized, thick, dark in colour, and less
efficient in absorbing water and nutrients (Hunsigi, 1993).
The inflorescence of sugarcane is known as arrow or tassel. At maturity, and
proper photoperiod, the terminal meristem is transformed into inflorescence pri-
mordium. The first sign of flowering is successive sheaths becoming longer and
the blades shorter. Eventually, a small leaf (SL) or flag leaf is formed with a young

24
 4 Botany of sugarcane

Fig. 4.2 Root system in sugarcane

panicle of 90 cm length being pushed out. The inflorescence is a branched panicle

and the cultivars can be identified based on the size, shape, and colour of the
arrow. The branched panicle has hundreds of tiny flowers. These appear in pairs
(spikelets), one without stalks (sessile), and others attached to stalks (pedicillate).
Some flowers may have fertile pollen and eggs. On pollination, seeds are formed—
dry one-seeded fruits or caryopses. The seeds are ovate, yellowish brown, and very
small (1 mm long). The seed has a short viability but can be stored in a desiccator
for two weeks. The tiny seeds are placed on the surface of shallow trays and they
germinate better in light. Germination takes place in 2-5 days and transplants are
ready after six weeks.
Sugarcane has 4 distinct phases in its life cycle: (a) germination and emergence,
(b) tillering and canopy development, (c) grand growth, and (d) maturation, in-
cluding flowering and ripening. The first phase takes about 4—6 weeks depending
on the agroclimatic conditions. The vegetative phase comprises tillering and stalk
elongation and is accompanied by increased dry matter production. The transfor-
mation from the vegetative to the reproductive phase is not distinct.

25
 Physiology of sugarcane

Sugarcane has a long growing season, high water requirement, some salt and
drought tolerance, but little cold tolerance. It responds well to high fertility, irri­
gation, drainage, and abundant sunlight (Irvine, 1983). Being a C4 plant, it has
a h i g h p h o t o s y n t h e t i c rate (Pn) r a n g i n g from 4 7 m g d m - 2 h - 1 t o
100 mg d m - 2 h - 1 (op. cit.). The principal external factors which influence
photosynthesis are light spectral quality and intensity, the CO 2 concentration
in air, temperature, moisture, and nutrition. A four-fold increase in p h o t o ­
synthesis is observed when the CO 2 concentration in air is increased from
0.01%-0.06%, but saturation occurs at 0.06%. Similarly, a linear increase in
Pn is noticed when the light intensity is increased from 3 0 0 - 6 0 0 cal/cm 2 /d.
Photosynthetic rates are higher in the blue spectrum (480 nm) than in the red
spectrum (620-695 n m ) . T h e Saccharum spp. have different Pn rates: S. spon­
taneum 51.4 mg d m - 2 h - 1 , S. officinarum 29.7 mg d m - 2 h - 1 and interspecific hy­
brids 36.0 mg dm - 2 h - 1 . The overall average photosynthetic rate is 47 mg d m - 2 h - 1 .
In general, photosynthesis is influenced by leaf width, specific leaf weight, and leaf
porosity. Thicker leaves have higher concentrations of N, P, and K, which
accounts for the higher Pn rate. T h e accumulation of sucrose in the leaf may
inhibit photosynthesis, probably due to product repression. Photosynthetic rates
have a marginal influence on the yield. The yield is determined by stalk density,
stalk length, and stalk weight.
Recent investigations by Nose et al. (1995) indicate that photosynthetic rates
are influenced by the activities of phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase (PEPC), malic
enzyme (ME), soluble protein (SP), fraction-1-protein, chlorophyll, and N con­
tent. More importantly, photosynthetic carbon exchange rates (PCER) at high light
intensities (2000 μE m i - 1 s - 1 ) contribute to canopy photosynthesis. In feral (wild
canes) sugarcanes PCER ranges from 20.46 to 81.56 mg C d m - 2 h - 1 . In C4 plants,
carbon exchange rates are higher than 50 mg CO 2 d m - 2 h - 1 and are affected by
high light intensities, stomatal apertures, and metabolic events in leaves. T h e au­
thors infer that the potential productivity of sugarcane is decided by the product
of the leaf area a n d photosynthetic efficiency. It, therefore, appears t h a t
S. spontaneum can be used to improve photosynthetic efficiency from 1.3 to 1.6%.
This is relatively less in ratoons.
Photosynthetic rates influence dry matter accumulation and crop growth rate.
Irvine (1983) has reported a dry matter yield of 84 t h a - 1 yr - 1 while this author has
observed an average dry matter yield of 60 t h a - 1 yr - 1 . Irvine (1983) has reported

26
 5 Physiology of sugarcane

that a crop of 163 t ha - 1 of millable cane would have a cumulative respiratory loss of
42 t ha - 1 . Some physiologic parameters of cane cultivars grown in alfisols of penin-
sular India are given in Table 5.1 (Hunsigi et al., 1975). The crop growth rates have
varied from about 20 to 52 g wk - 1 in different cultivars. Stalk elongation is minimal
during tillering phase ( ~ 3 months) but maximum rates range from 2.3 to 2.5 cm d - 1
Ambient temperatures lower than 15—17 °C drastically reduce stalk elongation.
Leaf area and Leaf Area Index (LAI) are important growth components which
influence dry matter production and eventually the cane yield. Maximum yield
can be obtained from cultivars that combine high LAI with erect leaves. However,
LAI is a function of plant density and dense stand/close spacing results in higher
LAI. A vigorous stalk will carry about 10 green leaves with leaf surface area of
40,000 m 2 and LAI of 4. The LAI values in sugarcane range from 2 to 8 and 4 . 0 -
5.0 seems to be the optimum, during the grand growth phase. T h e optimum LAI
is the one which intercepts 9 5 % light. Ratoons may have an optimum LAI of 3-
4 during the rapid close-in period. A positive and strong correlation between LAI
and dry matter yield has already been alluded to. It is reasonable to assume that
the maximum LAI would be about 8.0.
In 'truck crops' like sugarcane, potato, tapioca, sugarbeet, etc. where the vegeta-
tive portion is the economic produce, Harvest Index (HI) is a crude criterion to
explain the physiological processes. In these crops, partitioning is continuous and is
not amenable to agronomic manipulation to increase yield. Nevertheless, crops with
vegetative sinks need to obtain maximum partitioning to harvestable product.
Narrating historical changes in H I , Sinclaire (1998) stated that it represents mi-
gration coefficient of photosynthate. Improvements in HI emphasise the impor-
tance of carbon allocation to economic produce. He has attributed close association
between HI and N accumulation in plants. A crop with high HI requires a con-
comitant increase in crop N accumulation. Hence, nitrogen harvest index H I N
(ratio of N in economic produce to the total amount of N in plant) is envisioned
to rationalise the HI values. It is presumed that H I N values in sugarcane should be
aimed above 0.5.
To sum up, the HI of sugarcane is ~ 0 . 6 and that of potatoes is ~ 0 . 8 7 , where
the economic produce is millable canes and tubers respectively. In sugarcane, when
sugar is taken as the economic produce, the HI comes to 0.2; if all sugars in-
cluding molasses are taken, the HI becomes 0 . 2 3 - 0 . 2 5 . W h e n all t h e co-prod-
ucts and by-products of cane are taken including the cogeneration of power
from bagasse, the HI reaches nearly unity.

27
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

28
 5 Physiology of sugarcane

5.1

SUCROSE: THE MAIN CURRENCY

Sucrose is the chief currency of all higher plants, particularly, of sugarcane. It also
acts as an active messenger conveying information on the energy status of indi-
vidual tissues. Sucrose is synthesised in the cytoplasm of photosynthetic cells from
where it can be exported to the vacuole and the cell-wall. The most common
enzyme which hydrolyses sucrose is invertase. It is present in the central vacuole
and in the cell-wall. Invertase is considered a biofunctional enzyme, both catalys-
ing sucrose breakdown and indicating the carbon status.
Sucrose is exported in the phloem. The very fact that sucrose and invertase
coexist in an uneasy alliance, suggests continuous synthesis and breakdown. Para-
doxically, hexoses in the vacuole, more so the fructose will inhibit invertase activ-
ity and slow down its action.
Lingle (1997) observed that sucrose begins to accumulate in cane internodes
when they start elongating and continues until elongation ceases. In elongating
internodes much of free sugars are glucose and fructose. Nonetheless, total sugar
concentration continues to increase almost linearly as the heat units range from
400-600 °C d. On the other hand, the heat units required for phyllochron (leaf
appearance rate) varies from 75.2 to 81.3 °C d (ibid.).
A significant correlation between the activity of Sucrose Synthase (SS) and sugar
accumulation implicates its positive role in sucrose synthesis. Sinclaire (1997)
maintained that SS activity is a measure of sink strength in plants. Two sucrose
synthase isozymes, SSl, and SS2 have been identified in sugarcane.
The primary enzymes of sucrose metabolism in plans are invertase enzyme com-
mission and sucrose phosphate synthase. But it is believed that sucrose cleavage is
associated more with the activity of acid invertase. The activity of neutral invertase
is highly variable among internodes. This is further corroborated by the experi-
ments on glyphosate [N-(phosphoromethyl) glycine] used as a ripener. This chemi-
cal reduces the growth of the apical meristem and the activity of acid invertase. In
addition, the water content of developed internodes decreased from about 900 to
720 g kg-1. Late formed internodes reached low water content in less heat units
than did early formed internodes.
Lingle (loc. cit.) concluded that sugar-rich harvest is accompanied with low
soil N availability, low soil moisture status, and cool temperatures.

29
 Varieties in sugarcane

Varieties in sugarcane are called 'holy cows' for they are to be tended, maintained,
and propagated. As they are vegetatively propagated, the admixtures in commer-
cial plantations are a common observance. A varietal spectrum consisting of short
duration, early and midlate varieties are of prime importance to get a higher sugar
recovery with an extended crushing period. In tropical India, the grinding or
crushing period may range from 240-300 days with a season's average recovery of
10.0 to 11.0 per cent. The ratoons and early maturing canes are crushed at the
beginning of the season. This is followed by midlate, and if needed late varieties
can be taken for crushing before the end of the season. Thus a varietal spectrum
ensures a flattened curve with high sugar recovery as against a highly skewed curve
of a single varietal crush (Fig. 6.1). A single variety, multiplied, and maintained by
one sugar factory may be subjected to endemic pests and diseases which might
take an epic scale. Thus, as a consequence, the single ruling variety may be wiped
out, and it takes a couple of years to develop and multiply the seeds on a commer-
cial scale. It is worth noting that the seed ratio in sugarcane is very low, i.e. 1 : 1 0
or 1 : 12 (one hectare of seed cane provides for 10 to 12 ha of planting material).
A rational blend of varieties is as shown below:
(a) Early rich canes, short duration cvs and ratoons 40 per cent
(b) Midlate cvs 50 per cent
(c) Late and other miscellaneous cvs 10 per cent
Total 100 per cent

This is however, a rough guide and the cane managers should aim to maintain 5-
6 cultigens of varying maturity. Nonetheless, it is essential to keep 2—3 cvs in the
pipeline.
Since 1950 more than 100 varieties have been released in India for commercial
cultivation. During the early period of the 19th century, noble canes were under
cultivation. These included Otaheite, Cheribon (Creole), Caledonia (Malabar),
Badila, etc. But the noble cane era came to an end by 1925 due to serious diseases
like mosaic, sereh, smut, and red rot. The disease attack was on an epic scale and
it practically wiped out these noble canes. This also heralded the development of
nobilized hybrids. The first hybrid developed was PoJ 2878 (PoJ 2364 x EK 28)
which earned the sobriquet—the wonder cane. Other important hybrids include

30
 6 Varieties of sugarcane

Co 419 (PoJ 2878 x Co 290) and Co 740 (P 3247 x P 4745) which are under
cultivation for over four decades. T h e tonnage variety is Co 62175
(Co 915 x Co 419) which yields more than 180 t ha -1 in peninsular India. Simi-
larly Co 421 had occupied large areas in Central and Eastern Africa. Other exotic
strains which deserve recognition are B 37172, B 62163, N C O 310, CB 41-76,
CP 65-357, PR 980, F. 160, and Q 69. The salient features of some important
varieties grown in India are given below (Sankarnarayana, et al., 1986).

Fig. 6.1 Effect of varietal spectrum on sugar recovery and crushing period
(Schematic)

(1) Co 853 (Co 508 x Co 617). Medium thick cane, purple colour, splits com-
mon, midlate, good juice quality, withstands waterlogging and drought, moder-
ate resistance to smut. Good ratooner, jaggery is of light yellow colour, crystalline,
hard in consistency, and of good quality. Profuse flowering. The yield potential is
140 t ha -1 , with 17-18% pol. The CCS yield was about 18 t ha -1 .

31
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

(2) Co 1148 (P 4383 x Co 301). Grows in the subtropical belt and occupies nearly
6 0 % of the area in Uttar Pradesh. In Haryana and Punjab, it occupies nearly 2 5 %
of the area. Good ratooner. Its yield potential is about 60 t ha - 1 with 17—18%
sucrose. Medium thick with hard rind, midlate to late in maturity. Resistant to
red rot.
(3) Co 1158 (Co 421 x Co 419). Medium thick erect cane popular in the sub-
tropical belt. Its spread is next to Co 1148 in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, and
Haryana. It yields about 75 t ha - 1 with 1 5 - 1 6 % sucrose. Moderately resistant to
red rot and wilt, and tolerant to drought conditions. Midlate variety and a good
ratooner.

(4) Co 62175 (Co 951 x Co 419). Thick cane and the yield potential is over
200 t ha - 1 . Moderate juice quality. Eye buds are prominent with a tendency to
sprout in situ. It is a popular variety in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Mahar-
ashtra. It has a waxy coating and the rind is relatively soft. Less susceptible to
smut, red rot, and helminthosporium. Midlate variety and matures in 13 months
with 1 8 - 1 9 % sucrose. It is a vigorous and good ratooner.
(5) Co 62198 (Co 34—120 x Co 775). Medium thick and erect cane with green
colour mixed with a tinge of purple. Bud is plumpy and ovate. Popular in Tamil
Nadu and occupies about 3% of the total cane area. High sugared with 16—18%
pol. It is high fibered, hence suitable for sugar complex with cogeneration of
power. Juice quality is good. Jaggery is hard and crystalline. The yield potential is
over 100 t ha - 1 .

(6) Co 6304 (Co 419 x Co 605). Vigorous thick cane, erect, and nonlodging
which combines yield and quality, midlate in maturity. In Tamil Nadu, it is a
leading variety and replaced the wonder cane Co 419. Occupies an area of over
1 1 % . In Tamil Nadu it performed well under garden soil and wet soil conditions.
Its yield potential is over 150 t ha -1 with 16—18% sucrose.

(7) Co 6415 (Co 1288 x Co 740). Medium thick cane, early maturing. Self
detrashing. Suited to the North Karnataka conditions. Extensive field trials were
conducted at the Karnataka Institute of Applied Agricultural Research (KIAAR),
Bagalkot district. The yield potential is 120 t ha - 1 with a pol in juice of 20—22%.
Good ratooner. It is drought tolerant but susceptible to smut.

32
 6 Varieties of sugarcane

(8) Co 6617 (Co 312 x Co 1111). Medium thick cane, greenish purple in colour,
early maturing, and vigorous growing. The yield potential is above 80 t ha - 1 with
a sucrose content of 18-19% in the juice. It is a good ratooner and an important
variety of Rajasthan. Resistant to red rot and smut but susceptible to drought.
(9) Co 6806 (Co 775 x Co 798). Early rich cane with high tillering capacity with
a millable cane population of 1.5 lakhs ha - 1 . Bud size is medium, ovate in shape.
Cane is of medium thickness, purple in colour with a waxy coating. It is preferred
in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. It is reported that in experimental trials con-
ducted in Nigeria (Africa), the variety has done well. It has resistance to smut and
red rot. Self detrashing. It has high fibre without dispensing sucrose content. The
yield potential is over 110 t ha - 1 with a pol of 2 0 - 2 2 % in the juice. It is a good
ratooner. It is profuse flowering with a good combining ability.
(10) Co 7218 (Co 449 x Co 658). Medium thick with early maturity. T h e colour
ranges from yellowish to purplish with a moderate yield and sucrose. It is suitable
for growing in West Bengal.
(11) Co 7219 (Co 449 x Co 658). Midlate, medium thick cane and drought toler-
ant. It has a 'stay green' character (Arabidopsis) hence valued as fodder. It was
released in Maharashtra as 'Sanjivini'. It has spread to some parts of Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu. It is a promising variety in North Karnataka and is considered as
a supplement for Co 740. It is a high yielder with good quality and a better ratooner.
It is moderately susceptible to smut and red rot. Its performance at Agricultural
Research Station (ARS), Sankeshwar is presented here (Table 6.1).

T a b l e 6.1 Performance of Co 7219 at ARS, Sankeshwar (3 years average 1980-83)

Parameters Co 740 Co 7219

Cane girth (cm) 2.81 2.82

Cane length (m) 1.88 2.20
Cane weight (kg) 0.95 1.20
3 1
Millable canes (x 10 ) ha" 96 96
Pol in juice (%) 19.23 20.34
1
Cane yield (t ha" ) 96 104
CCS yield (t ha" 1 ) 12.22 14.08
Source: R. S. Khot (Pers. Commn.).

33
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

(12) Co 7314 (Co 1287self). It is early maturing, medium thick cane with yellow-
ish or purplish green colour. It is high sugared (> 18% pol) and maintains the
quality for a long time. It has been released in Madhya Pradesh and Haryana.
Quality of jaggery is good.
(13) Co 7704 (Co 740 x Co 6806). Early rich cane and matures in 10-11 months.
Its performance was good in Southern Karnataka. Its yield potential is 120—
150 t ha - 1 with a sucrose content of 2 0 - 2 2 % . Tillers well with a high millable
cane population. It flowers profusely. It is resistant to drought, smut, and red rot,
and is a good ratooner.
(14) Co 7717 (Co 419 x Co 775). Medium thick to thick greenish cane with hard
rind. Bud is medium sized and ovate in shape. The variety surpasses Co 1148 in
yield and quality in subtropical India. Its yield potential is over 100 t ha - 1 with
18% sucrose in the juice. It is a good ratooner but flowers profusely. T h e variety is
moderately susceptible to red rot. Leaf sheath is spiny, hence manual harvesting is
difficult. However, clasping of leaf sheath is loose.
(15) Co 7804 (Co 740 x Co 6806). Thick cane and recently released in Karnataka.
It is a high yielder with a high sugar content. It tillers heavily with a good ration-
ing ability. It has a fair degree of tolerance to red leaf spot. At the 6th month stage,
it has an LAI of 7.0 with an LAD of 465-485 days. Under experimental condi-
tions it has a yield potential of 175-200 t ha - 1 , with 20.54% sucrose in the juice.
It is a good ratooner and flowers moderately.
(16) CoA 7601 (Co 678 x Co 775). Early rich, medium to thick cane, purplish
green in colour, rind is hard. Eye bud is plumpy, and ovate. Erect in habit. It is
early maturing with a high juice quality. Its yield potential is 100-110 t ha - 1 with
a sucrose content of over 20%. The purity of juice is 8 8 % even in the 6th month
and maintains the quality up to 300 days. It is susceptible to drought, rust, and
smut. Jaggery is of good quality with light brown colour, hard, and crystalline. It
is grown mainly in Andhra Pradesh and its performance has been good in the
coastal areas. It is heavy flowering.
(17) CoA 7602 (Co 1287 x Co 775). Medium thick to thick cane with purplish
green colour turning purple on exposure. Lamina are broad but spines are not
profuse. It is recommended as a mid season ripener in Andhra Pradesh to replace
Co 975. Variety CoA 7602 is drought and red rot tolerant. It yields about 95 t ha - 1
with over 2 0 % sucrose in the juice. It is susceptible to smut and grassy shoot
diseases. T h e quality of jaggery is good.

34
 6 Varieties of sugarcane

(18) CoC 671 (Q 63 x Co 775). It has revolutionised the sugar industry in Penin-
sular India. It lends credence to our observation that it performs well in medium
to heavy black soils presumably due to the shallow root system.
It is an early rich cane and matures in 10 months but retains quality up to 1 3 -
14 months. C o C 671 is a thick cane with pink colour, spines are many, and the
lamina is broad. It is known for vigorous growth and is resistant to smut. But it is
susceptible to red rot. It has occupied a major area in the vertisols of Northern
Karnataka and Maharashtra. It is a moderate ratooner but responds to manage-
ment practice. Its yield potential is over 125 t ha - 1 with over 2 0 % pol in the juice.
Very high juice purities of 9 0 % and above have been recorded. Surprisingly its
performance in alfisols of Southern Karnataka is poor.
(19) Co 8011 (Co 740 x Co 6304). Midlate thick cane with a good yield potential.
It is shy flowering. Its performance in North Karnataka and Maharashtra is satis-
factory. Its appearance is good.
(20) Co 8014 (Co 798 x Co 775). It is a promising, midlate ( 1 2 - 1 3 months to
mature), medium thick, green cane. It is doing well in North Karnataka, the Krishna
and Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh. The pol in juice varies between 2 1 -
2 2 % with about 16% fibre.
Field trials have shown that the height of millable cane is 2.5-3.0 m, canopy
colour is dark green. The eye bud is small. There is no internodal split. Shy arrowing
or non-arrowing. There are no spines on leaf sheath or lamina, hence facilitates
manual harvesting. It is nonlodging. It is resistant to smut but susceptible to
grassy shoof disease.
The performance of plant crop of Co 8014 and two ratoons at ARS, Sankeshwar
is presented in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2 Performance of Co 8014 at ARS, Sankeshwar (1987-1990)

Variety Cane yield CCS yield Pol % in Fibre %
(t ha - 1 ) (t ha - 1 ) juice in cane
Co 8014 113 14.83 18.63 16.30
Co 7219 98 13.45 18.77 16.84
Co 740 92 11.30 17.73
Source: R. S. Khot (Pers. Commn.).

35
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

In a big mill test conducted at Godavari sugar mills, Co 8014 gave a sugar recov-
ery of 12.68% as against 11.56% by Co 740. On balance, Co 8014 is considered
a replacement for Co 740 and Co 7219. The cultigen Co 8014 is suitable for
early and mid season crushing.
(21) Co 8021 (Co 740 x Co 6806). It is a midlate, thick purplish green cane, and
high yielding. It is erect, shy tillering, and can be accommodated under narrower
spacings. The pol in the juice varies from 18-20%. It is non-flowering, predomi-
nantly grown in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Karnataka. Since it has high fibre, it is
useful in a sugar complex with cogeneration of power.
(22) Co 8371 (Co 740 x Co 6806). Midlate, thick cane. It combines high yield
with good quality. It is promising. It has large internodes, low tillering. Millable
cane population is low, hence preferred under high density planting. It is hard to
detrash. Its growth is promising in parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka (Table 6.3).
It has recorded yields above 180 t ha - 1 with 20.19% sucrose.

It is seen that in peninsular regions Co 62175, a high tonnage variety, can be

replaced by Co 8371. This cv is tolerant to waterlogging, drought, and smut.
All India Coordinated Research Project proposes to release this variety in the
peninsular region. Based on 24 plant crops and 11 ratoons the average yield is
118 t ha - 1 with a sucrose content of over 20%. A highest yield of 185 t ha - 1 has
been recorded. The CCS yield of the plant crop is 27 t ha - 1 while that of ratoon
is 22 t ha - 1 . The fibre content ranges from 11.8 to 12.0%. It is good ratooner and
is resistant to both drought and waterlogging. It is susceptible to red rot.
(23) Co 85002 (Co 62198 x Co C 671). It is a early maturing variety. It performs
well in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. It is a pre-release variety and is suitable wherever
CoC 671 has problems. Data collected over a period of five years from ARS,
Sankeshwar clearly established the superiority of Co 85002 over CoC 671 (Table 6.4).

36
 6 Varieties of sugarcane

It is observed that on an average Co 85002 produces 14 and 1.83 t ha - 1 of more

cane and CCS yield respectively over CoC 671. One striking feature is that Co
85002 is a better ratooner than Co C 6 7 1 .
(24) Co 85004 (Co 6304 x Co 740). It is early maturing, medium thick variety
identified at Jamkhandi Research Station. Good ratooner and was recommended
for release under the All India Coordinated Project for the peninsular zone. This
variety is suitable for early to midlate crushing.
(25) Co 86032 (Co 62198 x Co C 671). It is the most promising variety of the
peninsular zone comprising Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gu-
jarat, Madhya Pradesh, and interior Andhra Pradesh. It is erect, good tillering,
and a midlate variety. It has attractive features with a dark green canopy. It has a
few hard deciduous leaf spines and sparse splits. The cane is solid without pith
formation. It is shy—flowering to non-flowering. Maintains the quality for 2—
3 months. It is good for jaggery making. It is an excellent ratooner and stands
multi-ratooning under good management. It is resistant to smut, and tolerant to
salinity, and moderately resistant to wilt.

37
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

A total of 24 field trials spread over 13 locations were conducted and it proved
its superiority over the local checks. Relevant data are in Table 6.5.
A big mill test was conducted at Pravaranagar Sugar factory, Maharashtra and
has given 1.0 to 1.5 units more sugar recovery. It is already released in Maharash-
tra for commercial cultivation. A big mill test (BMT) was conducted on Jan 1 8 -
19, 2000 at Godavari Sugar Mills, Sameerwada. The relevant data are here under
(Table 6.6).

It is seen that Co 86032 established its superiority over Co 8011; the later
needsl to be phased out. For the BMT about 500 tons of cane of each Co was
used.
(26) Co 87025 (Co 7704 x Co 62198). It is a midlate variety with a good yield and
quality. Erect cane, easy to detrash and nonlodging. Good for high density plant-
ing. It is a good ratooner. It is conceived that this variety is amenable to mechani-
cal harvesting. Yield and quality parameters of 2 plant crops and one ratoon are
presented in Table 6.7 (Srinivasan and Bhagyalaxmi, 1995).
 6 Varieties of sugarcane

Some salient features of this variety are: it is a medium thick cane, attractive
field appearance, with purple cane and a heavy wax coating. Buds are small but
the internodes are long. It is practically free from water shoots or lalas. It exhibits
tolerance to drought, smut, and red rot.

(27) Co 87044 (Co 62190 x CoC 671). A high yield, fast growing, midlate variety
with a high sucrose content. Tends to lodge under loose soil conditions. Tolerates
drought and is suitable for mid season crush.

(28) CoC 85061 (Co 6304 GC). Early maturing, medium thick green cane. Com-
bines high yield with good sugar content. Good ratooner with drought resistance.
Ideal for midseason crushing. The potential yield is 9 0 - 1 0 0 t ha- 1 .

(29) CoC 90063 (Co 6304 x CoC 671). Erect, nonlodging, early to midlate vari-
ety. It is high tillering with a good yield and quality. Slow initial growth but picks
up later. Harvesting advised between the 11th and 12th month. Resistant to red
rot. Good ratooner. The yield potential is 110-120 t ha - 1 .

(30) CoC 92061 (Co 7314 GC). Thin cane, early ripener with a high yield and
sucrose content. This variety needs monitoring as it is susceptible to red rot. Should
be harvested in the 11th month, failing which pith formation takes place.

(31) Co] 64 (Co 975 x Co 617). Like Co C 671 in tropics, this variety has revolu-
tionised sugar industry in subtropical India. Early rich cane, medium, straight
green colour with pellet like b u d having a depression at the top between the bud
and the internode. Germinates well with a high tillering capacity. Canes are solid,
non-pithy, and nonlodging. It combines good yield with high sugar. The yield
potential is 100 t ha - 1 with 16—17% pol in juice. The fibre content is 14% and
susceptible to top shoot borer. Moderately resistant to red rot and excellent ratooner.
It is a leading variety in Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.

(32) Co] 81 (Co 798 x Co 775). It is a midlate to late, medium thick cane with
yellowish green to purple colour. It is high yielding and a good ratooner and was
found promising in Punjab. It is frost resistant.

(33) CoLk 8001 (Co 62174 x Co 1148). It is an early rich thick cane with a purple
or yellow tinge. It is a selection from IISR, Lucknow. Fast growing, vigorous, and
high yielding. It might supplement Co 1148 and Co S 767. It tolerates water
stress conditions and has a moderate resistance to red rot.

39
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

(34) Co R 8001 (Co 740 x Co 1287). It is intended for Adsali planting in Telan-
gana region of Andhra Pradesh. Purplish/dark green colour, thick erect cane. Its
performance is better than Co 419. It is tolerant to drought, and resistant to red
rot.
(35) CoS 767 (Co 419 x Co 313). Midlate, medium thick green to purplish cane.
It is found to be better than Co 1148 and Co 1158. Resistant to drought and red
rot, but has a tendency to lodge.
(36) CoS 8118 (Co 1158 GC). Midlate, thin to medium thick green cane. Doing
well in most parts of Uttar Pradesh with a moderate yield and quality. Well suited
under abiotic stresses.
(37) CoS 8422 (MS 6897 x Co 1148). Midlate, thick yellowish green cane and
coming up well in Eastern Uttar Pradesh.

(38) BO 70 (BO 24 x BO 3). It is a midseason cane and is doing well in central

parts of Uttar Pradesh. It is distinctly superior in yield and quality when com-
pared to the standard variety Co 1158. The loss in the final stand is compensated
by the cane weight. It is a good ratooner. It is tolerant to drought and waterlogged
conditions, but moderately resistant to red rot. Jaggery of this variety is of excel-
lent quality, as it is light brown in colour, granular, hard and retains quality. It has
yielded 76.8 t ha - 1 , with a sucrose content of 17.2% and a juice purity of 85.8%.

(39) BO 72 (BO 29 x Co 658). Medium straight green cane, and the rind is not
hard. Bud is medium sized, plumpy, and ovate. It is mid early maturing and ready
for harvest by December. It is moderated in cane and sugar yield. It is moderately
resistant to the diseases occurring in Bihar. Grown in Bihar and parts of Uttar
Pradesh.

(40) BO 74 (BO 14 x BO 22). It is a main season cane in Bihar and a good

ratooner. Medium thick cane, erect, slightly oval in cross-section, and the rind is
hard with a greenish or purplish yellow colour. Buds are medium sized, plumpy
with a tendency towards oval shape. It was released for general cultivation in 1974
and occupies 3% area. The yield potential is 100 t ha - 1 with 10% recovery. The
variety is moderately susceptible to red rot.

(41) BO 76 (BO 32 selfed). Medium thin, straight, purplish green colour with a
hard rind. Bud is medium sized, plumpy, and oval shaped. The variety was re-

40
 6 Varieties of sugarcane

leased in 1974 in Bihar and occupies 3% area. Blind nodes (nodes without buds)
were observed in Pusa, Bihar. It yields 90 t ha -1 with a 10% sugar recovery in
Bihar. It is resistant to red rot and tolerant to waterlogged conditions. Foliage
remains green and serves as useful fodder.
(42) BO 91 (BO 55 x BO 43). Midlate and a leading variety in Bihar with good
plant and ratoon yields. Cane is heavy, erect, and highly resistant to red rot and
smut. Yields 72-76 t ha -1 with a sucrose content of 12-15%. It withstands abi-
otic stresses like floods, drought, alkaliniry, and salinity.
(43) BO 99 (Co 1207 x BO 43). Early cane, grows well in the sandy loam soils of
Bihar. Good for jaggery and a good ratooner. It withstands waterlogging, salinity
and alkalinity, and is resistant to red rot and smut.
(44) BO 102 (BO 47 GC). Early, medium thick cane, resistant to waterlogging,
red rot, and smut. Suitable to the conditions in Bihar.
(45) BO 108 (Not available). Midlate, medium thick cane, found suitable for the
sandy soils of Bihar for main season crushing. Resistant to smut and red rot.
(46) BO 109 (Co 1193 x BO 32). Early to midlate variety and suited to early and
midseason crushing in Bihar. Withstands drought, waterlogging but cannot with-
stand salinity or alkalinity.
The sugarcane varieties under cultivation in different States are given in Ta-
ble 6.8 (Srinivasan et al., 1995).

Table 6.8 Sugarcane varieties under cultivation in different sugarcane growing

States
State Varieties

Andhra Pradesh Co 6907, Co 7219, Co 7805, Co 8011, CoR 8001, Co 62175,

Co 6304, CoC 671, CoC, 85061, Co 8021, C o T 8201,
Co 7704, Co 8013
Assam Co 1008, Co 8315, Cojr 1, Cojr 2, Co 1132
Bihar Co 1148, Co 1158, CoS 767, BO 9 1 , BO 99, BO 102,
BO 108, BO 109, BO 110, BO 120
Gujarat Co 8338, Co 6304, Co 6806, CoC 671, Co 7527
contd.

41
42
 S Varieties of sugarcane

6.1

AN ERA OF THE EARLY AND SHORT DURATION VARIETY

Efforts were made in the early 1930s to develop early maturing canes by crossing
sugarcane with maize and sorghum but it was not successful. However, biotech-
nology offers immense opportunity to develop early rich canes. The prime objec-
tive is to fit cane into multiple cropping systems and enhance the intensity of
cropping. In short, 3 crops (one plant and two ratoons) can be taken in 24 months.
Early rich canes are those cultivars which mature in 10 months with 2 0 % pol and
the production potential is 8—10 t ha - 1 m o - 1 sugarcane or 1 t ha - 1 m o - 1 sugar. A
milestone was reached when early rich canes like CoC 671 CoJ 64, Co 7704,
CoA 7601, and KH 3296 (sparse flowering) were released for commercial culti-
vation. This author asserts that CoC 671 can perform well even in 'difficult to
ripen' areas such as coastal Karnataka. These early canes mature in 10 months and
retain the quality for 1-3 months. The release of Short Duration (SD) varieties is
relatively recent. As excepted, SD varieties are low yielders, but are fast and vigor-
ous growing, since the growth period is short. T h e SD varieties should fulfil the
following conditions:
(a) matures in 8 months with 16% pol and 8 5 % purity
(b) the production potential is at least 8 5 % of the leading variety
(c) it maintains the quality for 2—3 months.
Six SD varieties were identified in 1983- They are Co 8336, Co 8337, Co 8338,
Co 8339, Co 8340, and Co 8341. The most promising SD varieties are Co 8338
and Co 8341. A brief description of Co 8338 and Co 8341 follows:
Co 8338 (Co 7413 x Co 6806) is a purple coloured, medium thick cane of
high quality with moderate yields. Records 1 7 - 2 0 % pol even in the 8th month.
This variety was released in Gujarat to replace C o C 671 in wilt affected areas as it
is resistant to wilt and smut. It is a good ratooner.
Co 8341 (Co 7507 x CP 34-79) is a medium thick cane of high quality. It has
registered 18.58, 89-9, and 11.96 per cent sucrose, purity, and fibre respectively
after 240 days. It is resistant to smut.
These early and SD varieties respond to azotobacter, i.e. free living N 2 fixers.

43
do m o
- .1
 Flowering: a bane in commercial plantation

An old belief in ancient India was that the flowering of sugarcane in a kitchen
garden heralds the death of a person in that home. This was more a superstition.
Sure enough, flowering ushers the death of the cane. A sugarcane flower is an
inflorescence with thousands of flowers on the main stalk. As 'ripenesss to flower
stage' approaches the internode elongates and the leaf blades shorten. A small leaf
(SLF) is formed indicating that the inflorescence is formed. The last leaf is long
enough to enclose the panicle or inflorescence. The flower in sugarcane is called
arrow/tassel or panicle and takes about 2 weeks for formation in different varie-
ties. The short blade, or SLF, or flag leaf is known as the boenting stage. T h e SLF
is reported to contain higher reducing sugars and has lower sucrose content when
compared to the normal leaf. The flowering in cane is limited to 7—8 days and the
entire flowering is normally over in 6 - 8 weeks. The flowering terminates growth
and is mostly hereditary. There are shy, non-flowering and profusely flowering,
varieties. In general, the Officinarums flower more profusely than the other related
species. The varieties which have more Officinarum components tend to flower
more. In the Northern hemisphere flowering occurs during October—November,
and in the Southern hemisphere it occurs during May-June. T h e flowering is
highest in the tropical latitudes, particularly, 5 to 15° N and S. In the subtropics
flowering is less pronounced or absent due to the low temperature.
Among the different varieties, Co 421 flowered profusely in Kenya, Burundi,
Rwanda, Mozambique, Nigeria, and Zimbabwe in the African continent. However,
this variety did not flower in Tanzania (4° S latitude) at an altitude of 700 m. Inter-
estingly, B 37172 is reluctant to flower anywhere in the world. Some varieties like
Co 4 2 1 , Co 62175 show pithiness or 'piping' after flowering. But N C o 310 showed
no 'piping' but maintained quality up to 6 months after flowering. Similarly CoC
671, an early rich cane grown in tropical India maintained quality up to 3—4 months
after flowering. But in Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean which is at a low
altitude flowered cane deteriorated rapidly. In the tropical parts of India (8-18° N
latitude) KHS 2045 is a non-flowering cane, while KHS 396 is shy flowering.
Among the external factors, photoperiod is important. Sugarcane is a short-
day plant and flowering occurs when the day length gets reduced with the increase
in nyctiperiod (night length). According to Clements (1980) flowering induction
generally occurred when the nyctiperiods ranged from 11 h 35 min. to 11 h 40 min.
Some biotic and abiotic stresses influence flowering. A high soil moisture status

47
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

and fertility induce flowering. At the equator, where both day and night lengths,
are equal, flowering can take place round the year. The temperature is another
important factor. The minimum temperature for flowering is 15—18 °C, but the
optimum temperature is 21—27 °C. An interaction between elevation and tem-
perature has to be reckoned with. At higher elevations, the lower temperature
reduces or inhibits flowering. The age of the plant is equally important. Thus
sugarcane should-pass the juvenile stage, and should have at least three joints to
produce enough 'flowering stimulus', or florigens to induce flowering. In Nigeria,
sugarcane flowers in April-May, but when reaped in February-March, the flower-
ing in ratoons is suppressed as it has not passed the juvenile stage. Similarly in
Mandya (12° N latitude), the cane planted in June will not flower that year and can be
reaped in the following year, during February—March (18—20 months).
The physiology of sugarcane is well detailed by Coleman (1968). The first step
involves the exposure of the plant to a high light intensity (> 12 h) during 'ripeness
to flower stage', followed by a critical dark period of 11.5 h. During the dark
period, flowering stimulus is formed which is translocated to the sink (apex). T h e
accumulation and fixation of 'flowering stimulus' or florigen takes place at the
apex. This is followed by the differentiation of floral primordia. Julien (1968) has
given an interesting account of the flowering process in sugarcane. The spindle
and the first leaf are most sensitive to floral induction and produce more 'flower-
ing stimulus' (Fig. 7.1). By this reasoning, he states that the presence of leaf one is
vital for optimum flowering. On the other hand, older lower leaves may possibly
produce a transmissible inhibitor which prevents the growth of inflorescence pri-
mordium. It is assumed that the flowering stimulus is translocated from the spin-
dle leaf No. 1, the spindle and even from the roots to the apex, where it gets fixed.
For flowering stimulus, possibly some enzymes are translocated with the assimi-
late stream in the phloem. The conditions for sugarcane flowering include a ma-
ture plant, 12 h photoperiod, temperatures above 18 °C, low soil N, and abun-
dant water at the time of initiation.
T h e physiology of flowering, albeit obscure, suggests that the removal of the
source, i.e. leaves, especially the spindle 1, 2, leaf, etc. would suppress or inhibit
flowering in sugarcane. For commercial plantation, flowering results in a great
setback. It arrests the growth, favours side shooting, pith formation, sets a ceiling
on the yield, and quality with a decreased extraction per cent and juice purity.
Hence flowering control was attempted by spraying chemicals such as maleic hy-

48
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

The earliest attempt was the withdrawal of water during the 'ripeness to flower
stage which was difficult to achieve in a monsoon type of climate. It has been
observed that a spray of paraquat or Gramaxone at the rate of 3—5 1 ha - 1 dissolved
in 900 1 of water (high volume spray) during 'ripeness to flower stage' would
completely suppress flowering in the profusely flowering varieties such as Co 419
and Co 62175.
A partial or complete inhibition of flowering would increase the yield and
quality as shown: (Hunsigi et al., 1975)

A sample of 50 clumps were taken with manual defoliation of the leaves and
spindle at the boenting stage, i.e. in the first fortnight of August at Mandya (12°
N latitude) (Cv. Co 62175).
The suppression of flowering is effectively achieved in ratoons by spraying
ethrel (Ethepon) at 500 ppm during the 'ripeness to flower stage'.
In certain varieties, which do not deteriorate fast even after flowering, this can
be an advantage. Such flowered cultivars give an improved yield and quality. But
more often than not, flowered canes deteriorate fast and cannot be used for seed
purpose even as a contingency plan. In Hawaii, a 2-year crop can suffer an yield
loss to the extent of 2 0 % due to flowering.
Thus, a profusely flowered cane reduces the yield to the extent of 2 5 % and
sucrose upto 1%. Flower suppression/inhibition seems to be an important step in
sugarcane production technology. However the methods employed are drastic,
such as desiccation and dehydration, and it is hoped that future agronomists will
have better recourse to control flowering in sugarcane.

50
 Sugarcane soils
Soil resource must be recognised as a dynamic living system that emerges through
a unique balance and interaction of its biological, chemical, and physical compo-
nents. It has an inbuilt ability to heal itself provided man's intervention has not
made drastic changes. The term soil resilience implies its ability to bounce or
spring back into shape or position after being stressed. Soil resilience depends on
the balance between restorative or degradative processes. Soil quality is its capac-
ity to function. The selected indicators of soil quality are organic matter status,
infiltration, aggregation, p H , microbial biomass, bulk density, soil depth, con-
ductivity/salinity, and nutrient status.
Sugarcane is not specific to soil requirement. It is a glycophyte confined to the
tropical and subtropical irrigated regions of the world. Being a giant grass, it can
be grown on any type of soil. The soils range in depth from shallow to medium to
deep soils. The soils of the sugarcane belt are detailed by Beater (1957). In India,
it is grown on soils such as red, medium to deep black, laterites, and alluvial soils.
Productivity is high in red, medium, black, and alluvial soils (Table 8.1) which
have good internal drainage (Hunsigi, 1993). T h e National Commission on Ag-
riculture observed that the highest production potential is in peninsular India.
Soil types per se have no significant influence on the yield and quality of cane
provided they are not problematic, namely, saline, sodic, and acid soils. In Barba-
dos sugarcane is grown in alkaline 'Rendzina' and 'terra' soils derived from coral
limestone (Blackburn, 1984). In Guyana it is grown in acid sulphate soils (Pegasse
soils) or cat clays with a pH less than 2.0. Here Al toxicity is encountered and the
roots become stubby or corolloid. These cat clays are reclaimed by irrigating with
sea water (Blackburn, 1984). In West Africa cane is grown on seasonally flooded
wetlands along the river banks called Tadamas'. But the yield decline in most parts
of Africa is attributed to the soil loss through erosion. In the Fujian oxisol, sugar-
cane is grown in the 'talasigd grasslands dominated by the Pennisetum sp. They
are literally sunburnt lands. In Brazil cane is grown in alfisols {Terra Roxa misturadd).
Based on physiographic and climatic variations, the soils of India have been
divided in to four broad soil groups (Sehgal, 1991).
1. Forest and Hill soils of the Himalayan mountains
2. Alluvium derived soils of the Great plains
3. Black cotton soils of the peninsular region
4. Red and lateritic soils of the peninsular region

51
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

T a b l e 8.1 Major sugarcane growing soils of India

State Major soils Sugarcane
productivity
(t ha"1)

1. Andhra Pradesh Black, alluvial 71.5

laterites
2. Assam Alluvial, 42.4
Tilla lands
3. Bihar Alluvial 37.2
4. Gujarat Medium and deep 71.9
black, alluvial
5. Haryana Alluvial 53-2
6. Karnataka Medium and deep 87.1
black, red soils
7. Madhya Pradesh Medium to heavy 37.7
black
8. Maharashtra Medium to heavy 76.0
black
9. Orissa Red, black, 58.5
laterite
10. Punjab Alluvial 56.2
11. Rajasthan Deep and medium 50.4
black
12. Tamil Nadu Black and 110.5
alluvial
13. Uttar Pradesh Alluvial 59.4
14. West Bengal Alluvial 71.5
15. All India — 66.5
Source: Hunsigi, 1993.

52
 8 Sugarcane soils

The last three soils mentioned are important from the point of view of sugar-
cane cultivation. T h e alluvial soils are grouped in order—entisols, inceptisols,
and aridisols. They are generally deep, well to imperfectly drained, sandy loam to
clay loam in texture. The soils test low in nitrogen, low to medium in phospho-
rus, and medium to high in potassium. Recent surveys suggest that they have
multinutrient deficiencies of sulphur, zinc, and iron. The recent alluviums are
locally termed as Khadar and old alluvia as Bhangar. The Indo-Gangetic alluvi-
ums of North India are fine textured and are important sugarcane soils. They are
deep with good internal drainage. In Central Uttar Pradesh, the soils are sandy
loam and slightly alkaline in reaction. In Eastern Uttar Pradesh, two soil types are
met, namely, bhat and hangar avA the third one is developed from inundation from
rivers called Doab. Sugarcane is grown without irrigation in Doab soils. Bangar soils
are light textured, loam to sandy loam with shallow water table and a lower lime
content. The soils of Bihar are calcareous with a high lime content ranging from 0.5
to 20% (Calciorthids). The texture is sandy loam to clay loam with alkaline reac-
tion. These soils are rich in potash and poor in phosphate. Phosphate fixation is also
high due to the presence of CaCO 3 The alluvial soils of Punjab have poor structure
with hard pan or Kankar. The soil problems in Punjab are poor structure and drain-
age. The sugarcane soils in West Bengal and Assam are mainly alluviums developed
in riverine lowlands. They are subject to erosion. In Assam, the Tilla lands are acidic
in nature.
The black cotton soils of peninsular India (vertisols) are derived from the Deccan
Trap with variable soil depth. They are extensive in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. These are locally called
Regur in Central India and Bhal in Gujarat. T h e vertisols have high 'swell-shrink'
potential. They are highly sticky and plastic when wet. The exchange capacity is high
(35-55 meq/100 g) with a high base saturation. The pH is mostly alkaline. Because
of their cracking nature, they are called 'self-ploughing' soils. In compacted soils
cane makes its way through a network of biopores and cracks to extract water and
nutrients. Conservation tillage and minimum tillage is advocated to favour for-
mation of biopores, a practice known as biological 'drilling'. These soils are mostly
productive due to their inherent fertility and high moisture storage capacity. Nev-
ertheless, they should be managed well lest they develop salinization, low infiltra-
tion rate, and low workability under moist and dry conditions.

53
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Red soils occur in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa, parts of Bi-
har, Assam, and Uttar Pradesh. They are found in association with true laterites.
These soils are generally loam to clay loam in texture but may also include sandy
loam to heavy clay loam. The soil depth ranges from shallow to very deep. The
pH is slightly acidic to neutral. The sequioxide ratio is high. The C E C and base
saturation is low and the CEC ranges from 15-25 meq/100 g. The soils are se-
verely deficient in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, and lime but well sup-
plied with potassium.
The relationship of soil biota consisting of microflora and microfauna are of
vital importance in plant growth and development. Table 8.2 indicates that the
population of soil biota is more in alluvial soils followed by medium black soils.
Further, soil acidity (pH 4.5—5-5) is favourable to the development of the fungi.
Soil bacteria prefer neutral conditions (pH 6.5-7-5). Actinomycetes thrive well in
slightly alkaline condition. In sum the yield and quality of cane depend on the
soil type and its biofertility.

T a b l e 8.2 Distribution of microorganisms in different soils

Soil No. per gram of soil in the upper 15 cm layer
Bacteria Actinomycetes Fungi

1. Deep black soil 1,288,000 104,100 33,310

2. Medium black soil 14,940,000 286,100 9,745
3. Alluvial soil 20,110,000 264,000 33,850
(Goradu soil)
4, Lateritic soil 1,060,000 470,100 118,000
5. Red soil 1,336,580 622,150 8,294
Source: Sehgal, 1991.

The ideal soils for sugarcane are deep (60 cm), well drained, well structured,
clay loam to sandy loam with lots of organic matter.
The physico-chemical characteristics of soils which influence yield and quality
of cane are: p H , CEC, texture, and structure, compaction or bulk density, organic
matter content, and water retention capacity. It grows and yields well at a pH
range of 5-5 to 7.5. But the lower limit is 4.5 and the upper limit is 8.5. T h e ideal
pH range is 6.5 to 7.5.
 8 Sugarcane soils

The C E C of soils decides the release and retention of plant nutrients, and
sugarcane soils should have a minimum C E C of 15 meq l 0 0 - 1 g soil. T h e C E C is
also influenced by organic matter content, which is an index of sustainability.
Among the textural class, very sandy porous soils are low yielding with a re­
duced ratooning ability. If the surface soil is sandy, it is also infested by nema­
todes. In fine textured soils, porosity could be low with water occupying the air
spaces resulting in reduced aeration. Sugarcane roots require 10 to 1 2 % aeration
for respiration (Humbert, 1968). Soil 'capping' can also occur in silty or fine silty
soils with reduced germination, plant stand, and yield. Ideally total porosity should
be 50% with the pore size distribution as: large pores (d 10 μ), medium pores
(d = 10—0.2 μ) and fine pores (d < 0.2 μ) in the ratio of 1 : 1 : 1.
The arrangement or aggregation of soil particles is known as structure and the
ideal structures are the crumb or granular structures. It decides the soil-plant-water
relationship. To maintain crumb structure, application of organic matter, green
manuring, crop rotation and intercropping with soil restorative crops (legumes) is
essential. Only the aggregates of 0.25 mm are responsible for the stable soil structure.
Continuous cropping with sugarcane spoils the soil structure (Zende, 1981).
Soil compaction is a major disorder in sugarcane fields and attended with
many problems such as lack of aeration and restricted availability of water and
nutrients. Compaction takes place due to trafficking and ratooning. T h e Bulk
Density (BD) of sugarcane soils ranges from 1.05 kg m -3 (organic soils) to
1.52 kg m - 3 in heavy clays. T h e BD values increase with depth. In entisols of
IISR Lucknow, BD values were 1.48, 1.50, 1.54, and 1.60 g c m - 3 in 0-15,
15-30, 30—45, and 45-60 cm soil depths respectively. T h e suitable BD for cane
is 1.2 to 1.3 kg m - 3 . As the soil is compacted, BD increases with the reduced
mass and volume of roots. Root proliferation and extension is restricted in dense
soils. With a 5% pore space, there is little root development. Varietal differences
also exist to respond to soil BD. Cultivar Co 997 has more root C E C , and more
functional roots to resist higher BD values. The effect of compaction on per cent
root distribution is given in Table 8.3.
Monocropping, intensive cultivation, and excess irrigation result in soil com­
paction leading to poor drainage and salt accumulation. Ultimately a hard pan is
developed at the root zone which creates a waterlogged condition. T h e imperme­
able crust reduces the infiltration capacity. T h e available soil water is reduced.
The dense soils result in reduced uptake of nutrients such as P, K, and other
micronutrients. The net effect is high bulk density, poor infiltration rate, poor

55
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

drainage, deterioration of soil fertility, poor nutrient uptake, and a consequent

reduction in yield and quality. This condition is found in many sugarcane soils
and is more pronounced in saline-alkaline conditions.

Table 8.3 Effect o f c o m p a c t i o n o n per cent d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r o o t s

(vertisols, cv Co 740)
Treatment BD values % Root distribution in different soil depths
(kg m-3) 3CM5 cm 4 5 - 6 0 cm

Normal 1.2 12.4 7.1

1.4 10.6 4.4
1.6 9.4 3.8
FYM added 1.2 19.1 3.1
1.4 14.3 3.0
1.6 14.1 2.3
Source: Zende, 1981. Data partially modified.

Further evidence comes from the work of Torres and Villegas (1995) who ob-
served a minimum yield loss of 10% due to compaction. The bulk density in-
creased from 1.2 kg m -3 to 1.4 kg m -3 due to trafficking. When stools were dam-
aged the yield reduction ranged from 21—45%. However, most compaction was
restricted to the 2 5 - 3 0 cm layer of the surface soil and very little at 50 cm depth.
Soil Organic Matter (SOM) is the key to sustainable crop production. S O M
improves soil properties such as infiltration and permeability. It also determines
the release and retention of nutrients. It is difficult to quantify the S O M level. But
ideally sugarcane soils should contain 2 to 5% SOM. Incorporation of trash and
subsequent decomposition and press mud application enhances the S O M levels
of cane soils.
Water retention and release is influenced by the soil type. The ideal water ca-
pacity is 15 cm m -1 depth to provide adequate moisture to cane before the com-
mencement of irrigation. As cane progresses in age, the soil water potential should
be 20 to 250 Kpa (0.2-2.5 bars). The water table should be kept at a depth of
0.8 to 1.0 m.
To optimise the cane yield, a nomogram has been developed for land use plan-
ning by South African workers (Platford and Meyer, 1995). They observed that

56
 8 Sugarcane soils

soil losses are severe at the 12% slope in erodable soils. The nomogram monitors to
keep soil annual loss to less than 20 t ha -1 annum - 1 .
The long term studies (20 year period) by Gawander and Morrison (1999)
indicate that a major factor for yield decline was the loss in S O M . A similar loss in
SOM following cane cultivation was observed in Australia. They observed a decrease
in soil pH from 5.5 to 4.5. The decline in CEC was to an extent of 2 0 % and is
attributable to the loss in SOM. But the bulk density increased from about 0.9 to
1.2 kg m - 3 in oxisols. Thus compactness was evident following cane cultivation.
The retention of P declined linearly. The decline in Ca + Mg was much sharper
(loc. cit.). However, the water retention at wilting point, i.e. 1.5 kpa [15 bars]
showed a gradual increase with time. They conclude that the decline in SOM,
associated decrease in CEC, and increased bulk density are the chief contributing
factors detrimental to cane growth and yield. These factors are also responsible for
increased soil degradation in the sugarcane belt. The result is the declining cane
yields over a long period of time.

8.1

PROBLEM SOILS

The saline and sodic soils are widespread in the sugarbelts of the world. Sugar-
cane is moderately susceptible to soil salinity. Varietal differences are noticed.
Varieties B 37172 and B 42231 are fairly tolerant to salinity. Similarly Co 86032
and Co 8371 tolerate some degree of saline conditions. The salinity threshold is
reported to be 1.7 d s m - 1 , and the yield decrease per unit increase in salinity
beyond threshold is 5-9%. A serious yield reduction occurs at a conductivity of
4—8 d s m - 1 . But very little growth and death occurs at 10 d s m - 1 . T h e symptoms
of cane grown in saline conditions are stunted growth, poor tillering, and leaves
turning yellow. They may have scorched tips and margins. Saline soils can be
reclaimed by irrigation and providing good drainage.
In sodic soils, Na destroys soil structure with poor cane growth. Quality is
impaired with reduced juice purities. Chlorides and bicarbonates can do irrepara-
ble damage to sugarcane. The Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) is often
misleading due to the presence of ionic elements like Ca and Mg. Hence the
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) has been suggested to indicate sodicity of soils
and irrigation water. More than 50% yield reduction is noticed when the SAR is

57
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

about 20. Blackburn (1984) has intuitively summarised the effect of sodicity on
sugarcane (Table 8.4).

T a b l e 8.4 Effect of sodicity on cane growth

Parameters Cane Cane slightly Cane severely Cane
healthy affected affected dead
SAR 13 18 35 41
pH 8.2 8.3 9.1 9.2
Source: Blackburn, 1984.
SAR = Na/(Ca + Mg) 1 ' 2

Sodic soils can be reclaimed by application of 1-3 t ha - 1 of gypsum coupled with

irrigation. It may take 2 to 3 years or more to replace Na with Ca in the exchange
complex.
Attempts were made to delineate sugarcane soils of Karnataka by site specific,
soil specific soil survey and categorise their suitability as highly, moderately, and
marginally suitable based on the FAO model. The seven factors which govern the
yield are: texture, drainage, CEC, pH, soil salinity or sodicity, slope or relief, and
depth of water table. The relevant data are in Table 8.5 (Naidu, 1999). In the
present study the limitation ranged from 4—7 in the major sugarcane growing
regions of Karnataka. The climatic parameters such as rainfall, maximum and
minimum temperatures, and irradiance have also been taken into account while
delineating the sugarcane soils. The productivity, namely, kg cane per kg input
has also been worked out and is presented in Table 8.5 along with the number of
limitations and suitability class. It is worth noting that most of these soils are
responsive to proper management, which can help overcome the limitations and
produce a highly economic yield. But sugar recovery is more a function of cli-
matic parameters which can hardly be changed, except aridity which can be miti-
gated by a proper irrigation schedule. Similarly soil texture can hardly be changed
by agronomic manipulation which impairs the drainage system with a conse-
quent reduced cane yield and quality.
In conclusion it is reasonable to postulate that management protocols hold the
key to cane production, and many soil limitations can be restricted or eliminated
which result in a higher cane yield and sugar output.

58
 Ecology of sugarcane

Sugarcane is tropical by origin and all cultivation is in warm countries (Simmonds,

1986). But it is adapted to a range of tropical and subtropical climates and is
grown from 37° N in Southern Spain to 31° S in the Republic of South Africa. It
cannot tolerate freezing temperatures and growth essentially ceases at mean mini-
mum temperature below about 12 °C. Nevertheless, sugarcane is grown under a
wide range of temperatures, solar radiation and rainfall. Ideally sugarcane needs a
long warm growing season and a fairly dry, sunny, cool but frost free climate at
ripening and harvest, free from hurricanes and typhoons (Humbert, 1968). It
needs reiteration that sugarcane requires two distinct climatic conditions,
(a) A long, warm growing season with adequate rainfall/irrigation, long hours
of bright sunshine, higher relative humidities for rapid growth and dry matter
build up,
(b) A ripening season of 2 - 3 months duration having warm days, clear skies
and cooler nights and relatively dry weather without rainfall for build up of
sugar.
Paradoxically, the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
have higher temperatures and relative humidities for dry matter accumulation
and higher yield. But these areas do not have distinct cooler nights, and hence are
not conducive for sugar accumulation; this leads to low sugar recoveries.
These are 'difficult-to-ripen' areas. The climatic factors which influence yield
and quality are temperature, rainfall, humidity, sunshine, frost, CO 2 concentra-
tion, and wind. The effects of climatic factors on sugarcane are presented in
Table 9.1. But key climatic elements affecting productivity of fertilized, well man-
aged irrigated sugarcane on well drained soils are temperature and radiation. Fur-
ther evidence comes from Evensen and his co-workers (1997) who state that un-
der irrigated culture with high nutrient availability the pattern of yield accumula-
tion is determined primarily by temperature and incident radiation, and this may
perhaps vary with the cultivar. Thus yield is positively related to both temperature
and solar radiation within the optimal region. This led Clements (1980) to con-
clude that 'the size of theoretical crop is determined by the energy available to it
and its inherent ability to fit into the particular energy level'.

60
ft;a«a«?aa!^saisii»w^
 9 Ecology of sugarcane

9.1

TEMPERATURE

The optimum temperature for growth is between 24—32 °C. Temperature less
than 5 °C is harmful even for resistant varieties. Ambient temperature above 38 °C
reduces photosynthesis with increased respiration. Plants look wilted even at 35 °C.
Hunsigi (1993a) has shown that Modified Growing Degree Days ( M G D D ) range
from 2000 to 6000 in sugarcane growing regions of the world. M G D D gives the
'effective degree' index and minimum daily temperature below 10 °C is equal to
10 °C and any daily maximum temperature above 32 °C is equal to 32 °C.
It was found that the emergence of shoots requires 1 50 degree days. Leaf area
development is strongly influenced by temperature and M G D D s are between
150—200 degree days. Inman-Bamber (1994) maintained that peak stalk density
occurred approximately 500 °C days after ratooning. Final leaf area increased
linearly upto about 400 and 420 cm 2 for leaf No. 16 of N C O 376 and N 1 2 re-
spectively. The phyllochron interval (leaf appearance interval) was 109 and 118 °C
days upto leaf 14 and was 169 and 200 °C days thereafter for N C O 376 and N12
respectively. According to Inman-Bamber (op. cit.) the base temperatures for leaf
and tiller appearance were 12 oC and 16 °C respectively. Keating et al. (1999)
have developed models which simulate growth, water use, N accumulation, sugar
dry weight and fresh cane yield for plant and ratoon crops in response to climate,
soil management, and genotypic factors.
By far the most important climatic parameters are temperature and radiation.
Low temperature reduces tillering—below 10 °C is definitely injurious. With
increasing temperature, tillering increases until a maximum is reachad at about
30 °C. Temperature has a major role in carbon metabolism. Blackburn (1984) has
shown that the minimum temperature for growth is approximately 20 °C but
varietal and cultural factors modify this slightly. According to him, the critical
temperatures for irrigated cane is 18-19 °C and for unirrigated cane 19—20 °C.
The difference with irrigation is probably due to the alteration in temperature.
Often the root temperature or soil temperature also significantly modifies the
cane growth and development. T h e influence of critical temperature in two loca-
tions of Ethiopia is given in Table 9.2.

65
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

T a b l e 9.2 Effect of minimum temperature on yield and quality of cane

Parameters Location I Location II

Altitude 950 m 1,500 m

Mean annual temperature °C 24.8 20.5
Mean sunshine hours per day 8.4 8.2
Mean stalk NO ha _1
(ratoons of Co 419 and B4 1227) 77,000 1,08,000
Mean cane yield t ha"1 year-1 118 123
Pol % cane 14.3 15.1
Source: Blackburn, 1984.

The interaction between temperature and elevation needs to be reckoned and as

elevation increases ambient temperature gets reduced. Sugarcane is grown from
sea level to an altitude of 1500 m.

9.2

RAINFALL

Sugarcane is grown in a wide range of rainfall conditions. It is grown where rain-

fall varies from 600—3000 mm. In areas with scanty and poorly distributed rain-
fall, irrigated crop is raised. Experience the world over suggests that sugarcane can
be grown successfully with a uniform rainfall distribution of 1200 mm. The crop
is more responsive to soil moisture than any other crop, since the vegetative por-
tion is harvested. Under reasonable soil and management conditions, the response
is 1 ton ha"1 per 100 mm of ET. Rainfall pattern dictates planting and harvest
schedules. Monsoon climate is better utilised during grand growth phase and
stalk elongation. But rainfall hinders ripening phase with consequent low sugar
recoveries. Besides harvest and transport operations are hampered.

9.3

RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH)

High humidities (85 to 90%) are conducive for growth and development. But
45-65% RH is desired for sugar build up in cane stalks. In coastal areas high

66
 9 Ecology of sugarcane

humidities and high temperature favour good growth and high yields. But sugar
recoveries are low.

9.4

ATMOSPHERIC C0 2 CONCENTRATION

Sugarcane benefits from increased atmospheric CO 2 concentration. Generally

photosyndietic rate increases as CO2 concentration increases from 0.01 to 0.07%
but becomes saturated at 0.06%. Varietal differences have also been observed. A
strong and positive interaction is found between CO 2 and light. With increased
sunlight, CO2 fixation is also increased.

9.5

SUNLIGHT

As indicated earlier, sunlight is another key element which influences the yield
and quality of cane. Sugarcane loves warmth and sunshine. Greater incidental
radiation favours higher sugar and cane yields. Cloudy days during sugar forma-
tion lowers sugar yield with concomitant increase in starch production. The latter
hinders crystallization in the sugar mill. About 8-10 hr of bright sunshine are
conducive for yield and sugar output. Shorter days favour tasselling or flowering.
Sugarcane is grown in regions where irradiance is between 7 MJ m - 2 and 33 MJ m - 2
(1 MJ m -2 = 23.3643 cal cm - 2 ). The open pan evaporation in these regions varies
from 4.5 to 9.0 mm d -1 . However, best yields are obtained where solar radiation
varies from 12.84 to 25.68 MJ m - 2 . Muchow et al. (1997) opine that at die average
incident solar radiation of 18.4 MJ m - 2 , the expected stalk yield is 420 t ha - 1 . They
also observed that biomass and fresh stalk yield would decrease from 18 months
to 24 months. As sugarcane is planted in wider rows, biomass accumulation during
early growth is expected to be lower than during later growth due to the long period
required for canopy closure. This supports the contention that early vigour is not
necessarily reflected in final yield. They also observed that the efficiency of radiation
utilization was much less for growth after 12 months than in the first 12 months in
a 2-year crop cycle. Maximum solar interception occurred from 120-200 DAP
(Days After Planting) and ranged from 61 to 73 per cent. After 12 months loss of

67
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

biomass due to stalk death was important factor contributing to yield reduction. By
all standards, the optimum harvest period for cane grown in tropical regions is 1 2 -
18 months. Further, the physiological studies show that under good or bright sun-
shine, stems are thicker, shorter and leaves are broader and greener. Under less sun-
shine as is the case of cane grown as lower storey in coconut gardens, stems are
slender, and taller having thinner and narrower leaves.

Fig. 9 . 1 Relationship between stalk plus biomass and cumulative intercepted

short-wave solar radiation (SR) and fitted linear relationship for the Makiki 1 9 3 3 -
1935 experiment (Muchowet al., 1997)

There is strong evidence to show that above ground biomass accumulation is

linearly related to cumulative intercepted solar radiation (Fig. 9.1). Radiation Use
Efficiency (RUE) has been studied and maximum RUE for sugarcane ranges from
1.7 to 2.0 g MJ - 1 . RUE for most C4 crops is 1.7 g MJ - 1 and for maize it is
1.6 g MJ - 1 . Thus sugarcane appears more energy efficient than most cereals with

68
 9 Ecology of sugarcane

RUE values approaching 2.0 g MJ _1 . Further, RUE of plant crops is 10% higher
and early canopy expansion is faster than in ratoon crops. In general tiller senes-
cence occurred after the c a n o p y closed b e y o n d 7 0 % i n t e r c e p t i o n of
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) (Inman-Bamber, 1994).

9.6

FROST

In the North Indian belt, parts of Pakistan, Iran, Egypt, etc., sugarcane experi-
ences frost, which seriously reduces yield and quality. A temperature of—1 to —2 °C
kills the plants. Severe cold conditions adversely affect ratoon sprouting and tiller
formation. Irrigation just prior to frost, and trash/polythene mulching mitigate
frost to a great extent.

9.7

WIND

Velocity of 9-10 km h -1 will not harm cane, but if it exceeds 60 km h -1 cane lodges
and breakages occur. Due to high evaporation rate, ET is also enhanced with a
consequent reduced yield and quality.
Hurricanes and typhoons occur in the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean, and China
sea. Extensive damage is seen in Indonesia, the Philippines, Mauritius, etc. Stems
are blown over, become lodged, often broken and roots are formed at the nodes.

9.8

MICROCLIMATE

Sugarcane as a tall plant has a distinct microclimate, where climatic factors like
temperature and humidity inside the crop canopy differ from conditions outside.
Variation in microclimate occurs due to increased humidity and decreased air
circulation. The humidity inside the crop canopy could be as high as 9 0 - 9 5 % .
Parthasarathy (1972) notes that temperature inside crop canopy is 5—6 °C lower
than outside. High roughness of leaf canopy is responsible for high ET rates and
nearly 5 5 % net radiation is consumed in ET.

69
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

9.9

EFFECT OF GREENHOUSE GASES {GHGs)

The impact of GHGs on sugarcane yield was studied by Singh and E. L. Maayar
(1998). Greenhouse gases (GHGs) include CO 2 , nitrous oxide (N 2 O), tropo-
spheric ozone (O 3 ), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and methane (CH 4 ). The an-
ticipated rise in temperature is 1.5 to 4.5 °C with a likely mean value of 2.5 °C.
Loss in cane yield is between 17 to 42% in Trinidad due to increase in tempera-
ture and soil moisture stress. There was a fall in water table due to increased ET
under the warmer climate. It must be noted that air temperature increase by about
2 °C would be a major factor in yield suppression. Studies have also shown that
increased CO2 concentration can increase crop yield through photosynthetic effi-
ciency. Also increased CO2 may lead to increased stomatal resistance, decreased
ET rates and increased Water Use Efficiency (WUE). However, the impact of
enhanced atmospheric CO2 levels on yield improvement is contentious. The ra-
tionale is that competition from weeds may eliminate some or all benefits of in-
creasing ambient CO2 levels on crop yields.

9.10

EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON RIPENING

Ripening is influenced by rainfall, humidity, sunshine, night length, altitude, tem-

perature and cultivar. For effective ripening, distinct cooler nights, and dry frost
free sunny days are essential. High diurnal variation in temperature is not condu-
cive for sugar accumulation. At higher elevations in Central Africa, there were
minimal diurnal variations in temperature which helped in higher sugar build up.
Ripening and maturity are influenced by the soil moisture. Better drying-off
strategy maximises the sugar output. Cane yield cannot increase after the Readily
Available Water (RAW) has been extracted, but sugar yield can increase substan-
tially while the remaining soil water is extracted. In any case cane should not be
allowed to extract all Plant Extractable Soil Water (PESW).
A mean dry temperature of 12-14 °C is desirable for proper ripening. At higher
temperature during ripening, inversion takes place with considerably reduced sugar
recoveries. Blackburn (1984) emphasises that at sea level, cane quality is a func-
tion of latitude. When sucrose content and latitude are plotted against each other,

70
 9 Ecology of sugarcane

they give a bimodal curve with its nadir at the equator and peaks at 18° N and
18° S (Fig. 9.2).
The long and short of it is that the climate requirement of sugarcane is high
temperature, humidity, and bright sunshine during vegetative phases but cooler
nights and high light intensity for sugar build up.
Note
1. RAW has been defined in terms of the irrigation requirement to maintain
stalk elongation at or above 50% of the potential.
2. PESW has been defined as the total amount of water plants can extract
prior to death.

Fig. 9.2 The influence of latitude on sucrose content of cane at harvest. Adopted
from Blackburn, 1984

71
 Production practices

The yield and quality of cane depend to a large extent on cultivation practices,
besides fertilizer schedules and water management. The aim of cultivation prac­
tices is to prepare a fine seedbed, free from weeds and clods, yet retaining soil
moisture at rooting depth with good internal drainage. Setts should germinate
vigorously without physical hindrance. The ideal seedbed should have 5 0 % po­
rosity—the pores comprising large pores (d > 10 μ), medium pores (d = 0.2-10 μ),
and fine pores (d < 0.2 μ). This condition should exist upto 60 cm soil depth.

10.1

PREPARATORY TILLAGE

The objectives of this tillage are (a) to break open soil for better aeration, (b) to
remove weeds, (c) to bury or uproot stubbles and other residues, (d) to break open
the subsoil pan, if any, (e) to drain excess water, (f) to incorporate FYM, green
manure, press mud, and gypsum, (g) to facilitate biological activity, and finally
(h) to prepare a good seedbed for p anting and facilitate cultural operations and
better water management. Land levelling which is often neglected is a must in
irrigated sugarcane farming. For water distribution and control, levelling is essen­
tial. Levelling is done by a tractor operated leveller, a buck scraper, or (as is done
in subtropics) by bullock-drawn planks. In a level land, field layout is done with
the formation of ridges and furrows. Irrigation and drainage channels are also
made. In flatbed planting, levelling is important to avoid water stagnation and
poor germination.
Conventional tillage comprises primary and secondary tillage. Primary tillage
is achieved by heavy ploughs, mould board ploughs, and chisel. Ploughing should
be done at optimum soil moisture (80% field capacity). After ploughing, land is
left cloddy for weathering. A rough soil surface restricts erosion. Secondary tillage
is accompanied by working with cultivators, or tynes to break the clods. This is
followed by harrowing to achieve a fine seedbed. It must be noted that tilth is
achieved in stages by working with different implements.
In the small farms of the Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh, crowbarring is
done instead of deep ploughing. This is done in black cotton soils to remove
Cynadon and Cyprus. Due to their cracking nature, black cotton soils are amena­
ble to crowbarring.

72
 10 Production practices

Presently, most of the cane fields meant for cane planting are tractor-ploughed.
Soil turning is done by mould board ploughs followed by disking or tyne harrow-
ing. A rotavator is a multipurpose implement which cuts the residues, shreds
them and incorporates them into the soil in one pass.
In Hawaii and Columbia, subsoiling is done to break the hard pans. But South
African workers have convincingly demonstrated that deep subsoiling does not
guarantee a high cane yield particularly in vertisols and inceptisols. However,
Jagtap et al. (1995) reported that subsoiling is beneficial in medium black soils
which are compacted and have a tendency to waterlogging. Subsoiling loosens the
soil to a depth of 45—60 cm. Subsoiling at 2 m spacing crosswise produces the
best results by increasing the yield by 4 5 % and sugar recovery by 1.5 units. Bulk
density is reduced with the increased infiltration rate which follows subsoiling. In
Columbia a double shank subsoiler has been developed which is locally known as
'Cenitandum'.

T a b l e 1 0.1 Effect of subsoiling on yield and quality of cane grown in the soils
of Warna Sugar Mill, Kolhapur with excess water and hard pan
Treatment Yield Pol Bulk Infiltration
density rate
(t ha"1) (%) (kg m-3) (mm hr"1)

1. Tl—subsoiling 43-8 21.70 1.380 12.40

at 1 m spacing
2. T2—subsoiling 38.8 20.89 1.384 11.20
at 2 m spacing
3. T3—subsoiling 48.8 22.40 1.396 15.40
at 2 m spacing
crosswise
4. T4—control 33.6 20.58 1.538 6.60
(no subsoiling)
LSD 0.05 1.14 0.246 - 1.438
Source: Jagtap ec al., 1995.

In most cases deep disc ploughing is required for successful cane production
and the critical tillage depth is 30-45 cm, where most roots are active.

73
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

In peninsular India, paddy precedes cane. The stubbles and roots of paddy
(2-3 t ha -1 ) are incorporated in the soil. Deep ploughing is done at optimum soil
moisture (80% field capacity) as the structure of the soil under wetland paddy is
lost. In subtropical India, cane follows wheat and the latter's residues are incorpo-
rated in the soil by a rotavator. In sugarcane ratoons, trash is preferably decom-
posed in situ by applying cowdung slurry or press mud. Bioagents like Trichade-
rma viridae and/or Pleurotus are used to decompose recalcitrant trash.
Recent research is in favour of minimum tillage except in problem soils (saline-
alkali soils) and soils with hard pan. Minimum tillage implies lesser number of
tillage operations than conventional tillage. In this tillage system, soil compaction
is less; soil structure is not lost. Further, cultivation cost and time are saved. Zero
tillage is an extreme form of minimum tillage where chemical ploughing is done
by using herbicides like glyphosate or paraquat. Zero tillage is practised in devel-
oped countries like USA where labour is scarce. With all its advantages like re-
duced erosion and labour cost, time-saving, etc. zero tillage is not suitable for
Indian conditions.
The emphasis is now on conservation tillage. It is any tillage system that re-
duces loss of soil and water relative to conventional tillage. Its important features
are: (a) presence of crop residue mulch, (b) effective conservation of soil and
water, and (c) improved soil structure and organic matter content. Stubble mulch
tillage or stubble mulch farming is one of the conservation tillage systems. It is a
year-round system of managing plant residue with implements that undercut resi-
due, loosen the soil, and destroy the weeds. Sweeps or blades are generally used to
cut the soil upto 15 cm depth in the first operation. A disc type implement is also
used for the first operation to incorporate some of the residue in the soil. Stubble
mulch tillage is difficult to carry out in sugarcane cultivation as the trash is not
easily decomposed and hinders planting, watering, and other cultural operations.
According to Hudson (1995), strip tillage is adopted for sugarcane planting in
stony soils. Strip tillage is defined as the concentration of tractor power to achieve
thorough cultivation of only the soil area into which the crop is to be planted.
The trash blanket of the previous crop is retained on the soil surface. The device
cuts the trash and cultivates the soil to a depth of 30 cm. Fertilizers, chemicals,
and other inputs are added only into this strip. In essence, it is precision farming
or precision agriculture.

74
 10 Production practices

10.2

GREEN MANURING AND APPLICATION OF BULKY MANURES

In situ incorporation of green manure crops ensures sustained cane production.

Well-rotted FYM or compost at 25 t ha - 1 is mixed thoroughly in the soil. A
preliminary study shows that some portion (4—5 t ha - 1 ) can be applied to the
cane rows. Green manure crops like dhiancha {Sesbania aculata) or sunn hemp
{Crotalaria juncea) are grown before the cane crop and buried at the flowering
stage, when it is succulent. Incorporation is done either by disc/mould board
plough or rotavator. Proper soil moisture and sufficient lag before cane planting
are necessary. Our experiments have revealed that intercropped sunn hemp can be
incorporated followed by N-top dressing and earthing up. Thus, fertilizer use
efficiency is improved.

Table 1 0 . 2 Average chemical composition of some organic manures and green

manure crops
Organic manures or N P K
green manure crops (%) (%) (%)

1. FYM 0.5-1.5 0.4-0.8 0.5-1.9

2. Compost 0.4-0.8 0.3-0.6 0.7-1.0
3. Average of green 0.5-0.7 0.1-0.2 0.6-0.8
manure crops
4. Mahua cake 2.5-2.6 0.1-0.9 1.8-1.9
5. Karanja cake 3.9-4.0 0.9-1.0 1.3-1.4
6. Neem cake 5.2-5.3 1.0-1.1 1.4-1.5

Table 10.2 presents the average chemical composition of some organic ma-
nures and green manure crops. Green manure crops like Crotolaria juncea and
Sesbania aculata have 2.55—3.2% N, while the stem nodulating Sesbania rostrata
has 3.2—3-37% N. Green leaf manuring can also be practised wherever available.
These crops can accumulate over 200 kg N ha - 1 .

75
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

10.3

SEED MATERIAL AND SEED RATE

Sugarcane is vegetatively propagated. A good seed has good sett moisture, high
invert sugars, high nitrogen content, and is free from pests and diseases. Ideally, a
heat-treated (hot water/moist air) plant crop of young age (6-8 months) is good
as seed material. A crop raised (6-8 months) exclusively for seed purpose is called
a short crop. The short crop is fertilised about 6 weeks prior to harvest, to im-
prove seed quality. This is called 'prefertilising' (Humbert, 1968). The entire cane
from a short crop is fit to be used as seed material. The seed pieces with two/three-
eye buds are known as setts. The entire cane should never be used as seed due to
apical dominance which hinders the germination of lower buds. Ratoon crop
should never be used as seed as it is prone to seed-borne diseases like GSD, RSD,
and smut. As a contingency plan, the top 1/3 rd portion of planted non-arrowed
cane may be used as seed. The cane meant for seed is manually harvested. Trash
and other leafy materials are removed by sickles. The cane is cut into pieces with
two/three-eye buds. By and large, two-eye bud setts are preferred. It is preferable
to plant setts immediately after cutting. Otherwise, the setts are kept in shade,
covered with trash and occasionally sprinkled with water. Drying of setts spoils
the seed quality resulting in poor germination. There are sett cutting machines
which cut 12,000 (3 or 2-eye bud) setts per hour, but some seed material is wasted.
In manual seed preparation, a sharp sickle or sharp knife is used after dipping it in
an organo-mercurial compound like Agallol or Areton. Multiple cuts and injuries
to the buds must be avoided. The young cane is placed on a wooden log and two/
three-eye bud setts are cut using a sharp knife. If the transportation of seed mate-
rial is necessary, it is preferable to take the material along with trash and leaves.
Setts should be prepared at the planting place after manually stripping the leaves
and sheath.
Sett treatment to control seed-borne diseases is an important agronomic opera-
tion which is neglected by farmers. The seed-borne diseases include the pineapple
disease. A 0.1 % solution (one gram in a litre of water) of an organo-mercurial
compound like Agallol or Areton or Eminan 6 is made and placed in a plastic
tub/basin and the setts are dipped in the solution for about 5 minutes. Another
systemic fungicide 'Bavistin' is also recommended. Again a 0 . 1 % solution is used
and the setts are dipped in the solution for 5 minutes. For one hectare about

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100 grams Bavistin dissolved in 100 litres of water may suffice. Improved germi-
nation and vigour is not only due to the control of sett-borne diseases but also due
to hormonal action.
The sett rate is 30,000 three-eye bud or 50,000 two-eye bud setts per hectare—
a seed rate of 6-7 t ha - 1 . Reduced cane yields often are due to the use of lower sett
rates.

10.4

GEOMETRY OF PLANTING AND PLANTING DEPTH

A lot of research has gone into finding out the optimum spacing between rows
and within rows. The square planting or planting in the East-West direction has
no yield advantage. Usually 90,000 to 1,00,000 eye buds per ha (30,000 three- or
50,000 two-eye bud setts) are planted. Normally a well-managed crop in peninsu-
lar India has 8 0 % germination. Then the shoot population may be 72,000 to
80,000 per ha. The average tillering is taken to be 2.5 tillers per bud and the
initial shoot population comes to 1,80,000 to 2,00,000 shoots per ha. As the crop
age progresses, there may be some tiller mortality due to lack of light, water, and
genetical constraints. Finally, the number of millable canes ( N M C ) of the present
genotypes stands at 1,00,000 to 1,20,000 per ha or 10 to 12 per sq. m. Depend-
ing on the variety, a well-fertilized and tended cane weighs about 2.0 kg. Thus the
theoretically anticipated yield is 200 to 240 t ha - 1 .
If an optimum N M C population of 10 per sq. m is maintained, any increase in
weight per cane (which is accompanied by increased height or girth or both) through
agronomic manipulation would result in yield levels of over 250 t ha - 1 .
Sugarcane evolved as a closely spaced crop but wider spacing is now necessary
due to mechanisation. The optimum spacing is 0.9 to 1.0 m between rows and the
setts are placed end to end. In subtropical India where growth is restricted due to
climatic parameters, a spacing of 0.75 m is adopted between rows. Recently, Dr. M.
Mahalingam (1999), Chairman, Shakti Sugars reported a 1.5 m spacing for cane
rows for mechanised cultivation. However, yield increase is suspect for the wider
spacing of 1.5 m as the plant density is considerably reduced, though cane weight
and girth may improve. Prudence dictates that wider spacing is essential to mecha-
nise cane planting and harvesting. There is an urgent need to engineer a cane culti-
var such as N C O 310 or N C O 376 which is amenable to wide spacing.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

The depth of planting should never exceed 5 cm. Moist soil of 3 - 6 cm depth
should cover the setts to avoid drying. If heavy rains are expected, setts are placed
on ridges covered with a thin layer of moist soil. The normal practice is to keep
the setts in the middle of the ridge. If dry spells are anticipated, setts can be placed
at the bottom of the furrow covered with a thin layer of moist soil.

10.5

PLANTING PERIOD

There is a notion among Indian farmers that cane can be planted at any time of
the year. This is not true. Warm and moist soil is desirable for germination of
buds. Soil moisture at 50-75% field capacity at 21—38 °C atmospheric tempera-
ture is optimum for satisfactory sprouting of buds. There are three distinct plant-
ing periods.
1) July-August (Adsali)
2) October—November (Savasali), pre-seasonal or autumn planting
3) January—March (Eksali) Suru crop
4) February—March (spring planting) in North India
Planting in July—August and October—November gives higher yield and better
quality than the planting in January-March. This is essentially due to the higher
growth period in July—August and October-November plantings.
The planting periods in different states are presented in Table 10.3.

Table 1 0 . 3 Optimum time of planting for tropical regions

State/region Season Planting time

Andhra Pradesh Adsali August-September

Eksali
Early varieties December-January
Midlate January—February
Late February—March
Gujarat Eksali January-February
Pre-seasonal October-November
contd.

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79
10.6

AGRONOMY OF LATE PLANTED CROP

In some areas long duration paddy and wheat precede the sugarcane crop. Due to
late harvesting of paddy/wheat, late planting of sugarcane becomes inevitable.
Thus planting in parts of Punjab, Haryana, and West/East Uttar Pradesh takes
place in May. This late planting gives less yield as compared to the pre-seasonal
(October—November) or Eksali crop (January—February). Experience has shown
that late planted crop has poor stand, less tillers, suppressed growth, and is sus-
ceptible to shoot borers. Yields are poorer to the extent of 30% when compared to
spring planting (February planting). The agronomy of late crop includes
(a) Seeds are selected from top 1/3 rd portion of cane as regular seed is not
available.
(b) Extra seeds are used and the seed rate is 8-9 t ha -1 . Seeds are soaked in lime
solution/water for 2—4 hours for better germination and plant stand. Three-
bud pre-germinated seeds or transplants are preferred.

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 10 Production practices

(c) Minimum tillage is adopted, lest soil moisture would be lost. Stubbles of
previous crop of paddy/wheat are left in the field and allowed to decay in situ.
(d) Spacing is narrowed down to 6 0 - 7 5 cm.
(e) The crop is fertilised at 70% of the recommended dose (70—75 kg N ha - 1 .
The fertilisers are applied as single dose before June.
(f) Trash mulch at 3.5 t ha - 1 to conserve soil moisture and suppress weed growth.
Recommended varieties are: Co 1148, CoJ 58, Co 1307.
(g) One or two irrigations each of 5 cm depth.
(h) The crop is harvested by February-March.

10.7

PLANTING METHODS

In general there are two methods of planting, namely, manual and mechanical. In
manual methods of planting, there are different types chiefly governed by soil,
climatic and socio-economic conditions. Different manual methods of planting
are described below.

10.7.1 Flat method of planting

This method is practised in North India. The field is ploughed once or twice with
turnings and harrowed to obtain a fine seedbed. Soil is then compacted by planking
with a wooden/stone roller. Shallow furrows, 10—15 cm deep, are opened by desi
ploughs and setts are planted end-to end. Soil is well-covered and compacted with
a log of wood. The objective is to conserve soil moisture. Due to the depletion of
soil and sett moisture, germination is slow. Irrigation does not follow immedi-
ately. It is mostly a rainfed crop but receives 6—8 supplemental irrigations. Manuring
and other cultural operations are done after the South-West monsoon in June.

10.7.2 Trench or Java method of planting

This method is possible where labour is cheap. In Java (Indonesia) trenches are
manually made and soil is placed in layers after planting. It is practised in Orissa
and costal Andhra Pradesh. In trench planting, 1 2 - 1 5 % of irrigation water is
saved due to higher retention of soil moisture. The land is well-ploughed and
trenches are made. Each trench is 25—30 cm deep and 40 cm wide. The distance
between two trenches is 90—100 cm as shown in Fig. 10.1.

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 Sugarcane in agriculture and. industry

Fig. 1 0 . 1 Trench method of planting

The bottom of the trench is loosened and 10-15 kg FYM is applied to the trench.
Cane setts are planted halfway in the trench and covered with loose, friable, moist
soil. The stalks are thick and lodging is greatly prevented and yield increase is
5-10 t ha - 1 . Furrows can be opened with a ridger and the trenches made manually.

10.7.3 Partha method of planting

This planting technique was developed by late Sir S. V. Parthasarathy for water-
logged or heavy rainfall areas of coastal Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karna-
taka. Herein, three-bud setts are planted in a slanting position 60° to the vertical.
One eye bud is thrust into the ground about 3 cm deep and only the two top buds
germinate. Once the monsoon recedes, the in situ sprouted setts are pressed down
into the soil and made to lie horizontally. The soil from the sides is added up to
enable the shoots to strike roots. At this stage, the first dose of manure is given. In
the modified Partha method, this author attempted slant planting (45° angle) of
3-bud setts on the top of the ridge. One bud is well-positioned on the ridge and
the two top buds germinate and strike roots (Fig. 10.2).

Fig. 1 0 . 2 Modified Partha method of planting

82

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 10 Production practices

10.7.4 Deep trench planting

At planting

After full earthing up

Fig. 1 0 . 3 Deep trench system for early drought and late waterlogging (Sundara,
1998)

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Sundara (1998) has detailed this method which is suitable in coastal Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu where early droughts and late waterlogging occur. Deep trenches
of 30—45 cm depth and 60 cm width are dug out manually. The spacing between
the centres of two adjacent trenches is 120 cm such that the gap between the
trenches is 60 cm. Sugarcane setts are planted on either side of the bottom of the
trench (Fig. 10.3). Gradually, as the cane grows, the trenches are covered with soil
and manure. Finally, a small trench which serves as a drainage channel is formed
between the paired rows. The major advantage is that deep trench planting facili-
tates early germination during the drought period. But with heavy monsoon, the
trench becomes a ridge and the small channel serves as a drainage outlet (Fig. 10.3).
This is labour intensive. But greater number of ratoons and high yield compen-
sate the cost of manual trench making.

10.7.5 Rayungan method or Rajoeng method of planting

Standing canes or seed stalks are decapitated (topped off) about 4—6 weeks prior
to planting time. The seed stalks receive ample irrigation and fertilizers to ensure
full development of rayungans on the stalk. Due to lack of apical dominance
lateral shoots develop into tailed rayungans which are cut off and planted in the
trenches already made. The Rayungan method of planting was developed by Dutch
scientists in Java and the word is Malaysian in origin meaning sprouted bud.
Rayungans are the shoots with their attached internodes severed from the mother
cane or seed stalk and used for planting. The trenches with 30 cm depth are made
90 cm apart and the soil is placed in the inter-row spaces at the time of decapitat-
ing the standing cane (seed stalks). The 15 cm bottom layer of the trench is well
stirred and soil is mixed with manure. Rayungans are planted vertically with a
spacing of 45 cm. The rayungans planted in trenches are fertilized, manured, and
irrigated. The rayungan method of planting is adopted for fast seed multiplica-
tion, especially for newly released varieties. The multiplication rate could be
100—200 times the normal seed multiplication method.

10.7.6 Seblang or sprouted bud method of planting

According to Van Dellewijn (1952) seblang method gives the highest rate of sett
propagation under adverse edaphic and climatic conditions. Sprouted setts or slip
setts would assure a comfortable plant stand. In this method seed crop is grown in

84
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light soils which are well-fertilized to promote profuse tillering. As the tiller with
a root system develops, it is severed from the mother shoot and planted. The
succession of tillers formed are in turn used for planting. The success of the method
largely depends on the regenerative power of the plant (genetic character). The
seblang method is ideal for gap filling in ratoons or in plantations with poor
stand.

10.7.7 Distance planting method

In this method top setts are collected and put in the nursery. After they are sprouted
and rooted, they are finally transplanted in the field at a spacing of 90 x 50 cm.

10.7.8 A l i g n method of planting

This method was evolved by Dr. S. S. Singh at Allahabad Agricultural Institute

and has given promising results. In this method the uppermost (last one) nodes
are collected while stripping the canes for crushing or sending them to the factory.
They are then planted in wheat fields in rows after every 4 rows of wheat, at a
spacing of 90 cm between rows and 50 cm between plants. The planting of the
nodes in the soil is followed by irrigation. The sugarcane sprouts are taken due
care along with wheat. After the harvest of wheat, sugarcane is fertilised and inter
sown with black gram or green gram during summer. This method saves the seed
material and gives profuse tillering. It is in essence, relay cropping.

10.7.9 Tjeblock method of planting

This method is a modified version of rayungan method of planting. In this method

half the length of the stalk is cut off and it is planted vertically with one node
under the soil for rooting. The planted one and the mother stalks are adequately
irrigated and fertilised. Now the upper buds which sprout in due course of time
of both Tjeblocks and mother canes are planted by cutting them into setts as
rayungans. It is to be noted that the rayungan, Tjeblock and seblang methods of
planting are followed in seed nurseries to improve the multiplication rate which is
low in sugarcane (10: 1 or 12: 1). These methods rarely apply to regular cane
fields.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

10.7.10 Modified trench system of planting

At first, ridges and furrows are opened at 120 cm spacing using tractor-drawn
ridges. The furrow bottom is dug, widened, and soil is placed on the ridges. Thus
the trenches are formed (Fig. 10.4). Basal manures are applied and setts are planted.

Ridges and furrows systems

At planting

After final earthing up

Trench systems

At planting

After final earthing up

Fig. 1 0 . 4 Modified trench system of planting

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 10 Production practices

As the crop grows, slight earthing up is done so that a trough is maintained through-
out the crop growth period. Irrigation is given to the cane rows. According to
Sundara (1998), this system is highly useful under saline water irrigated and sa-
line soil conditions. The benefits are as much as in the ring system of planting but
with much less labour. About 30% higher cane yield is obtained over the conven-
tional ridge and furrow system. FYM or press mud application and trash mulch-
ing in this system give further improved yields. However, this author did not find
any yield advantage in the alfisols of Mandya.

10.7.11 Contour system of planting

This method is adopted is undulating topography. Furrows are opened along the
contours and across the slope. This helps in better water control and checks soil
erosion.

10.7.12 Single bud direct planting

Single buds are directly planted in the furrows at a distance of 30 cm. Soil mois-
ture should be adequate. This economises the expense on seed material—nearly
one-third seed material is saved. Our experience has shown that the single sett
should be at least 10 cm long with a healthy bud at the centre. This ensures ad-
equate availability of food material to the germinating bud. This system of plant-
ing is referred to as Regulated Planting Technique (RPT). In the alfisols of Mandya,
single bud direct planting resulted in less vigorous and low tillering stools. This
was however made up without much loss in yield/quality.

10.7.13 Chip bud or bud chip technique of planting

The bud along with some portion of the internodal region is chipped by a chip-
ping machine (Fig. 10.5). The 'bud chip' is treated with fungicide and planted in
a raised bed nursery, or in polythene bags filled with FYM or press mud, soil, and
sand in 1 : 1 : 1 proportions. About 6-8 weeks-old seedlings are transplanted in
the main filed. In this technique there is a saving of seed (1.0 to 1.5 tons/ha would
suffice) and the cane can be sent for milling after the chips are taken. Narendranath
(1995) has planted transplants of bud chips raised in a nursery of 500 acres at
Andhra Sugars Ltd., South Eastern India. He claims that the bud chips raised in a
nursery are three times more cost effective than the conventional planting method.

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Caution needs to be exercised that bud chips are not planted directly in the main
field.

Fig. 1 0 . 5 Chip-bud cutting machine

10.7.14 Pit planting

This method is prevalent in tillah lands is Assam but may be useful in the hilly tracts
of Kerala (Srivastava et al., 1988). Pits at an interspacing of 25-30 cm in rows along
the contours are dug with die row to row spacing of 75 cm. Organic manure is
placed at the bottom of the pits. Cane setts are placed in a triangular shape in the
pits and covered with moist soil. This system conserves soil and water, and is useful
in rainfed agriculture.

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 10 Production practices

10.7.15 Skip-furrow planting

This system (a hybrid of the flat and trench systems) is largely followed in Orissa
(Srivastava et al., 1988). Trenches are dug 45 cm apart. Setts are planted in the
trenches. A gap of 90 cm is left after every two rows of cane planted at 45 cm. It
saves irrigation water and facilitates spraying of pesticides and propping. While
earthing, two rows are taken together, thus leaving an irrigation channel after
every two rows of cane. This technique assures high stalk density.

10.7.16 Paired-row planting

This technique is known as Manjari method of planting and considerable saving
in water is achieved (Fig. 10.6). Ridges and furrows are made at a distance of
60 cm and a gap of 120 cm is left after every two rows. Herein plant density per
unit is maintained at 10-12 per sq. m. Setts are planted in the paired furrows.
Irrigation and fertilization is done to the planted paired rows. In the skipped area,
intercrops like potato or any legumes can be grown.

Table 10.4 Effect of paired-row planting on cane yield (Autumn planting,

CoLk 8001)
Treatment Cane yield (t ha - 1 )
1989-91 1990-92 Mean

1. Conventional planting 69.3 75.3 72.3

single rows spaced 90 cm apart,
40,000 three-eye bud setts
2. Single rows spaced 90 cm apart, 71.4 80.8 76.1
80,000 three-eye bud setts

3. Paired rows (double) spaced 99.0 108.8 103.9

30 cm apart with the paired
rows 60 cm apart, 80,000
three-eye bud setts
lsd0.05 83 6.7 5.8
Source: Yadav et al., 1997.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Yadav and his co-workers (1997) have tested the geometry of planting with
conventional vs paired-row autumn planted cane (CvCoLk 8001) at IISR, Luc-
know. The relevant data are in Table 10.4. They have demonstrated that paired-
row planting with 30 cm between rows and 60 cm between paired rows and 80,000
three-bud setts gave significantly higher yield than the conventional method of
planting. In paired rows of this type, optimum plant density is maintained. In
paired-row planting, cane gets more light and nutrients, and there is a consider-
able saving in water (~25%).

At planting

Fig. 1 0 . 6 Paired row system of planting

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 10 Production practices

10.7.17 IISR 8 6 2 6 method of planting

This innovative method was the brainchild of Dr. R. R. Panje and his associates.
It was developed at the Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research (IISR), Lucknow.
This method is suitable in subtropical India. About 2 months before planting,
seed stalks are topped, removing the leaves and trash. This facilitates the sprout-
ing of lateral buds. The cut end may be treated using a rod dipped in fungicide.
Then the main field is prepared by forming trenches of 30 cm depth, 20 cm
width, and spaced 90 cm apart (from centre to centre). One-third of the fertilizer
dose is applied followed by digging and loosening of the trench bottom to 15 cm
depth. The dug out soil is then put back into the trench along with the remaining
fertilizers. Thus, the trench about 45 cm deep, is now filled with loose soil and
fertilizers. Sprouted buds from the topped seed cane are used. Long 'rayungans' or
'tailed rayungans' of about 40 cm with the top side shoot intact are planted verti-
cally in the trench at a spacing of 50-75 cm. Closer spacing is followed when
plantings are late and wider spacing for early planting. The number of 'rayungans'
required per ha is 20,000. Yadav (1991) claims that the IISR 8626 technique
gives remarkably high yields with moderate use of fertilizers and other inputs. It is
adaptable for short-season crops and intensive rotations. But it does not seem to
be popular with farmers.

10.7.18 Ring planting

This method is specially suited to subtropical parts and was developed by Yadav
and his co-workers (Yadav, 1991) at IISR, Lucknow. The basic philosophy is that
mother shoots are developed and tillers are depressed. Mother shoots weigh more
with better quality. Circular pits of 90 cm diameter are dug out to a depth of
45 cm with a gap of 30 cm between two adjacent pits. Irrigation is not possible in
this system. Hence Sundara (1998) has modified the system giving a gap of 60 cm
on one side and 90 cm on the other side. (Fig. 10.7). At this spacing, about 4000
pits can be formed per hectare. The pits are refilled with loose soil and FYM or
press mud mixture to a depth of 15 cm (Fig. 10.7). While planting, 20 three-eye
bud setts per pit are planted in a circular fashion and covered with soil to a thickness
of 5 cm. Thus in each pit there are 60 eye buds and at least 4 0 - 5 0 mother shoots
emerge. Conversion of mother shoots to millable canes is quite high in the ring
system. Plants get good anchorage with better absorption of water and nutrients.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Arrangement of pits in the ring system of planting

Fig. 1 0 . 7 Ring system of planting

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As the crop grows soil is filled into the pits along with manure. According to some
experts, this system has given a higher yield (upto 30% more than the usual) in
subtropical and tropical India. This system provides better ratoons and the number
of ratoons can also be increased. This is useful in saline and saline water irrigated
conditions. It is also useful under trickle irrigation. Just like the deep trench system,
the ring system is labour intensive. Hence this is not widely adapted in canal
irrigated areas of tropical India. IISR, Lucknow has developed a 35 HP tractor-
operated pit digger which can make 500 pits (90 cm diameter x 30 cm deep) per
day in 8 hours.

10.7.19 Spaced transplanting technique (STP)

This technique is a modified version of IISR 8626. Single buds are used and
seedlings are developed from a raised seedbed. About 6-weeks-old seedlings are
transplanted in the well-prepared main field. The major advantage is saving in
seed; about 2~3 tons seed per ha is required as against 8-10 t ha -1 in conventional
planting. Due to synchronous tillering and uniform stalk population, better sugar
recovery is anticipated. In subtropical India, 125—130 t ha -1 can be harvested. A
settling nursery of 50 sq. m is enough to transplant one hectare. Small plots of
1 x 1 m are made. Well-rotted FYM is mixed well in the soil. Prior to planting of
setts, Gamma BHC at 1.0 kg ha -1 is applied to the soil. Depending on the variety,
500 to 800 single bud setts can be accommodated in 1 sq. m area. Single bud setts
are carefully cut and dipped in 0.1% Aretan or 0.1% Bavistin for 10 minutes.
Setts are planted vertically and adequate watering is done by rose can. It has been
observed that 30,000 single bed setts can be planted vertically in a 50 sq. m area.
The vertically planted setts are covered with cane trash, dried leaves or any straw.
Nearly 85-95% sprouting of buds takes place. When the seedlings are 4-6 weeks-
old, they are ready for transplanting in the main field. Seedlings are carefully
uprooted and topped with a sharp knife. The seedlings are given a short dip in
0.1% solution of Areton/Bavistin.
The STP technique can be employed under both flat or trench planting. A
main field is prepared as usual and basal manures are applied. A spacing of 90 cm
between rows and 60 cm between transplants is recommended in the flat planting
system. A hole of 15 cm depth is made with an iron bar and the setts are placed
vertically. In trench planting, trenches are made 90 cm apart with a distance of

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

60 cm between transplants. Gap filling is necessary and 1000 to 2000 transplants

per ha need to be replaced with new transplants from the nursery. Aftercare like
interculture, top dressing, and earthing up are done as in conventional practice.
Spot application of fertilizers is possible and N at the dose no more than 150 kg ha -1
is given in two equal splits. Higher N dose is discouraged since this leads to higher
tiller mortality.
The STP technique is suitable for seed crop or to multiply newly released vari-
eties. This system has some relevance in subtropical India where adverse climatic
conditions favour poor germination and low tiller production.

10.7.20 Polybag seedling transplanting method

It is conceded that STP is labour intensive and cumbersome. The recent tech-
nique of polybag seedling transplanting technique is widely acceptable. Single
buds are planted vertically in perforated plastic bags of size 10 x 15 cm filled with
FYM or press mud, soil, and sand in 1 : 1 : 1 proportion. These seedlings when
they are four to six weeks old are planted in shallow holes dug in the field, and
before doing so the plastic bags are removed. The spacing between seedlings is
30—45 cm. By this, the rate of survival is as high as 100 per cent. There is no time
lag, and the vigour of the transplants is increased by the application of an initial
fertiliser dose to supply [unreadable] 10N and P. Basal fertilisers are placed in the hole
(spot application). However, the first dose has to be applied within 10—12 days of
transplanting. The polybag seedlings are ideal for gap filling either in the plant or
ratoon crop.
Tianco (1995) has shown that 14-days-old single eye bud transplants grown in
plastic bags are planted in holes which are 1 m apart. These holes are in rows
which are apart 1 m. The required seed rate in only 0.5 t as against 6 to 7 t ha - 1 .
Results have shown that one seedling per hole is optimum and this registered a
1 1 % increase in cane yield. T h e stalk number is low, but higher stalk weight
contributes to increase in yield (Table 10.5). He anticipates better ratoon yield in
transplanting one seedling or two seedlings per hole. Further, heat treated seed
cane becomes affordable as one hectare of this planting can supply seed for 150 ha.
He has also observed that square planting facilitates intercultivation in a crisscross
direction.

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Table 10.5 Effect of planting treatments on mailable stalks, weight per stalk,
and cane yield
Treatment Millable cane Weight Yield
9 month stage per stalk (t ha -1 )
(No. m2) (kg)
T1—one seedling per hole 6.48 1.19 77.3
T2—two seedlings per hole 6.48 1.14 73.6
T3—three one-eye bud 6.96 0.93 64.7
seed pieces per hole
T4—conventional 7.81 0.95 69.5
three-eye bud setts
planted at 45° angle and
covered with 5 cm soil
Source: Tianco, 1995. Yield per sq. m is converted to yield per ha.

10.7.21 Ridges and f u r r o w s method of planting

This is the most ideal cane planting system where irrigation is assured. Ridges and
furrows are made by tractor-drawn or bullock-drawn ridgers. The common spac-
ing is 90 cm. Closer spacing of 60-75 cm is desirable for early, short-duration-
shy tillering varieties, and in adverse conditions like moisture stress, soil and wa-
ter salinity, and waterlogging. A spacing of 150 cm, which is the widest so far, is
being tested under mechanised planting and harvesting. The depth of the furrow
should be 25 cm. The furrow length depends on the soil type and relief. Ideally,
15-20 m furrow length is advocated in most situations. The bottom of the fur-
row should be loosened up to a depth 10 cm. Irrigation and drainage channels
should be provided. This system is also suited to drip irrigation. Ridges and fur-
rows provide soil aeration, anchorage, and facilitate proper earthing up. The setts
are planted in the middle of the ridge to promote better germination. If three-eye
bud setts are used, the middle bud is placed side wards so that all the buds are
placed to the sides. There are two kinds of planting systems, dry and wet. In dry
planting, buds are placed in the soil and later irrigated. In wet planting, the fur-
rows are irrigated and then planting is done. The depth of planting is crucial for a

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good stand and should be 5.0 cm. A cover of moist soil layer of about 3 cm pre-
vents drying of setts and promotes early germination.

Fig 10.8 Ridges and furrows system

If heavy rains are expected, the setts are placed on the top of the ridge. On the
other hand, if a dry spell is expected, setts are placed on the bottom of the furrow.

10.8

MECHANICAL PLANTERS

Both bullock-drawn and tractor-drawn mechanical planters have been developed

by IISR, Lucknow. The bullock-drawn planter is suited for flat planting system
and in light textured soils. Three persons operate this implement. One person
guides the bullocks, the second person feeds the setts, and the third person guides
the implement. A bullock-drawn planter can cover 1.5 ha per day at 90 cm row
spacing.
An automatic tractor-drawn (35 Up) sugarcane planter has been developed at
IISR, Lucknow (Sharma and Singh, 1988). The planter is an attachment to the
standard hydraulically mounted tool frame with ridger bodies. The machine con-
sists of an automatic seed cane metering mechanism, a seed chute, a Gamma
BHC tank, a fertiliser application unit, a covering device, and tamping roller. The
automatic metering mechanism consists of a hopper, a pusher mechanism, a
weighted flap, and a picker unit. The design is such that even bent cane pieces can
be metered without any problem.
It is capable of planting 3.8 ha per working day (8 hr) with four persons oper-
ating the machine.

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 10 Production practices

10.9

AFTERCARE

Sugarcane has earned a nickname as lazy man's crop, since it needs hardly any
tending and care. But up to 4 months, it is intercultivated to remove weeds be-
tween the rows, create soil mulch, and aeration. Final earthing up is done during
the 3.5 to 4 months stage with a ridger. In heavy black or alluvial soils the earthing
up can be as high as 20-25 cm. A good earthing up prevents lodging to a great
extent and facilitates application of irrigation water. Trash mulching can also be
done which conserves soil moisture and smothers weeds.
Wrapping and propping is also done in intensively cultivated areas. Wrapping
or trash twisting is an operation which is exactly opposite to detrashing. The dry
trash is twisted around each clump in a systematic manner so that each clump
appears tied up as a bundle and the green leaves are left free. With this operation,
all young late shoots, borer affected ones, and uneconomical shoots are removed
and only the economically millable canes are bundled up by trash-wrapping
(Parthasarathy, 1972). The cheaper method of propping is trash-twisted prop-
ping. The dry leaf and trash are twisted in the form of a rope and two adjacent
rows of cane are brought together and tied up at a point leaving the green leaves.
This operation can be done when the height of the cane is about 1.5 m. This
author has suggested that the cane rows should be in the direction of the wind
and, wrapping and propping would facilitate the easy passage of gusts of wind. In
general, lodging is difficult to control if the yield exceeds 100-120 t ha -1 . In a
strict sense, lodging in cane is a lay over. And as long as cane does not touch the
ground or get broken, there will be no loss in yield or quality. Trash twisting or
wrapping, propping, and earthing up are good agronomic means to contain lodg-
ing in cane.

10.10

MANAGING CANES UNDER STRESS CONDITIONS

Sugarcane is a long duration crop of 10 to 18 months and is grown in a variety of

soils and climatic conditions. It can face abiotic stresses like waterlogging, cold,
and moisture stress. A sizable cane area is under saline-alkali condition. The ger-

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

mination, tillering, and juvenile phases are very sensitive to these stresses. Being a
C4 plant it has a fair degree of resistance for a short period of stress. After the
relief of the stress, cane growth improves and nearly compensates the loss, pro-
vided optimum inputs are given and favourable conditions prevail.

10.10.1 Cold stress

Freezing conditions occur in Iran, North India, and Pakistan. T h e symptoms of

chilling conditions are: sugarcane shows restricted growth, chlorosis, poor sett
germination, and lowered sprouting. Dry spells with no protective cover cause
severe frost injury. The oldest recorded cold injury comes from Cuba, where white
chlorotic bands are seen, locally called as 'manchas blanchs' or Fairs bands after its
inventor. However, varieties of Spontaneum, Sinense, and interspecific hybrids show
greater degrees of tolerance. Two well-known cold tolerant varieties are N C O 310
and CP 57-526.
Cold stress and frost injury occur at the ambient temperature of 4—8 °C. Ger-
mination, tillering, and juvenile phase are more susceptible to cold stress or frost
injury. Under cold stress, roots are restricted and growth is stymied, resulting in
poor quality.
The following recommendations are made to fight cold stress or frost injury.
(a) Spring planting (January-February) is advocated. But due to uncertainty of
frost, autumn planting, i.e. October—November planting is adopted in North
West India.
(b) Trench planting is preferred to flat planting.
(c) Three-eye bud setts are recommended. It is still advisable to use transplants
grown in polythene bags.
(d) The recommended spacing is 75 cm between rows. Plant to plant distance
is 30 cm, if six-week-old seedlings are used.
(e) Irrigation is done once, before or at the onset of frost.
(f) Harvesting in February is advised.

10.10.2 Agronomy of waterlogged or excess moisture conditions

Many parts of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, North Bihar, and Deltaic regions of Tamil
Nadu face waterlogged conditions. The area under waterlogged soils in India is to
the extant of 8.5 m ha. Formative phase is more susceptible. Under waterlogged

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conditions, soil structure is lost with poor aeration. Biological activity is impaired.
The redox potential of 320 mV at pH 5 is the useful dividing line between aer-
ated (oxidised) and waterlogged soil. Plant roots under waterlogged conditons
develop well-connected internal air spaces (Aerenchyma). Sugarcane under excess
moisture situations exhibits stunted growth, low tillering, and chlorotic leaves.
Water and nutrient absorption are reduced due to restricted root system. Adven-
titious roots are formed which reduce the cane quality. Cane under such situa-
tions is prone to lodging and breakage. Yield loss is due to stalk mortality. About
5-30% yield loss has been reported in situations where waterlogging occurred for
15—60 days during the late grand growth phase (Sundara, 1998). Juice is of poor
quality with reduced sucrose and purity.
The best way is to open the drains at a depth of 60-90 cm and allow the water
to drain. Subsurface and surface draining help to circumvent excess moisture con-
ditions. Mole drains at a depth of 1 m are formed in heavy clay loams. If natural
drainage is not possible as in low lying areas, a 'Malabar pump' or a TAS aerial
flow pump (TAS—Thiru Arroran Sugars) is used to drain out excess water. T h e
Malabar pump is known to pump out large quantities of water. Early planting is
preferred in these conditions. Partha method of planting (See the section on Planting
methods) can be adopted under waterlogged conditions. However, the trench
method of planting is superior to other methods as shown below (Srivastava and
Seth, 1990).

Planting methods Cane yield (t ha - 1 )

1) Flatbed planting (conventional) 54.9
2) Ridges and furrows 67.8
3) Trench planting 87.9
Higher seed rate of 7.5—9.0 t ha - 1 is used. Skip row planting with a narrow spac-
ing of 60 cm between the rows and skip farrow if 1.20-1,35 m is adopted so that
the latter can act as a drainage channel. Polybag seedlings can be raised and trans-
planted in the main field after the excess water recedes. All fertilizers are applied
before the waterlogging sets in. Additional N and K, and its late application is
advantageous (50 kg N + 30 kg K 2 O ha - 1 ). Hoeing controls weeds and provides
soil aeration. Detrashing and heavy earthing up prove beneficial and reduce lodg-
ing, breakage, and formation of water shoots/'lalas'. Sugarcane matures early, hence
this results in an early harvest.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

The important varieties which can withstand waterlogging are: Many BO vari-
eties, Co 62175, and Co 1148. Recent varieties recommended for excess moisture
conditions of tropical India are: Co 8231, Co 8145, CoSi 86071, CoSi 776, and
Co 837. Cultivars like CoTL 8201, and CoTL 88322 are grown in Thiruvalla
area of Kerala where waterlogging is a common feature.

10.10.3 Moisture stress conditions

The percentage area under moisture stress conditions is increasing due to canal
closures, drying of wells and tanks, lack of adequate recharge and, late and poor
rainfall distribution. Areas under rainfed farming and water stress conditions are
confined to alluvial soils in Terai, Assam, calcareous soils in East Uttar Pradesh,
North Bihar, and coastal alluvial soils in Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. However,
these soil have good depth and better water storage. Yields are 3 0 - 5 0 % of nor-
mally irrigated crops. The low yield is due to poor germination, lot of gaps, and
late maturity. T h e moisture stress crop is susceptible to early shoot borers and
scale insects. Some of the proven techniques to combat moisture stress are given
below.
(a) Autumn planting (October-November) is preferred over January-February
planting. In the Belgaum region of Karnataka, January planting is done
with one protective irrigation.
(b) Flat planting is recommended as against trench or ridges and furrow meth-
ods.
(c) Spacing is narrowed down to 60—75 cm and the seed rate is 1.5 times more
than the normal (9-10 t ha - 1 ). In the case of narrower spacing, stalk density
is higher which contributes to yield increase.
(d) Trash mulching at 5-7 t ha - 1 is a proven technology. Sundara (1998) re-
ported 2 0 % higher stalk density and 10% higher cane yield following trash
mulching. Soil temperature was also reduced by 2.1 °C under trash cover.
This has also controlled weeds.
Srivastava et al. (1988) have shown improved yield following trash mulch
(Table 10.6).
In parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, under stress conditions in standing
cane lower leaves (partially dried), and trash are removed and put as mulch. T h e
upper 6 to 7 green leaves are left and 2% KC1 spray is administered. A late soil
application of 25 kg K 2 O ha - 1 is done to fight drought.

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 10 Production practices

Table 10.6 Effect of trash mulch on water and fertilizer use efficiency in planted
sugarcane
N Without trash With trash General
(kgha -1 ) 25 ASM 50 ASM 25 ASM 50 ASM mean
50 58.93 62.49 68.98 77.46 60.82
100 64.96 69.28 77.46 81.78 73.37
150 68.05 76.00 82.86 88.50 78.86
Mean 63-78 69.26 76.41 82.58
ASM—Available Soil Moisture
Source: Srivastava et al., 1988.

If trash is affected by termites, 10% HCH dust at 25 kg ha -1 is applied. At final

earthing, trash can be incorporated with the soil. Application of cowdung slurry
and press mud or bioagents like Trichoderma viridae or Pleurotus sp. will hasten
decomposition of trash.
(e) Fertilizers—N, P 2 O 5 and K2O at the rate of 75-25-25 kg ha -1 are applied
just before the onset of monsoon in a single dose. However, 30 kg ha -1 N
can be given as a basal dose at planting and the remaining given at final
earthing up.
(f) Foliar fertilization is resorted to. 2.5% urea (2.5 kg urea in 1001 water) and
2.5% KC1 (2.5 kg KC1 in 100 1 of water) are applied to cane to help fight
drought. Some wetting agent like 'teepol' is added to the fertilizer solution.
The volume of spray is 800—900 1 ha -1 and knapsack sprayers can be used
for 3—4 months old crops. If the cane is tall (7-8 months) a wide swath
boom sprayer developed by the IISR, Lucknow can be used.
(g) Setts are soaked in 0.4% lime solution (4 kg lime in 1000 1) water which is
a drought hardening mechanism.
(h) If available one or two protective irrigations are beneficial. The critical stages
in sugarcane are tillering and sugar accumulation phase. Alternate furrow
irrigation can also be adopted. This author has tested alternatively alternate
furrow irrigation. In this method one furrow is irrigated and the adjacent
furrow is skipped. For the next irrigation, the skipped furrow is irrigated
and the first furrow is skipped. This cycle continues. There is one-third
economy in irrigation water. It also improves the yield and quality.

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 Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

A sure method of fighting drought is to use drought tolerant cultivars. These

varieties are high tillering, and have fast initial growth with a deep root system.
They can retain a leaf water potential of (Ψ ζ ) —2.5 to 3-5 Mpa. Some of the
drought tolerant varieties are Co 8208, Co 86011, Co 85007, Co 85004, Co 7717,
CoC 90063, Co 8362, Co 87263, Co 8145, CoC 8506, and Co 6806.

10.10.4 Managing acid soils

In India acid soils are spread over an area of 4.5 m ha, where the pH is less than
5.5. The predominant characteristic of acid soil is the presence of A1 in soluble
and exchangeable forms. The input of protons (H + ) and leaching of cations like
Ca, Mg, K, and Na cause acidity. The formation of acid soils depends on the
parent material, climate, topography, biological activity, and management.
It is difficult to estimate the sugarcane area under acid soils. Rough estimates
show that at least 0.5 m ha of sugarcane area is under acid soils spread over Kerala,
coastal and Malnad region of Karnataka, Goa, parts of Orissa and Assam, Terai
region of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Sugarcane grown in acid soils shows deficiency
of P, Ca, Mg and toxicity of Al, Mn, and Fe. Brown, short and thick roots with
less branches are the visible symptoms of cane grown in acid soils. The deficiency
of P is due to its fixation by Al. Sugarcane grown in acid soils exhibits reduced
tillering and shortened internodes with reduced yield and quality.
Liming reclaims the acid soils and the Lime Requirement (LR) is given as:
LR (meq C a C O 3 100 g-1 soil) = 1.5 x meq exch Al 100 g-1 soil.
Traditionally, LR is the amount of lime required to raise the soil pH to a certain
value, often to about 6.5. For most of the Indian soils 1-3 tons of lime applied to
plant cane would suffice depending on the soil type and management. In some
Hawaiian soils, the supply of Ca due to liming is more beneficial than the eleva­
tion of pH which it causes.
The liming materials include C a C O 3 , dolomite limestone, hydrated lime, burnt
lime, blast furnace slags high in calcium silicates, and lime sludges from sugar and
paper factories. To be effective, limestone should be crushed and sieved using 100
mesh sieve (aperture 0.15 mm). Limestone coarser than 2 mm is inefficient as a
liming material.
Lime is incorporated during fallow period or prior to monsoon. It is allowed to
react with the soil for 3—4 months. The benefits of liming is more apparent in
ratoon than in plant crop. In acid soils of Assam with a pH of 5.5, Co 997 has
been successfully grown.

102

•JIBM&mmMM*
 10 Production practices

10.10.5 Managing saline-alkali soiis

In India saline and alkali soils are spread over an area of 5.5 m ha and 4.5 m ha
respectively and this is likely to increase due to faulty irrigation practices. Saline
soils are those with ECe more than 4.0 ds m - 1 , Exchangeable Sodium Percentage
(ESP) less than 15.0, and pH usually less than 8.5. Saline soils have been called
white alkali soils because the surface incrustation is mostly white in colour. Sugar-
cane is moderately sensitive to salinity with a threshold for yield reduction at
1.7 ds m - 1 (Lingle and Weigand, 1997). Nour et al. (1989) maintained that a soil
with ECe 1.62 ds m -1 is normal. But in Egypt, sugarcane is grown in soils of ECe
ranging from 0.99 to 17.22 ds m - 1 . Sugarcane is associated with lower yields of
the order 5.45 t ha - 1 for a unit rise in ECe. Low yield is attributed to reduced
tillering, stalk density, and stalk weight. Salinity reduces internode length. Lingle
and Weigand (1997) have quantified the effect of salinity on cane yield and qual-
ity. Juice molality decreased at the highest salinity. They observed that each ds m-
1
increase in ECe decreased brix and pol by 0.6% and decreased apparent purity
(pol as per cent of brix) by 1.3%. Each ds m -1 increase in root zone salinity
decreased stalk population by 0.6 stalks per sq. m and the individual stalk weight
by 0.15 kg. T h e net loss in yield following salinity was to the tune of 13.7 t ha - 1
(op. cit.). A loss in sucrose yield is 2 t h a - 1 per ds m - 1 rise in salinity. Interestingly,
yield loss due to salinity is predictable. Salinity maps of fields generated by remote
sensing can be used to create sucrose yield maps. Understandably, a sugar quality
map would permit a sugar mill to schedule harvesting of various fields and blend
poor quality juice with high quality juice.
Saline soils are well-structured and careful leaching of salts (beyond root zone) by
good quality water would render soils very productive. Sugarcane is neither a calcifuge
(Ca-hater) nor a calcicole (Ca-lover). It is a glycophyte, growing in normal soils.
Sodic or alkali soil is difficult to manage. Sodic soils are those with pH > 8.5,
ECe <4.0, ESP > 15, and SAR > 13 to 15. Soils are dispersed with low infiltration
rate. In a field experiment in Karnal, India, Dang and his co-workers (1999)
showed variability in genotypes due to sodicity. Cane yield, sugar yield, and CCS
per cent were lowered by 9 - 2 6 % , 12-29% and 3—5% respectively, with an in-
crease in ESP from 14.4 to 23.5. They contend that yield loss is more pronounced
than quality following sodic environment. Early genotypes are more susceptible
to sodicity than mid or late maturing ones. Cultivar CoJ 64, an early maturing
type is most susceptible to sodicity (Table 10.7).

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Table 10.7 Mean cane and sugar yields, relative yields, and CCS per cent:
early, mid, and late maturing genotypes grown in sodic and normal soils
Varietal Cane yield Relative CCS (%) Sugar yield Rela-
-1 -1
groups (t ha ) cane (t ha ) tive
based on yield yield
maturity Sodic Normal (%) Sodic Normal Sodic Normal (%)
Early 54.8 67.8 81 14.0 14.6 7.69 9.86 78
group
Midlate 64.1 73.8 87 12.5 12.9 7.97 9.50 84
group
Late 71.5 79.8 90 11.9 12.2 8.47 9.73 87
group
Pooled 61.9 72.6 85 13.0 13.4 7.96 9.69 82
mean
Genotypes in early group: CoH 56, CoJ 64, CoH 92, CoH 99
Genotypes in midlate group: CoH 95, CoH 96, CoH 108, CoS 767
Genotypes in late group: CoH 70, Co 1148
Source: Dang et al., 1999. Data partially modified.

It was interesting to note that genotypes having a leaf Ca level of < 0.21%
exhibited Ca deficiency symptoms. No deficiency symptoms were noticed in geno-
types grown in normal soil. But most cane genotypes grown in sodic soil showed
Ca deficiency symptoms on the younger leaves during grand growth period. The
symptoms included chlorotic patches of the leaf blade which turned necrotic.
Later on the leaves became wiry and curling downwards thus giving a hook-like
appearance before being shed. Late maturing genotypes showed no Ca deficiency
symptoms. The most susceptible genotype in the early maturing group was CoJ 64
and the most resistant in the late maturing group was CoH 70.
Reclamation measures include drainage, subsoiling, deep tillage, and replace-
ment of Na with Ca in exchange complex. Crop rotation includes green manure
crops like Dhiancha (Sesbania aculata) or stem nodulating S. rostrata and cereals
like barley and paddy. Usually 2 tons of gypsum and 50 cart loads of FYM per ha
would help to get reasonably good yields of cane. It has been observed that the

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FYM application would not only reduce gypsum requirement but improve its
efficacy.

10.10.6 Sugarcane in Tilah land and shallow black soils

Tilah lands in Assam with steep slopes are utilised for growing sugarcane. These
are old alluviums with pH ranging from 4.5 to 5.5. The minimum temperature
rarely goes below 12 °C and the mean temperature fluctuates between 29 and
31 °C. The annual average rainfall is around 2800 mm. Land is prepared by rabbing
(burning) and is stirred with a light hoe. Planting is preferred in pits and is done
in the month of April. Spacing between pits is 60 cm to reduce soil erosion.
Sugarcane grown in Tillah lands of Assam shows Fe toxicity and Mn deficiency.
Addition of gypsum/lime/dolomite limestone at 1 to 1.5 t ha -1 is beneficial to the
cane crop. Moderate amounts of fertilizers (100-50 kg NPK ha -1 ) are given. Water
harvesting through farm ponds would help to give 1—2 irrigations at grand growth
and sugar accumulation phase respectively. Sprinkler system of irrigation is best
suited but is not cost effective. Presently, the varieties grown which promise yield
of about 50 t ha -1 are Co 419, Co 740, Co 997, and Co 1158. Ratoon yield is
better than plant crop. Hence multiratooning in Tilah land is common.
The shallow black soils of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra give poor cane
yield. Application of FYM and green manuring are recommended. Since the soils
are calcareous, lime induced iron chlorosis is frequently met with. Soil applica-
tion of sulphur at 500 kg ha -1 proves beneficial. Application of pyrites at the rate
of 1 t ha -1 is cost effective. Even a single ratooning is not a distinct possibility.

10.1 1

SUGARCANE BASED CROPPING AND FARMING SYSTEMS

Crop rotations have been known for ages but J. B. Boussingault is credited with
having given a scientific rotational system in 1834. He studied 5 rotations and
there was a gain in all rotations except where wheat was grown.
Sugarcane based cropping system has a distinct advantage as it leaves large crop
residues like trash, roots, stubbles, etc., and is also heavily fertilized. Our studies
in red soils of Mandya (alfisols) have shown that paddy, cowpea, and finger millet
can exploit residual fertility and give an optimum yield at 50% of the recom-

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

mended dose. In most sugarcane growing countries some sort of rotation is fol-
lowed except in Cuba, Hawaii, British Guiana, Trinidad, Fuji, and Peru where
mono-cropping of cane is quite common. In Java, land tenure system enforces
rotation. In Louisiana and Mauritius, cane is rotated with leguminous crops.
The ill-effects of continuous cropping as in ratooning are the build up of pests,
diseases, higher soil bulk densities, and compaction. Garside and Bell (1999) be-
lieve that continuous sugarcane monoculture leads to loss in soil productive ca-
pacity or yield decline syndrome.
In India some systematic rotation is followed in sugarcane. Cane is normally
rotated with rice. In Maharashtra, crop rotations are with wheat, bajra, cotton, or
sorghum. As a garden crop it is rotated with potatoes, chillies, and onions. Near
towns and cities, cane is rotated with vegetable crops. In North India, cane is in
rotation with wheat, cotton, gram, maize, Brassica sp., sorghum, peas. In Eastern
parts, rice is the usual rotational crop. Green manure crops invariably find a place
in rotation with cane. In southern parts of India, cane is rotated with paddy. Soil
loses tilth after rice and hence crops like groundnut/green manure crops are intro-
duced in rotation. Short duration catch crops, specially legumes serve as a break
crop. Among oil seed crops, sesame can be grown in June-July and ploughed in
after 3-4 months and cane is planted, in October.
In Maharashtra, Bajra—pre-seasonal cane—ratoon 1—ratoon 2 gave the maxi-
mum returns.
The other common rotation is cotton, sugarcane, rabi jowar. In parts of Uttar
Pradesh, arhar (Cajanus cajan) and groundnut are sown together with the out-
break of monsoon. Arhar is sown with an espacement of 2-7 m. In between the
lines of arhar, groundnut is sown at a distance of 45 cm. Thus there will be 5 lines
of groundnut between two lines of arhar. Groundnut is harvested in November
and cane is planted by the trench method in February. This is in essence a relay
cropping. It is worth noting that in subtropics, autumn planting (October) gives
higher yield than spring planting (February-March). But due to development of
high yielding varieties, cane planting gets delayed upto April.
Yadav (1991) has reported some important crop sequences in subtropical North
India.
(a) Rice/maize—Autumn sugarcane. Maize is harvested in September and cane
is planted in October. The yield anticipation is 78 t ha-1 and maize 2-41 ha -1 .
Since maize is an exhaustive crop, N dosage is enhanced.

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 10 Production practices

(b) Potato—sugarcane. This sequence is followed in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,

and Bihar. Early maturing varieties are harvested to facilitate cane planting
in mid March. Late potato cultivars reduce cane yield but potato yields are
higher.
(c) Pigeon pea—sugarcane. If pigeon pea (cv T-21) is grown, cane is planted in
spring (February-March). In Bihar, late maturing varieties of pigeon pea
are taken, and cane is planted between 2 rows of pigeon pea (relay crop-
ping). When cane starts germinating in 30—45 days, pigeon pea is harvested.
In this system about 3% increased cane yield has been recorded.
(d) Mustard—sugarcane. After the harvest of mustard, cane is planted by end
of March. It is quite profitable and gives about 2.8 t ha - 1 mustard and
65 t ha - 1 sugarcane.
(e) Wheat—sugarcane. Consequent to the development of high yielding varie-
ties in wheat, wheat-sugarcane rotation has become a common practice.
But cane planting gets delayed upto April. Hence sugarcane needs a little
tending. Normally 1/3 top portion of cane (cv Co 1148) is used as a seed
material. Setts are soaked in water for 6 hr. Then setts are treated with 0.5%
B H C and 0.2% agallol or 0.15% areton.
Some important crop sequences followed in India are given in Table 10.8
(Sundara, 1998).

T a b l e 1 0 . 8 Sugarcane based cropping systems (rotations) commonly practised

in different states of India
S. No. Sugarcane based cropping systems (rotations) State

1. Rice (early)-pea-sugarcane plant-first ratoon

-wheat Eastern U.P.
2. Rice (early)-sugarcane (autumn)-first
ratoon-moong —d o—
3. Green manure-sugarcane plant-first
ratoon-wheat —d o—
4. Rice-gram/pea-green manure-sugarcane
plant-first ratoon —do-
contd.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Table 10.8 contd.

S. No. Sugarcane based cropping systems (rotations) State

5. Rice-potato-sugarcane plant-first Western and

ratoon-wheat Central U.P.
6. Rice-wheat/mustard-sugarcane plant-
first ratoon-wheat —do—
7. Green manure-lahi-sugarcane
plant-first ratoon-wheat —do—
8. Green manure-potato-sugarcane
plant-first ratoon-wheat —do—
9. Green manure-sugarcane (autumn) +
potato-ratoon-wheat —do—
10. Sorghum-gram or potato (early)-
sugarcane plant-first ratoon —do—
11. Maize (early)-potato-sugarcane-
ratoon-wheat —do—
12. Cotton + pea-sugarcane-ratoon-wheat —do—
13. Maize-wheat-sugarcane-plant-first ratoon-wheat —do—
14. Rice-pea-sugarcane-first ratoon-wheat —do—
15. Rice/maize-sugarcane-plant-ratoon —do—
16. Rice-arhar-green manure-sugarcane
plant-first ratoon —do—
17. Fallow-wheat-green manure-sugarcane
plant-first ratoon —do—
18. Maize-wheat-sugarcane plant-first Punjab and
ratoon-wheat western U.P.
19. Chari-berseem-sugarcane plant-first ratoon Punjab
20. Groundnut-wheat-sugarcane plant-first
ratoon Gujarat
contd.

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 10 Production practices

Table 1 0 . 8 contd.
S. No. Sugarcane based cropping systems (rotations) State
21. Cotton-sugarcane-plant-first ratoon-sorghum Maharashtra
22. Sugarcane-plant-ratoon-wheat Maharashtra
23. Sugarcane-plant-ratoon-cotton-gram Maharashtra
24. Rice-sugarcane plant-first ratoon South India
25. Ragi-sugarcane plant-first ratoon —do—
26. Rice-groundnut-sorghum-finger millet- Karnataka under
sunn hemp-sugarcane canal irrigation-
fixed 3 yr rotation
27. Sugarcane-fodder sorghum-groundnut Maharashtra
-tobacco-cotton-green manure canal irrigated
areas with
block system
of irrigation
28. Sugarcane-plant-ratoon-kharif rice- A.P.-Telangana
winter rice-sunn hemp region
Note: Autumn planting or pre-seasonal planting = Oct — Nov.
Source: Sundara, 1998.

The development of short duration varieties have opened new vistas in cane
culture. And of course, 3-cane crops (one plant cane, two ratoons) can be taken in
2 years which yield 8-10 t ha - 1 cane or 0.8—1.0 t ha - 1 sugar per month.
Sundara (1987) has presented elaborate crop sequences with short duration vari-
eties (CoA 7601). Other short duration varieties are Co 8638, Co 8641, etc.
Sundara (1987) found that the rotation with short duration varieties is more prof-
itable than the normal cane planting (Table 10.9). The cropping cycle with short
duration varieties vs the normal midlate varieties is depicted in Fig. 10.9. The
most profitable crop sequence was short duration plant crop—ratoon-finger mil-
let-cotton. This system produced 195.6 t ha -1 cane, 3.8 t ha -1 finger millet and
4.07 t ha -1 seed cotton. The conventional system gave a cane yield of 203.6 t ha -1
with a B : C ratio of 2.74. The crop sequence involving short duration variety
gave a net profit of Rs 48,242 ha -1 with a B : C ratio of 3.13.

109
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

110
 10 Production practices

Sugarcane is well suited to agro-forestry systems. Limited experiments by this

author have shown that multipurpose tree (MPTs) like Acacia albida, A.
auriculiformis, Albizia falcataria, Casuarina equistifolia and Sesbania sp. can be
grown in bunds or borders which act as wind breaks and prevent lodging. There is
no adverse effect on yield and quality of cane following an agroforestry system.
Sesbania rostrata, a stem nodulating legume serves as a green manuring crop.

Fig. 10.9 Cropping cycle of 24 months with short duration sugarcane or nor-
mal duration sugarcane {Source: Sundara, 1987.)

On balance, legumes are the potential candidates in sugarcane cropping system

in tropical parts of Asia, Africa, and Australia. Garside and Bell (1999) concluded
that well managed legume crops are best adapted to play an important role in
sugarcane cropping systems. They provide nitrogen benefit to cane, have a posi-
tive effect on yield decline syndrome and enhance cash flow. They observed that
both soyabean and groundnut are good cash crops and ideally fit into the sugarcane
cropping system. In a plant crop, cane following soyabean produced 1.7 t ha -1 or
17% more sugar than cane—cane rotation. Moreover, soyabean contributed
300 kg N ha -1 and there is no need to apply N to plant cane.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

The incorporation of a green manure crop in a crop sequence has invariably

led to improved yield and soil quality. Green manure crops like dhiancha, guar,
cowpea, and sunn hemp add 41-71 kg N/ha (Table 10.10). Popular green leaf
manure crops are Glyricidia, Karanja (Pongamia glabra) and Arak (Caiotropis
gigantea) in South India. In North India potato foliage used as green leaf manure
contributes nearly 30 kg N/ha. Response of cane to green manure crops ranged
from 2.4 to 3.2 t ha -1 .

Table 1 0 . 1 0 Effect of green manure incorporation on sugarcane yield

Green N addition Mean % increase Average
manure (kg ha-1) cane yield over control response of
(t ha-1) cane to N (kg)

Control 45 - -
Dhiancha 55 62 30.4 2.6
Guar 41 60 27.5 3.2
Lobia 71 68 43.0 2.8
Sunn hemp 70 67 42.8 2.9
Source: Goud, 1998.

10.11.1 Companion cropping in sugarcane

Basically in India intercropping in sugarcane is a small farmer technology, whereby

the farmer gets additional income. Attempts have been made to change the geom-
etry of planting in favour of growing intercrops. Cane is grown in paired rows
60 cm apart with 120 cm area skipped and herein the plant population is main-
tained. The future belongs to mechanised cultivation and willy-nilly cane is planted
60-75 cm (2-2.5 ft) apart with a skip area of 150 cm (5 ft). Preliminary observa-
tions indicate that there is no yield reduction with high tillering varieties like
Co 86032. The intercropping in sugarcane is an additive series and not a replace-
ment series. Cane is always a dominant species. Positive allelopathy has been ob-
served in groundnut and soyabean intercropping systems.
Intercropping is common in Taiwan, Egypt, Morocco, the Philippines, and
subtropical India. In Taiwan, cane is planted between every 4 rows of rice. After
rice is removed, the interrows will be cultivated and plants earthed up.

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 10 Production practices

The profits in intercropping with different intercrops have ranged from 12-34%
(Lakshmikantham, 1983). In Philippines, intercropping done with groundnut
provides the best returns followed by soyabean.
Some of the intercrops suitable in sugarcane are furnished in Table 10.11.

Table 1 0 . 1 1 Crops suitable as intercrops in sugarcane

A. Tropical belt (Spring planting)
Green gram Groundnut Onion
Cowpea Sesame Coriander
Black gram Sunflower Radish
Finger millet Soyabean Ladies finger
Maize
B. Subtropics (Autumn planting)
Wheat Onion Mustard Berseem
Potato Garlic Carrot Tobacco
Gram Coriander Radish Potato onion
Lentil Toria Turnip
Peas Lahi Sugarbeet Potato-wheat
Palak
C. Subtropics (Spring planting)
Green gram Tomato
Cowpea (fodder) Capsicum
Black gram Brinjal
Soyabean Dhaincha
D. Subtropics (Ratoon)
Guar, green gram (spring)
Wheat, mustard, Berseem/peas gram-autumn-ratoon
Source: Sundara, 1987.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

In tropical India, intercropping with hybrid maize, ladies finger, chillies, cot-
ton, sorghum, and tobacco depressed cane yield. But intercrops like french beans,
sunn hemp, green gram, and soyabean have proved more economical with sus-
tained cane and sugar production (Hunsigi et al., 1995). The average of 4 intercrops
resulted in the increase of cane yield to the extent of 28.8% at 200 kg N level.
However, increase in yield had declined to 1 3 . 5 % and 3 . 3 % at 2 2 5 and
250 kg N ha - 1 , respectively. Thus a clear saving of 50 kg N ha - 1 is accomplished.
Legumes like sunn hemp, french beans are superior to other intercrops. There was
enhanced dehydrogenase activity following intercropping with legumes. Recent
experiments have demonstrated that soyabean (cv. Monneta, KB 79) as an intercrop
in cane is most profitable, provided the market for it is ensured.

Table 1 0 . 1 2 Yield of potato and sugarcane in intercropping system in

Mauritius
S. No. Treatment Potato density Potato yield Sugar yield
(plants ha - 1 ) (t ha - 1 ) (t ha - 1 )

1. Sole cane - - 9.95

2. O n e row potato/
cane interrow 7580 3.36 10.35
3. One row potato/
cane interrow 11370 6.87 9.97
4. Two rows potato/
alternate cane
interrows 15160 5.89 10.13
5. Two rows potato/
alternate cane
interrows 22740 10.76 10.05
Pooled Standard
Error 0.11 0.19
Source: Govinden, 1990.

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 10 Production practices

In Mauritius, intercropping of sugarcane with potato is economically viable

(Govinden, 1990). Potato is planted in every interrow of plant cane and in alter-
nate interrow of ratoon cane and is harvested before the cane canopy closes. The
potato does not reduce cane yields nor does the cane reduce potato yields. The
total edible energy production is 22% more in intercropping than in sole cane
planting. The Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) of the intercropping system is 1.17.
T h e farmer derives 6 3 % more net returns from intercropping sugarcane with
potato than from sole cropping of sugarcane. The yields of potato and sugarcane
in intercropping systems are furnished in Table 20.12.
Govinden (1990) states that intercropping potato with sugarcane has two ad-
vantages. Firstly, rotational lands are available only in one season, whereas,
intercropping can be practised in two seasons. Secondly, intercropping potato
with sugarcane has reduced the effect of bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearurn).
According to Yadava (1991) intercropping in autumn planted cane is viable.
Due to the slow initial growth of cane, short duration intercrops grow well and
after their harvest, cane should be well manured and irrigated to have no yield
reduction of sugarcane. Some important intercropping systems in subtropics for
autumn planted cane are discussed below.

1. Cane + Wheat. This is the most popular system where cane is planted in
mid-October and wheat by mid-November. Paired rows of cane spaced 60 cm
apart are planted with a skip area of 120 cm. Three rows of wheat are taken.
Sugarcane receives 150 kg N/ha, while the wheat crop receives 100-60-60 kg
N, P 2 O 5 , K 2 O per ha. Wheat should be harvested at its physiological matu-
rity stage. After the harvest of wheat, cane should be immediately irrigated.

2. Sugarcane + Potato. This is a very profitable companion cropping system.

Two rows of potato are sown at 20 cm spacing between cane rows leaving
35 cm on both sides of potato. This facilitates better earthing up. Plant to
plant distance in potato is 20-25 cm. The variety Kufri Chandramukhi is
suitable. Potato receives a full dose of 100 kg N, 60 kg P 2 O 5 and 60 kg K 2 O
per ha.
3. Sugarcane + Mustard. The mustard variety Varuna (T-59) is planted along
with sugarcane (cv. Co 1148/Co 1158) in the second fortnight of October.
Sugarcane is spaced 90 cm apart and one row of mustard is sown with a seed
rate of 4 kg ha - 1 . Sugarcane receives 150 kg N in two splits, namely, 1/3 at

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

planting and the remaining top dressed after the harvest of mustard. Ferti-
lizers at 60 kg N ha - 1 are applied to mustard in two equal instalments, at
sowing and 3 0 - 3 5 days after sowing. This companion cropping results in
an yield level of 70-80 t of cane and 1.5 to 1.6 t of mustard per ha.
4. Sugarcane + Coriander. In between 90 cm rows of cane, one row of corian-
der is sown at 20 kg seed rate per ha. Both crops are sown in the second
fortnight of October. Coriander receives 50 kg N ha - 1 , half at sowing and
the other half after 3 0 - 3 5 days of sowing. T h e anticipated yield is
7 0 - 8 0 t ha - 1 cane and 1.0 to 1.2 t of green coriander. It is averred that
coriander has some bioinsecticidal properties and keeps borers at bay.
5. Sugarcane + Garlic. Local variety of garlic is used and both are planted in
the last week of October. Cane rows are spaced 90 cm apart and three rows
of garlic are sown in between cane rows. The garlic is spaced 15 cm between
rows and 10 cm between plants. Garlic is fertilized each at 30 kg N P K per
ha at sowing. The anticipated yield is 8 0 - 9 0 t of cane and 6 0 - 7 0 quintal of
garlic per ha.
6. Sugarcane + Lentils. This system is becoming popular and is economically
viable. Two rows of lentils are taken between the cane rows; both crops are
sown together in October.

Table 1 0 . 1 3 Effect of intercropped legumes on yield of cane and legumes at

2 locations (t ha - 1 )
Legume Lucknow New Delhi
Sugarcane Intercrop Sugarcane Intercrop

Cane alone 109.4 - 50.1

Green gram 113.3 0.42 58.8 0.4
Black gram 128.8 0.51
Soyabean 102.5 1.23
Cowpea 106.3 0.51 57.5 0.45
lsd. 0.05 22.3 - NS -
Source: Goud, 1998.

116
Sugar cane in agriculture and industry

117
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

For spring planted cane, the important intercrops are maize, okra (lady's fin-
ger), cowpea, green gram, and black gram. Sugarcane is planted 90 cm apart in
10 cm deep rows, two rows black gram (cv. P D u - 1 and T9) or green gram (cv.
pusa 101, pusa 105, P 516, K 851, jawahar 45) are sown at 30 cm distances.
Seeding depth should not be more than 5 cm. T h e plant to plant distance is
10 cm. Planting of cane and companion crops are taken together, i.e. February-
March. Fertilizer rates for inter crops are 20 kg N, and 60 kg P 2 0 5 per ha. Seed
rate is normally 20-25 kg ha - 1 . Entire NP is given to intercrops at sowing (Ta-
ble 10.13).
Some important agronomic packages for autumn planted intercropped cane
are furnished in Table 10.14.
To conclude, the salient features for successful intercropping are:
1. Full dose of NPK is given to cane, 1/3 at planting and the rest as top dress-
ing after the harvest of intercrop.
2. O p t i m u m rows of intercrops should be maintained depending on soil and
climatic conditions.
3. It is preferable to have legumes/oil seeds as intercrops.
4. T h e intercrops should receive full dose of NPK, preferably in two equal
splits, namely, at sowing and the other 3 0 - 5 0 days after sowing.
5. Soyabean seems to be more promising as an intercrop in cane at many loca-
tions.
6. In more recent times lentils seem to be a promising intercrop in cane grown
under subtropical conditions.
7. Short duration varieties with open canopy as intercrops must be chosen.
Admittedly, the variety has to be tailor-made for companion cropping.
8. Immediately after the harvest of intercrop, cane should be irrigated and
fertilized.
9. A certain rotation has to be followed with a green manure or legume crop.

0.11.2 Sugarcane based farming systems

T h e integration of agricultural enterprises such as cropping, animal husbandry,

fishery, forestry, etc. ensures not only sustainable production but improves the
economic status of the farmer. The integration of various enterprises generates
employment and farm labour is well utilised. The farm wastes are recycled better

118
 10 Production practices

in an integrated system. Any farming system is conditioned by the agro-climatic

situation and socio-economic status. The farm has to be considered as a unit and
effective integration of all enterprises should be planned. Sankaran and Subbiah
Mudaliar (1997) have presented a rice-based farming system. The gross income
was almost double and employment generation was 2.5 times more than the sole
cropping system as shown below:

No. Particulars Production Labour

(gross) per (man days)
day per ha

1. Integrated farming system 243 1,245

(crop-poultry-fish-mushroom)
2. Control (crop) 113 573
Additional benefits 130 672
Source: Sankaran and Subbiah Mudaliar, 1997. .

The author is not aware of any sugarcane based farming system in the country
or elsewhere. Suffice to say that sugarcane is well suited for a mixed enterprise
since it produces a large biomass. We think that 2 ha sugarcane, 50 birds, and 4
dairy cows (crossbred) are an optimum enterprise mix. The leaves and tops serve
as roughage. The press-mud is dried in two stages. In the first stage moisture is
extracted by pressure and in the second stage drying is completed without over-
heating. Its digestibility is improved by treating with urea. The biological value of
the cane tops is improved by chemical treatment with alkali (NaOH), ammonia/
urea. Sugarcane bagasse has been tried as low cost roughage in several sugarcane
producing countries. The feeding value is improved by mechanical treatment
(grinding), chemical treatment with urea/ammonia/NaOH and addition of sub-
strates like molasses. Bagasse is also steamed under high pressure to improve its
digestibility.
The sugarcane farming system is economically viable if enterprises like dairy
and poultry are combined with it. Pretreated pith and press-mud are useful as
poultry feed.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

P l a t e 10.1 Cloddy soil

Plate 10.2 Green manuring

120
10 Production practices

121
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

122
w Nutrition and fertiliser management

Nobel Laureate Norman Borlaug emphasised that as much as 50% of the increase
in crop yields worldwide during the century is due to the use of chemical fertilis-
ers. This is also true for a commercial crop like sugarcane. The anecdotal evidence
comes from the sugarcane productivity in India during the past four decades.

Period Cane yield (t ha - 1 ) Fertiliser (kg ha - 1 )

1950-51 33.4 0.55
1960-61 45.5 1.93
1970-71 53.3 13.61
1980-81 57.8 31.82
1990-91 653 69.70

During 1997—98, the consumption of fertilisers in India was 10.99 m tons N,

3.93 m tons P 2 0 5 > and 1.38 m tons K^O (total 16.30 m tons). Of this, the share
of sugarcane was 0.92 m tons N, 0.29 m tons V2Or and 0.1 m tons K 2 0 (total
1.30 m tons). Thus, a little over 7.5% of the total fertiliser consumption is by
sugarcane. By 2025, India needs 30 m tons of N P K for food crops and 1 5 m tons
of the same for commercial crops like sugarcane and cotton, etc. Approximately,
1.5 m tons of N P K will be required to produce over 400 m tons of cane. In the
foregoing years the imbalance in the fertiliser usage is quite evident.
The nutrient ratio during 1997-98 was 7.95 : 2.84 : 1.0. However, the ideal
nutrient ratio for sugarcane is 2 : 1 : 2. T h e effect of different nutrient elements on
yield and quality along with the ways and means to improve the fertiliser use
efficiency are presented in the following sections.

11.1

NUTRIENT UPTAKE AND REMOVAL

Sugarcane is a biomass producing crop that requires substantial quantities of in-

puts such as water and nutrients (Wiedenfeld, 1995). T h e life cycle ranges from
12 to 18 months and the cane crop removes large quantities of nutrients. Barnes
(1974) has reported that a 50 ton crop will remove 3 4 - 4 0 kg N, 22.7 to 27.2 kg
P 2 0 5 , and 68 kg KjO. Singh and Yadav (1992) showed that an average crop

124
 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

removes 208 kg N, 53 kg P, 280 kg K, 3.4 kg Fe, 1.2 kg Mn, 0.6 kg Zn and 0.2 kg
Cu. In Maharashtra, Zende (1990) suggested that the crop removes 1.4 kg N, 0.6
kg P 2 0 5 > a f id 3.6 kg K 2 0 per ton of cane. According to him the ratio of
5 : 2 : 2 seems optimum. Under the rainfed conditions of Bihar, the uptake of N
varies from 2.52 to 3.39 kg, P 2 0 5 from 0.34 to 0.65 kg, and K 2 0 from 2.30 to
4.99 kg per ton of cane (Lakshmikantham, 1983). Humbert (1968) cautions that
a 100 ton crop may remove 618 kg K 2 0 ha""1 which obviously includes luxury
consumption. In a recent study, Hunsigi (1993b) has shown that an average crop
of 100 tons removes 205 kg N, 55 kg P, 275 kg K, 1.2 kg Fe, 1.2 kg Mn, 0.6 kg
Zn, and 0.2 kg Cu. Husz (1972) has given the nutrient removal by sugarcane
grown in the alfisols of Mandya as follows:

High input agriculture tends to remove large quantities of nutrients from the
soil; if the soil is not adequately fertilised it leads to mining of the nutrient re-
serves of the soil.

11.2

NITROGEN

Nitrogen is a key component in the nutrition of sugarcane. Its primary function is

to increase the photosynthetic apparatus like leaf development, leaf expansion,
and tiller formation. It increases the leaf surface area and functional duration of
leaves. Sugarcane prefers N in the N 0 3 form, and also takes the N H 4 form. The
latter is subject to microbial attack that depletes N H 4 - N . Globally N application
rates range from 50—300 kg ha - 1 . In Brazil, cane is grown on low N inputs, rarely
exceeding 60 kg h a - 1 for plant crop, and 8 0 - 1 2 0 kg ha - 1 for ratoons. T h e yield
pattern is 6 5 - 7 0 1 ha - 1 with an N uptake of 100-200 kg ha - 1 (Uruiaga et al., 1992).
In the alluvial soils of Texas, USA, the plant crop receives 56 kg N ha - 1 , first
ratoon 100 to 157 kg ha - 1 , second ratoon 134-190 kg h a - 1 and subsequent ra-
toons 168-202 kg ha - 1 (Wiedenfeld, 1998). Higher rates are applied to clayey

125
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

soils than to loamy soils. But in Indian soils, N is more deficient and hence the
application rates are much higher. In tropical India, N is applied at 2 5 0 - 3 0 0 kg
ha -1 . But an adsali crop receives 400 kg N ha - 1 . In subtropics, N application rates
range from 120-150 kg ha" 1 , while the rainfed crops receive 60 kg ha -1 . T h e re-
sponse of irrigated cane is 0.072 to 0.035 t ha - 1 kg - 1 of applied N. For rainfed
sugarcane the response is 0.449 t ha - 1 kg - 1 of N. It is evident that the better N
responses are obtained at lower N rates. The All India Coordinated Project on
sugarcane indicated an average response of 0.74 to 1.8 t ha" 1 kg - 1 N (Yadav, 1993).
It was emphasized earlier that the response of sugarcane to applied N is almost
universal and several attempts were made to express this relationship mathemati-
cally. The inverse-yield concept, Mitscherlich equation, exponential or power func-
tion, square root, and second degree polynomial equations were employed to pre-
dict the N need of sugarcane.(Hunsigi, 1993a). But the quadratic equation seems
to predict the N need of cane more satisfactorily. The second order response curve
for an Adsali crop is given below (Hunsigi, 1993b).

Yadav et al. (1997) demonstrated, that the responses and N recovery declined
sharply as the N dose increased from 75 to 300 kg ha - 1 to sugarcane grown in
subtropical region (Table 11.1). It is to be noted that the highest response and N
recovery are obtained at the lower level of N dose, i.e. 75 kg ha - 1 .
It is admitted that N recovery barely exceeds 30-40%. After application, a part
is used by plants, a part remains in the soil, and the remaining is depleted through
gaseous loss and leaching. Therefore, Jensssen (1998) conceived N U E (Nitrogen
Use Efficiency) as a product of the uptake efficiency, i.e. U/S where U = actual
uptake and S = Potential nutrient supply and utilisation sufficiency = Y/U where
Y = yield, N U E = Y/S.
The rider is, S is the potential supply where the maximum quantity of the
nutrient is taken up when all other nutrient and growth factors are optimum.
Both Y and S depend on the availability of nutrients in relation to other growth

126
 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

factors and require N P K in a perfect balance to reach the maximum values. The
nutrient balance concept was established by using nutrient supply equivalent,
defined as the supply of nutrient that has the same effect on yield as the supply of
one kg of N .

T a b l e 1 1 . 1 Effect of N levels on the cane yield response and per cent N recovery
(Cv Co. LK 8001) Mean of 2 seasons 1989-91 and 1990-92
N levels Cane yield Response N recovery
(kg ha"1) (t ha"1) (kg cane per (%)
kgN)
0 43.7 — —
75 76.9 443 72.3
150 87.9 294 41.4
225 101.4 256 35.0
300 110.8 224 35.9
lsd 05 15.2 — -

127
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Employing this formulae, this author observed that the variety Co 62175 pro-
duced 60 t ha - 1 of biomass and 25 t ha - 1 of CCS with an N uptake of 200 kg ha - 1 .
The RF was assumed at 0.4. T h e agronomic efficiency for biomass and CCS are
120 kg cane and 50 kg CCS per kg of applied N, respectively. These efficiency
figures are much higher than those reported for most crops like wheat, rice, and
triticales.
T h e beneficial effect of N on dry matter production/cane yield is non-conten-
tious. But excessive N leads to pithiness or 'piping', water shoots (bull shoots) or
lalas, succulence of tissues, and increased incidence of pests and diseases. This
author observed that under high N fertilization and soil moisture conditions or
lack of adequate K, incidence of leaf spot disease is accentuated in the red sandy
loam soils of Mandya. Therefore, an optimum N fertilization ensures healthy
plantations. Higher N dose is not advisable from the economic and ecological
p~int of view. Hence Stanford the and Ayres (1964) have relied on the Internal N
Requirement (INR). This is defined as the average kg of N per ton of dry matter,
or kg N per kg cane. It is contended that I N R is independent of N levels, location,
and variety. However, external N requirement (ENR), i.e. kg either cane, or su-
crose, per kg of applied N varies to a large extent. T h e external N requirements of
cane grown in some important states at certain fertilizer level are given in Table 11.2.
N U E is of paramount importance to effectively utilise a costly input like nitro-
gen. Efforts were made and continue to be made to improve the N U E through
agronomic means such as time and method of application and N carriers. Ranjit
and Meinzer (1997) have given convincing evidence that N U E can be improved,
and N is partitioned in favour of photosynthetic apparatus such as chlorophyll
and RUBISCO (Ribulose 1,5- biphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase). Similar ob-
servations were made by Abrol and co-workers (1999). It was calculated that there

128
 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

is about 1 5 % more investment in R U B I S C O in wild tobacco which is absent in

transformed tobacco, resulting thereby in corresponding gain in N U E .

Table 11.2 Cane yield at N levels and External N Requirement (ENR) in

different States
State N level Mean cane E N R (tons
(kg ha - 1 ) yield (t ha) cane per kg N)

Andhra Pradesh 183 69.41 0.38

Maharashtra 295 89.17 0.30
Tamil Nadu 280 99.05 0.35
Punjab 187 52.36 0.28
Uttar Pradesh 135 45.70 0.34
Karnataka 250 71.38 0.25
Source: Hunsigi, 1993b.

A juvenile stage of a well-grown cane would have 1.9 to 2.72% N in 3—6 leaves
(index tissues).
Among the interaction, positive interactions are seen between irrigation X N,
N X P, and N X K to improve N U E of sugarcane. If water is limiting, cane cannot
take advantage of increased N availability. Wiedenfeld (1995) observed that N
uptake is relatively higher in high and medium irrigation than, in low irrigation
regimes. Similarly, P has a synergistic effect on the N uptake and yield. A com-
bined application of N and P, or D A P as a basal dose improves root formation
with a consequent increased uptake of N. Positive and significant interactions
have been found between N X K. Additional potash application fights drought,
conserves soil moisture with increased uptake, and utilization of N. Likewise,
trash mulching conserves soil moisture with a concomitant improved N uptake
and yield.

11.2.1 Nitrogen losses

A fraction of nitrogen fraction is lost to environment by surface run-off, leaching,
denitrification, and N H 3 volatilisation (Ng Kee Kwong and Deville, 1995).
Chapman et al. (1994) suspected denitrification to be responsible for the loss of

129
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

4 1 % of urea in Australia. In Hawaii, gaseous N loss ( N 2 0 ) is of the order of

30—35%. On the other hand, gaseous loss of fertiliser N was of agronomic, eco-
logical and economic significance, and the highest loss of 16% at 140 kg N rate
was observed by Ng Kee Kwang et al. (1999) only at one location in Mauritius.

Field sample Pot culture

1
N (kg ha" ) 150 200 250 150 200 250

Leachate
N03-N 0.74 0.97 1.18 0.90 0.95 0.98
meq 1_I
Source: Shankaraiah, 1998.

The emissions of gases like N 2 0 and N2 (Nitrous oxide and nitrogen gas) were
of the magnitude of 16 to 20 kg N ha - 1 yr--1. A priori, gaseous N loss ( N 2 0 / N 2 ) is
not a major pathway of N loss which is less than 2.5% of the applied N. But the
loss of N 2 gas is of significance if 80% of the soil pores were water filled for
prolonged periods (rainy season). According to them the leaching losses were no
more than 5%. However, our observations suggest that leaching losses are quite
high and even constitute 3 0 - 4 0 % in sandy soils. A field and pot culture study
showed that the leachates may contain 0.74 to 1.18 meq I _1 NCX-N (Table 11.3).
As the applied N rate increased leaching losses were also higher.

1.2.2 N carriers

Nitrogen cycling in sugarcane is difficult to quantify. But in whatever form ap-

plied N is lost from the root zone, the recovery of N is disproportionately low and
rarely exceeds 4 0 % . Hence efforts were made to improve the recovery of applied
N through different sources of N fertilizers. The data amply demonstrated that
different N sources-like ammonium sulphate (AS), calcium ammonium nitrate
(CAN), prilled urea (PU), etc. did not improve NUE. In fact, Hartemink (1998)
asserted that the continuous use of AS decreased the soil pH from 6.5 to 5.7, and
the pH may even decrease below 5.0 which can affect sugarcane production ad-
versely. Nevertheless, reducing N losses is of great importance from the ecological

130
 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

and economic point of view. Early workers had shown that yield improvement in
cane by application of Telodrin and gamma B H C is due to the inhibition of
nitrification. It is suspected that these chemicals have some hormonal effect. Leach-
ing losses can be minimised by increasing the size of N fertilizer granules or by
coating urea with nitrification retarding chemicals, and materials such as sulphur,
shellac, neem cake, and Karanje cake. Yadav et al. (1990) observed a significant
increase in N uptake by using Urea Super Granules (USG), Neemcake Coated
Urea ( N C U ) , and Dicyandiamide Coated Urea (DCU) as compared to tradi-
tional Prilled Urea (PU). They conclude that lower N recovery from PU is due to
rapid volatilization and leaching losses. However, none of the N carriers have any
effect on the juice quality parameters of both plant and subsequent ratoons.
Recent research is in favour of urea super granules. Srinivasan (1995) has shown
a saving of 2 0 % N due to USG (Table 11.4)

Table 11.4 Effect of urea super granules and placement of fertilizers on

sugarcane

Source. Srinivasan, 1995-

This author has field tested slow N release fertilizers like N serve treated urea,
shellac, sulphur coated urea, and urea gypsum with variable success. Another im-
portant nitrification inhibitor is the oil obtained from neem {Azadirachta indicd)
which contains alkaloids like nimbin, nimbidin, and azadirachtin. At Padegoan in
Maharashtra, a saving of 100 kg N ha - 1 was reported when urea was applied with

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100 kg neem cake (Table 11.5). T h e impact of 100-150 kg neem cake was equiva-
lent to an additional 6-81 cane per hectare. As a practical solution a physical mixture
of prilled urea and neem cake in the proportion of 5 : 1 can be mixed and used in the
cane fields. A neem cake blended urea is produced by the Maharashtra Agro Indus-
tries Corporation.

400 0 Ill 170 24.1 19.54

400 140 118 176 25.4 19.80
300 0 113 164 23.1 19.70
300 96 115 169 24.1 19.74
300 140 115 172 21.1 19.53
200 0 109 146 20.7 19.30
200 72 110 151 22.2 19.75
200 150 110 154 22.2 19.90
lsd .05 - - 22.3
Source: Zende, 1990.

11.2.3 V a r i e t a l response

T h e response to applied fertilizers depends on the inherent potential of the varie-

ties to absorb and utilise them for the production of dry matter. The varietal effect
is independent of soil type (Srinivasan, 1989). Thehighest response (0.51 t kg N _ 1 )
was observed in CoA 7602, followed by Co 6806 (0.49 t kg N" 1 ) and Co 7201
(0.48 t kg N - 1 ) . Srinivasan (1989) concluded that from the economic and eco-
logical point of view, it is advisable to evolve varieties like Co 6806, Co 7 2 0 1 , and
Co 6304 which have higher production potential at both low and high input
conditions, especially N.

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Table 11.6 Varietal interaction with N at Mandya (Soils—alfisols, xeralfs)

1
Varieties Duration Cane yield N a j Dplied (kg hei- ) Mean
CoC 671 early at no level 125 250 375 (t ha-1)
1
KHS 3296 early 81 l
(tha- ) 31 Dnse 73
Resp< to N (t ha"113) 72.3
61.7
KHS 3347 early 51
118 41
20 41
62 82
83 48.0
Co 7708 early to 104 24 42 63 43.0
midlate
Co 7804 midlate 89 45 92 114 83.7
Co 419 midlate 117 22 52 74 49.3
Mean - 93 30.5 60.3 80.2 -
Source: Hunsigi, 1993b.

The work at Mandya, Karnataka, suggested that early canes are more respon-
sive to N than most of the midlate varieties, except Co 7804 which has been
recently released in Karnataka (Table 11.6). T h e average response was 0.241 kg N _ 1
upto 250 kg N ha - 1 and only marginally lower (0.21 t kg N - 1 ) at 375 kg N ha - 1 .
Wide variation (about 100%) among varieties is evident in this respect. An inter-
esting finding is that varieties having comparable yield at the highest N level have
a markedly different ability to exploit soil N and thus depend on fertiliser N.
These results show that (i) a c o m m o n soil test limit for all varieties is not
justified and (ii) in the case of inadequate availability of finance or fertilizer, vari-
eties like KHS 3347, Co 7804, and Co 419 are much superior to others (Fig. 11.1)
(Hunsigi, 1993b).
A physiological explanation for differential response of varieties to N and N U E
is offered by Ranjit and Meinzer (1997). They observed that N U E was signifi-
cantly higher in stress resistant genotype H - 6 9 - 8 2 3 5 than the susceptible
H 65-6052. T h e former genotype had greater partitioning of leaf N to chloro-
phyll and RUBISCO. They conclude with optimism that it is possible to directly
manipulate the partitioning of leaf N to photosynthetic apparatus like chloro-
phyll and/or RUBISCO.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

0 20 40 60 80 100
I i i

KHS 3296 Soil N Response to N

Co 7804 Soil N Response to N

KHS 3347 Soil N Response to N

Co 419 Soil N Response to N

Co 671 Soil N Response to N

Fig. 1 1 . 1 Comparative ability of five sugarcane varieties producing compara-

ble yield (113-201 t ha - 1 ) to exploit soil N

11.2.4 Time and method of N application

In order to improve N U E , the agronomic manipulation includes the proper time

and method of application. Moreover, for sustainable cane production, a high
degree of synchrony between nutrient release and plant demand is essential. In a
long duration crop like sugarcane with expansive root system, a fair degree of
synchrony can be achieved if the water supply is adequate.
A high degree of synchrony can be achieved in the intercropping system and in
cane farms with high plant densities. N is applied in two split doses. Maximum
requirement is at tillering (60 days), and grand growth phase or boom phase (120
days). A basal dose as is practised, seems irrelevant. But it is mandatory to apply N
in two equal splits, namely, at 30-45 days and 9 0 - 1 2 0 days after planting. T h e
data is replete to indicate that late application of N (180 days and beyond) leads
to poor cane quality, which will adversely affect sugar recovery. For early and
short duration cultivars three equal splits 30, 60, and 90 days after planting seem
optimum. For an adsali crop 4 equal splits are advocated namely 3 0 - 4 5 , 6 0 - 9 0 ,
90-120, and 150-180 days after planting.
In the Belgaum region of Karnataka, cane is planted in December/January
under residual soil moisture conditions. Experiments have shown that basal ap-
plication of N at planting followed by top dressing during May-June with the
onset of monsoon improve the yield and quality of cane. Supplemental irrigations

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

between December and June are also given which increase N U E . Under water-
logged conditions, as in the Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh, late N application
seems inevitable. After the water is drained out, N application is possible.
Foliar application of urea or DAP to sugarcane seems contentious as the N
requirement of cane is quite high; soil application is the best course. However, it
can be a contingency plan, and cannot be a regular practice. This is contrary to
the observations made by Srinivasan (1995).
In general, there are two methods of application, point placement and band-
ing. Broadcasting of fertilizers should be dispensed with as this causes consider-
able loss of N. In point placement, pocket manuring is intended to improve N U E .
Usually top dressing is done through pocket manuring and is best suited for the
spaced, transplanted crop because of the distinct clumps (Sundara, 1998). Pocket
manuring is the Java method of N application. In this method, 8-10 cm deep
holes are dug 7—8 cm away from the clumps using sharp wooden sticks 1.0—1.5 m
long. Fertiliser is placed in these holes and covered by pressing the soil. Around
the clumps, 3 - 4 holes are ideal.

1.2.5 The rhizosphere

T h e term rhizosphere (Greek rhizo = root, sphere - natural surroundings) was first
introduced in 1904 by Hiltner. It is now best defined as the volume of soil influ-
enced by root activity (Hinsinger, 1998). T h e total rhizosphere environment is
the interacting trinity of soil, plants and organisms (Fig. 11.2). All plant nutrients
are, therefore, acquired from the rhizosphere. T h e rhizosphere may be up to
1-2 mm thick and the concept of rhizoplane has been envisioned. But it extends
to several centimetres in the case of nutrient and water depletion profiles.
T h e microbial population surrounding the root is 200 times larger than in the
bulk soil. But the root tip is typically devoid of microorganisms. T h e rhizosphere
affects plant growth in the following manner.
(a) Pdiizodeposition includes sugars, amino acids, vitamins and hormones.
(b) A decrease in soil pH was noticed from say 7—8 (away from the rhizosphere)
to 4—6 (in the vicinity of the rhizosphere) in many grasses including sugar-
cane. This lowered pH mobilized Fe, M n , and Zn. The intense excretion of
anions like citrate, malate, oxalate, etc. is responsible for the dissolution of
iron hydroxide. Hence an increase in the micronutrient availability can be
anticipated.

135
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Fig 1 1 . 2 T h e Rhizosphere (Arshad et al., 1998)

136
 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

(c) Production of phytosiderophores (PS) which are a group of root exudates

that exhibit strong complexation of diverse micronutrients such as Co, Cu,
M n , Zn, and Fe. The collectively termed PS are non-proteinogenic amino
acids, mugineic acid and avenic acid, and related substances with a strong
affinity for Fe + . In addition to mobilizing Fe from calcareous soils, PS have
been shown to mobilize Cu, M n , and Zn. In the rhizosphere undesirable
heavy metals like Co and Pb are complexed (Hinsinger, 1998). It is ob-
served that graminaceae species differ widely in the qualitative and quanti-
tative production of PS. Thus the species and cultigens differ accordingly in
their resistance to lime induced iron chlorosis. In essence, Hinsinger (1998)
states that biosynthesis and excretion of P complexing substances such as
phytosiderophores appear to be a 'sophisticated' strategy developed by the
graminaceous species for coping with the low solubility of naturally occur-
ring Fe bearing secondary minerals (iron oxides) and for acquiring soil Fe.
(d) Root exudates are also called mucilage, a gelatinous material made of high
molecular weight polysaccharides and polyuronic acids which increase C E C
of roots. They bind heavy metals such as Pb and C d , and micronutrients
like Cu and Zn. In acid soils Al is detoxified by massive adsorption on
mucilage. Root exudates produce special substances such as phosphatase
and phytase ecto-enzymes which help in subsequent acquisition of soil P.
This phenomenon is critical since 70—80% of the total P is present in or-
ganic form.
(e) T h e solubility of iron oxides and iron hydroxides depends on redox condi-
tions, besides soil p H . Reduction of Fe +3 occurs, and Fe +2 species rapidly
become dominant. The reduction process takes place in the rhizosphere
and can be an efficient source for higher plants to acquire and meet their Fe
nutritional demand.
(f) Another i m p o r t a n t function of t h e rhizosphere is the production of
phytohormones or Plant Growth Regulating substances (PGRs). T h e PGRs
include auxins namely IAA, IBA, gibberellins, cytokinins, etc. The produc-
tion of P G R in the rhizosphere is regulated by temperature, p H , soil mois-
ture, nutrient availability, composition, and amount of root exudates.
(g) Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR): T h e term Plant Growth
Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) entails all bacteria that live in plant roots
and exert a positive effect, directly or indirectly. T h e direct effect of P G P R

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

is the increased solubilization and nutrient uptake. T h e indirect influence is

pathogen suppression, production of siderophores, and antibiotics. T h e
beneficial free living rhizosphere bacteria are called PGPR and the Chinese
call it Yield Increasing Bacteria (YIB).
T h e PGPRs include Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Pseudomonas, Acetobacter,
Enterobacter, Xanthomonas, and Bacillus. It is well known that the PGPRs
produce growth promoting substances including auxins, gibberellins, and
cytokinins. Interestingly, A. chroococcum strain H 2 3 influenced plant growth
indirectly by enhancing the availability of phosphorus by the production of
plant growth promoting substances (PGR). There is unequivocal evidence
that Azospirillum lipaferum produces P G R in the sugarcane rhizosphere. In
acid soils (pH 3), Saccharobacter nitrocaptans is associated with the rhizosphere
of sugarcane and super rhizosphere has been visualised,
(h) T h e rhizosphere is implicated in the pathogenesis of plants. The poor root-
rot syndrome of sugarcane caused by Pythium graminicola may possibly be
controlled by the rhizosphere bacteria. T h e increased resistance of cultivar
Co 4 5 3 to Pythium root rot is attributed to the antibiotic properties of
rhizobacteria.
In today' world, conventional and intensive agricultural practices are being
challenged for both economic and environmental reasons. Sustainable agri-
culture, however requires moderate consumption of fertilizers. In sum the
plant growth promoting substances (PGRs) and plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria (PGPRs) from the rhizosphere solubilize and help in acquir-
ing nutrients and reduce external inputs. Metal detoxification and patho-
gen attraction continue to be of central importance. This is not only envi-
ronmentally friendly but also leads to sustainable cane and sugar produc-
tion.

11.2.6 Nitrogen cycle in sugarcane

T h e N cycle in sugarcane is complex for it is highly fertilized, and leaves large crop
residues. T h e soil N pool can be increased substantially by rotation and intercrop-
ping with legumes. Ruschel and Vose (1982) estimated an addition of 2 0 - 6 3 kg N
ha - 1 in plant and subsequent ratoons. The industrial wastes—vinasse (Vinhoto in
Brazil)—are also added to the soil. Trash constitutes nearly 4 0 % of the total bio-

138
 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

mass. Sugarcane trash contains about 0 . 3 5 % N, 0 . 1 3 % P 2 O 5 and 0 . 6 5 % K 2 0 . It

is composed of hemicellulose and a lot of lignin. Trash is not easily decomposed
due to its recalcitrant nature.
The in situ decomposition is attained by spreading the trash in rows and sprin-
kling cow dung slurry or press mud at 10 t ha - 1 . The nutritive value of trash is
debatable but it does conserve soil moisture. Ng Kee Kwong and Divelle (1987)
concluded that the contribution of trash N to sugarcane is negligible in two soil
types (Table 11.7).

T a b l e 1 1 . 7 Influence of trash (10 t ha - 1 ) on selected properties of two soil

types at the end of a 18-month plot culture experiment
Parameters Humic Acrisol Humic Nitosol
No trash Trash No trash Trash

%N 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.19

% O.M 5-5 6.7 3.2 3.8
C : N ratio 2.2 24.3 10.2 11.6
CECmeq/lOOg 4.1 4.2 4.4 4.9
AEC meq/100 g 0.7 0.6 1.1 1.0
Source: Ng Kee Kong and Divelle, 1987.

It is evident from the table that trashing contributed to organic matter build
up. However, Sundara and Tripathi (1999) assert that trash incorporation im-
proves soil N status. Sugarcane trash should not be burnt. Further evidence comes
from simulation effect of trash by Vallis et al. (1996). They observed that trash
blanketing gave higher yield at all stages in which fertilizer N was used. After
about 20 years of using the trash blanket system, N fertilizer inputs may be reduced
by 40 kg N ha""1 without significant loss in yield. Leaching losses of N are also
substantially reduced.
Soil N pool can also be increased by incorporation of green manure, and the
crops include sunn hemp, dhiancha, beans, guar, barseem, pea, lathyrus (khesari).
Pongamia sp. and lentil. These crops can be grown in rotation or intercropped.
This author has found improved N status by incorporating the intercropped soya-
bean (cv. Monetta, KB 79 and C o l ) . Singh and Yadav (1990) maintained that

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green manuring is not only an effective fertilizer but also twice as effective as
FYM. However, the performance of green manure differs and depends on the
quantity and quality of biomass added, degree of soil improvement, and the mag-
nitude of residual effect. They observed that sunn hemp contributed 4 0 - 5 0 %
towards cane yield improvement, and N U E also increased substantially. Apart
from the improved yield resulting from the use of green manuring the other ad-
vantages derived from it are N 2 fixation, organic matter addition, reduction in
leaching and gaseous losses, and better physico-chemical properties. The response
of green manure on cane yield was 0.243 t kg N -1 while that of FYM was
0.097 t kg N - 1 .

11.2.7 Biofertiiizers
Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF) has an assured place as a source of N, and
contributes to modify the fertilizer use practice. During 1997-98 India produced
more than 5000 tons of N 2 fixing organisms and distributed them through differ-
ent agencies. Rough estimates show that the associative diazotrophs can fix
50-100 kg N ha - 1 yr~l. Rooper and Ladha (1995) argue that the straw plus asso-
ciative N 9 fixers are more advantageous. Generally, callulolysis and diazotrophy
are carried out by a mixed microbial community in which the N 2 fixing bacteria
utilise the products of decomposition. They demonstrated that inoculation of
straws with cellulolytic and diazotrophic microorganisms results in substantial
N 2 fixation.
The free living organisms (non-symbiotic) found in the sugarcane rhizosphere
are Azotobacter, Azospirillum. Bacillus, Enterobacter, besides Acetobacter
diazotrophicus. The local population of Azotobacter/Azospirillum in cultivated tropi-
cal soils is generally low. Hence inoculation through soil/sett application at
5-6 kg ha - 1 is recommended to reduce N dosage, and improve the yield and
quality of cane. T h e benefits of their inoculation is in the form of increased bio-
mass, nutrient uptake, and yield. The production of P G R substances like IAA,
gibberellins, etc. improved water status in the plants and increased nitrate reduct-
ase activity. Production of antifungal compounds have been attributed to these
microorganisms (Marwaha, 1995). It is also argued that biosynthesis of IAA by
these organisms indicates that these bacteria promote rooting, improve growth
and the metabolic process in addition to N~ fixation. Azotobacter is more suited to

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

semidry loamy and sandy loam soils. This requires lot of organic matter, and a
significant increase in. cane yield is noticed when Azotobacter is inoculated in soil
after compost is added. On the other h a n d , Azospirillum is an associative
microaerophilic N 2 fixer which fixes N in a low oxygen environment. T h e bacte-
ria induce the plant roots to secrete a mucilage which creates a low oxygen envi-
ronment and maintains high nitrogenase activity. Hence it is suited to clay soils.
O u r research amply demonstrates that Azospirillum is an effective N 2 fixer in
compacted ratoon soils. It is also known to maintain high nitrogenase activity
(high N 2 fixation) even under abiotic stress like saline-alkali conditions. It is gen-
eralised that inoculation of Azotobacter in plant crop and Azospirillum in ratoon
cane ensures 1 2 - 1 5 % increase in cane yield, besides a saving in fertiliser N up to
20—25%. These bioagents had little influence on quality parameters. Varieties
showed differential response to biofertilizers (Srinivasan, 1989). Uruiga et al. (1982)
gave compelling evidence that cane cultivars CB 45—3, SP-70-1143 and the Spon-
taneum cultivar Krakatu benefit significantly from biological N 2 fixation. Among
the associative N2 fixers Acetobacter diazotrophicus contributed 170—210 kg N ha-1.

Acetobacter diazotrophicus, an endophytic bacterium is reported to be an effi-

cient N 2 fixer and can be established in sugarcane plants and maintained for sev-
eral generations. It is called as 'black urea' and it effectively saves more than 50%
of inorganic N (Sundara, 1998). It is highly specific to sugar rich plants and has
an adaptability over a wide range of pH (3—6). It also tolerates high NO 3 concen-
trations up to 6 0 - 8 0 ppm. It can transfer more than 4 0 % of fixed N immediately
to the surrounding plant tissue. Boddey and Dobereiner (1995) contend that
under Brazilian conditions some selected endophytic bacteria of A. diazotrophicus
can be easily established in sugarcane which fix N 2 up to 250 kg N ha - 1 , and can
perhaps completely replace fertilizer N. However, such claims need to be verified
under field conditions. Some recent evidence attests that A. diazotrophicus pro-
duces IAA in cane cultivars. Recently, Jones (1998), Mahesh Kumar et al. (1999)
observed that this rhizobacteria is capable of releasing anions like citrate, succi-
nate, tartarate, and gluconate. Thus the release of organic acids reduces the soil
pH by 1.5 units and solubilises P. Under in vitro conditions the solubilisation of
fixed P by A. diazotrophicusis in the range of 21.78 to 5 0 . 9 % (loc. cit.). The effect
of diazotrophs on yield, yield components, and quality parameters of plant and
ratoon cane is presented in Tables 11.8 and 11.9.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

142
11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

143
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Tables 11.8 and 11.9 indicate an increase in the yield component with a conse-
quent yield improvement. A mean yield and yield components of 4 biofertilizers
of plant and ratoon cane against control treatment is presented in Table 11.10.

T a b l e 1 1 . 1 0 Effect of associative N 2 fixers on yield, yield attributes, and quality

of ratoon cane
Treatments Cane yield Height Weight Yield incr-
(t ha - 1 ) (m) of cane ease over
(kg) control
(t ha- 1 )
Treated
Plant cane mean of 4 168 2.71 1.61 10.0
biofertilizers
Control 158 2.55 1.52
Treated
Ratoon cane mean of 4 119 2.13 1.31 4.0
biofertilizers
Control 115 2.07 1.27
Source: Shankaraiah, 1998.

Table 11.10 suggests an yield increase of 10 and 4 t ha - 1 in plant and ratoon

cane respectively. Besides, there is a saving of 50 k g N ha - 1 . However, juice quality
is not altered.
Biofertilization is highly economical since the cost of 5—10 kg ha - 1 biofertilizers
like Azotobacter, Azospirillum and Acetobacter is Rs 100 while that of 50 kg N as
urea is more than Rs 300.

11.2.8 Time and method of applying biofertilizers

Attempts were also made to study the time and method of applying biofertilizers.
T h e dose of 5-10 kg ha - 1 biofertilizers can be applied as a single dose at planting.
It can also be applied in two equal splits at 30 and 60 days after planting/ratoon-
ing. Biofertilizers should not be applied with chemical fertilizers. T h e finely ground
FYM (about 500 kg) is mixed with biofertilizers and applied at the base of clumps.
As regards method of application, sett inoculation, root dipping, soil application,

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

smearing culture solution to single eye buds, and combinations are equally effec-
tive. However, soil application of 5 kg ha -1 biofertilizer (Azotobacter, Azospirillum
or Acetobacter) in two equal splits, namely, 30 and 60 days after planting/ratoon-
ing is preferred.

1.2.9 N 2 fixers and e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n

Leaching losses of NO3—N has been the major threat to groundwater pollution in
high input agriculture. Nitrogenous fertilizers are the chief cause for they enter
the lakes, rivers, well, and groundwater. The poor efficiency of applied fertilizers
is attributed to leaching and other losses. The World Health Organisation (WHO)
has classified the drinking water as very unsafe if NO3—N level is 100 mg 1 -1 . Our
pot and field culture studies have amply demonstrated that the inoculation of
Azotobacterl Azospirillum has substantially reduced the NO3—N contents of the
leachates and are presented below:

1.2.10 Ex situ composting of trash and press mud (modified

Japanese method)

In situ composting is ideal where the trash, 5 cm thick layers are aligned in rows
and press mud, if available, at 10 t ha -1 can be spread over it. Cow dung slurry
and cultures of other microorganisms at 5—6 kg ha - 1 inclusive of N2 fixers and
cellulolytic bacteria are thoroughly mixed. In about 8—10 weeks trash is decom-
posed and becomes humus. The time frame depends on the soil, climate, and
management practices.
We have attempted ex-situ composting of trash. As in the Japanese method,
instead of pits, vats from granite stone or slabs, bamboo and twigs are used. The
slabs measure 6—10 m in length, 8—10 cm in width and have a height of 1 m. The

145
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

walls of the slabs possess holes or windows for aeration. T h e bottom of the vats are
covered by stone slabs and the cracks are cement plastered to prevent nutrient
losses through leaching. The cost of such a vat may range from Rs 5000 to Rs 8000
but it is just a one-time investment. If this is expensive, the vats can be made of
bamboos with the same dimensions. Stakes 1 m long are fixed at the corners to
firmly fix the vat. The ground can be plastered with clay, lime, cow dung, etc. T h e
structures as given by Shivashankar (1997) are shown in Fig. 11.3.

(a) Layers of biomass

(b) Compost vat fabricated from bamboo and twigs

Fig. 1 1 . 3 Ex situ composting of trash + press m u d (modified Japanese method)

(Source: Shivashankar, 1997.)

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

T h e first layer consists of trash 15-20 cm thick. T h e second layer consists of

dried leaves, grass, and other farm residues. The press m u d is sprinkled 2 - 3 cm
thick. Cow dung, urine, and biogas slurry can be used individually or mixed in a
bucket of water and sprinkled. Copious water is added to maintain 3 0 - 4 0 %
moisture. A small layer of soil and ash can also be maintained. T h e third layer of
10-15 cm thickness consists of green leaves of Pongamia, Albizzia, grass weeds,
Dhiancha, Sesbania, and crop residues, etc. These are rich in nitrogen. The fourth
layer should contain organic wastes rich in phosphates, potash such as ash, poul-
try wastes, etc. T h e fifth layer should be a few layers of straw or stover, and 5—10 cm
thick trash. Lime or gypsum is added in small quantities to hasten decomposi-
tion. Two to three buckets of cow dung slurry or biogas slurry are sprinkled which
should thoroughly soak the lower layers. T h e sixth layer should exclusively consist
of 2 0 - 3 0 cm of cow dung. On the top of it a thin layer of fine soil, tank-silt or ash
to avoid loss of moisture can be spread over. T h e mixed microbial culture is mixed
with fine paddy straw or husk and sprinkled on the 6 t h layer. A 60 cm space at
one corner of the vat is left free to facilitate turning of the residues regularly.
Aerobic decomposition takes place and in about 4 months the compost is ready.
Trash contains lot of lignin with little moisture. To hasten decomposition, the
various microbial organisms are: Trichoderma viridae, Aspergillus, Pencillium, etc.
T h e composite cultures like Agrobacterium, Radiobactor, Azotobactor, and Bacillus
are used to enrich the compost with nitrogen. P-solubilising bacteria can be em-
ployed along with rock phosphate.

1.2.11 Vermicomposting
The importance of earthworms (Lumbricidae) has been known since Roman times,
and Charles Darwin's treatise ' T h e formation of vegetable mould through the
action of worms' is a classic in agricultural science. T h e importance of burrowing
activity in relation to soil drainage, aeration, and soil aggregation is well recog-
nised. Hence earthworms are the true bioindicators of soil and constitute a major
soil fauna. Aptly, Radha Kale (1998) called the earthworm the Cinderella of or-
ganic farming. T h e principal diet of earthworms consists of dead and decaying
plant remains, leaf litter, and dead roots. T h e N content of litter should preferably
be 1—1.4% for early action by earthworms. Litter with high polyphenols is eaten
relatively less by worms. Sugar, starches, crude protein, cellulose, and hemicellu-

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

lose are readily decomposed. However, lignins, waxes, fat, etc. are slowly decom-
posed. The gut of the earthworms includes protease, lipase, amylase, cellulase,
and chitinase. There are humus formers and humus feeders. The numbers com-
monly found in aerable soils range from 30 to 300 m - 2 and the equivalent bio-
mass is 110 to 1100 kg ha -1 furrow slice.
The principal earthworm species are Perionyx excavatus, Eudrilus eugeniae and
Eisenia fetida. These act on heterogenous substrates like crop residue, sugarcane
trash, weeds, etc., and enhance the microbial load including N2 fixers. They also
encourage the build up of cellulolytic and lignolytic microflora. Interestingly Radha
Kale (1998) observed that VAM (Vesicular Arbuscur Mycorrhizae) propagules
survived for 11 months in worm castings. This strongly suggests their role in the
dissemination of VAM fungi.
Sugarcane is highly fertilized and leaves large residues in the form of leaves,
trash, roots, stubbles, etc., and is ideal for organic farming (Hunsigi, 1997).

Fig. 1 1 . 4 Vermary or culture room of larger dimension

Vermicomposting technology of plant residues is described below (Gangadhar

and Andani Gowda, 1995) (Fig. 11.4). It is a scientific method of breeding and

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

raising e a r t h w o r m s u n d e r c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s for m u l t i p l i c a t i o n .
Vermicomposting is a process where earthworms are used to feed on a variety of
organic wastes to produce vermicompost. Earthworms are cultured in a culture
room or vermary which could be a cement tank/wooden boxes/stone lined pit or
even a plastic tub of 1 m x 1 m x 0.3 m size (Fig. 11.4) or of larger dimensions.
Plants residues are placed in a separate pit. Mixing with cowdung is essential
which ensures the presence of microorganisms a n d aids in rapid decomposition.
Periodical mixing helps in proper aeration. Introduce 2000 worms of mixed popu-
lation of Perionyx excavatus, Eudrilus eugeniae, and Eisenia fetida to the partially
decomposed wastes in the pit. O p t i m u m moisture of 40—50% should be main-
tained. The vermicompost will be ready in 6—8 weeks. D u m p the material on the
ground and keep it overnight. Sort the cocoons and young ones by hand and
introduce them to the fresh tank. Thus, earthworms convert 'waste into wealth.'
And the vermicompost is ready which is friable, loose, h u m u s type with excellent
manurial quality. In the vermicompost, some secretions of worms and associated
microbes act as growth promoters along with other nutrients. T h e typical nutri-
ent status of vermicompost is given in Table 11.11.

T a b l e 1 1 . 1 1 Nutrient status of vermicompost on using different organic wastes

Nutrients Per c e n t / p p m

Organic carbon 9.15 to 1 7 . 9 8 %

Total N 0.5 to 1.5%
Available P 0.1 to 0 . 3 %
Available K 0.15 to 0 . 5 6 %
Available Na 0.06 to 0 . 3 %
Ca and Mg 22.67 to 70 m e q 100 g - 1
Cu 2.0 to 9.5 p p m
Fe 2.0 to 9.3 p p m
Zn 5.7 to 11.5 p p m
Available S 12.8 to 548.0 p p m
Source: Radha Kale, 1998.

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1 1.3

PHOSPHORUS

This is the second most important element in sugarcane nutrition and is impli-
cated in tillering and root formation. T h e recovery of P is dismally low and re-
stricted to 15-20%. The availability depends on the soil type, p H , and ionic
species as shown below:

The dynamics of P in soil system is presented in Fig. 11.5 (Tisdale et al., 1990).
The P is lost by erosion and there is considerable chemical fixation depending on
the prevalence of ionic species. At any given time the inorganic P content is more
than organic P except in the organic soil.
Humbert (1968) reports that sugarcane removes 0.18-0.86 kg P 2 O 5 per ton of
cane. Nearly all tropical and subtropical soils are deficient in P but their response
is highly variable. Jenssen (1998) observed that P recovery is 12% and there is
room for improvement. T h e cumulative recovery for 2-3 ratoons could be 30—
50%, i.e. 2.5 to 4.0 times more than the recovery by plant crop. This is a strong
indication of acquiring residual P by continuous cropping as in sugarcane ra-
toons.

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Depending on soil type and management practice, P additions in India range

from 35 to 100 kg P 2 O 5 ha - 1 . T h e threshold soil test values for sugarcane vary
from 2 0 - 7 0 kg P 2 O 5 h a - 1 and the responses are likely when soil P content is
below the critical value. An effort was made to define the External P Requirement
(EPR). The EPR of sugarcane is defined as the target P concentration in soil
solution which is associated with near maximum yield. T h e EPR of furrow irri-
gated cane is 0.005 p p m and that of t h e drip irrigated cane is 0.012 p p m
(Hunsigi, 1993a). T h e EPR is high for 3—5 months after P fertilization.

Fig 1 1 . 5 Phosphorus dynamics system in the soil (Tisdale et al., 1990)

T h e dose response curve to applied P followed a second degree polynomial in

many soils and for the alfisols of Mandya it is shown as: (Hunsigi, 1993a).

Y = 99.1600 + 9.2190 P - 1.0650 P 2 (R = 0.945)*

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T h e increased yield following the addition of P is ascribed to more tillers per

bud and taller millable canes. P addition is accompanied by a higher percentage
conversion of tillers to millable canes. In the vertisols of Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh and Karnataka, the response of cane to P dressing is singularly absent due
to high P retention (P-fixation) by these soils. A dressing of more than 400 kg
P2O5 ha - 1 is required and it is a case of fertilising soil rather than fertilising the
crop. The All India Coordinated Project indicated that the P response ranged
from 0.09 to 1.53 t ha - 1 per kg P 2 O 5 at the recommended level (Yadav, 1993). No
responses were observed under rainfed conditions.
Varietal differences have been noticed in respect of P response which can be
related to root size, morphology and/or root physiology. Root surface area can be
enhanced through mycorrhizal association. Cultivar, 86A 146 responded better
to 100 kg P ha - 1 than 85 A 261. Two equal split applications (30 and 75 DAP)
were better than a single application. Varietal differences are attributed to root
length, root mass, and physiology of the root.
As regards the time and method of application, normally P is applied as a
single dose at planting/ratooning. But in sandy loam soils it is applied in two
equal splits, namely, at planting and 30-45 days after planting. The water soluble
phosphates like single superphosphate are band placed in the furrow at planting.
However Mussorie Rock Phosphate (MRP) is broadcast and mixed in soil. In any
case the uptake efficiency is improved if P fertilizers are applied through organic
carriers such as FYM, compost, dung, bagasse, press mud, etc.

11.3.1 Sources of P

As a general rule, in case of neutral and alkaline soils, water soluble P (single
superphosphate) is superior to insoluble P wherein the various water-soluble sources
are considered equally efficient. In case of acidic soils rock phosphate is the best
choice. Residual P can be as effective as freshly added P. Insoluble P like rock
phosphate can be mixed with soil and the soluble P can be placed in bands to
improve its efficiency. Additional experiments lead this author to conclude that
mixing single superphosphate and rock phosphate in equal proportions with a P
solubilizing agent improves the P-use efficiency.
Yadav (1999) compared different sources of P including the Diammonium
phosphate (DAP) and N P K complex fertilizer. The relevant data are furnished in
Table 11.12. He observed that a kg of applied P through DAP and N P K

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(12 : 32 : 16) produced a maximum response of 7 3 3 kg and 985 kg respectively

over control at 21.83 kg ha - 1 P application. It was 656 kg and 397 kg cane per kg
P applied through single superphosphate (SSP) and Mussorie rock phosphate
(MRP) at 32.75 kg/ha P application. Response decreased with increased applica-
tion rate (Table 11.12).

T a b l e 1 1 . 1 2 Response (kg cane/kg applied P over control) of planted sugar

cane to phosphorus levels and different P sources at Pusa, Bihar
Treatment Cane yield Response to applied P (kg ha -1 )
in control 21.83 32.75 43.66
plot (t ha -1 )

1. Single super 44.5 458 656 515

phosphate (SSP)
2. Diammonium 44.5 733 687 332
phosphate (DAP)
3. N P X complex 44.5 985 977 675
fertiliser (12 : 32 : 16)
4. Mussorie rock 44.5 197 397 355
phosphate (MRP)
lsd .05 2.5
Source: Yadav, 1999.

It is inferred that N P K complex fertilizer has improved P use efficiency. The

SSP is nearly twice as efficient as MRP.
Press M u d (PM) a by-product of the sugar industry is a good source of P
besides Ca and other micronutrients. The PM obtained from carbonaceous proc-
ess is alkaline in reaction. T h e composition is highly variable but the average
figures are: N — 1 . 6 9 to 2.12 %, P—0.45 to 1.21 %, K—0.277 to 0.57 %,
Ca—1.84 to 2.38 %, Mg—0.37 to 2.29 % and S—0.6 to 0.79 %. This contains
other minor elements like Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu in measurable quantities. The
press m u d obtained from carboneous process has 1.0 % P (oven dry basis) and
can appreciably reduce the fertilizer dosage (Table 11.13).

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Results in Table 11.13 indicate that 25% P can be saved by using press mud.
The MRP in conjunction with SSP at equal proportion is as effective as SSP
alone. The imposed treatments will not influence the quality estimates.

Table 1 1 . 1 3 Cane yield as influenced by levels and sources of P

Treatment Cane yield (t ha -1 )
Recommended P 2 O 5
75% 100% Mean
1.100 per cent P 2 O 5 as single 182 182 182
single superphosphate (SSP) (19.84) (20.19) (20.01)
2.50 per cent P 2 O 5 as SSP +
50 per cent P 2 O 5 as 176 182 179
Mussorie rock phosphate (19.81) (20.62) (20.21)
(MRP)
3.50 percent P 2 O 5 as SSP + 182 186 184
50 per cent P 2 O 5 as (20.48) (20.43) (20.45)
press mud (PM)
Mean 180 183
(20.04) (20.41)
lsd .05 cane yield 3.40
lsd .05 for sucrose % NS
Recommended P level = 100 kg ha -1
Press mud contained 1% P oven dry weight basis
Figures in parenthesis indicate the percentage of sucrose in juice. Soil type—Alfisols (Xeralfs)
Source: Shankaraiah (1998).

The press mud obtained from sulphitation process (SPM) is a good source of P,
S and it is known to reclaim alkaline soils (Yaduvamshi and Yadav, 1990). The
application of SPM upto 30 t ha -1 in alkaline soils has reduced the soil pH, en-
hanced N uptake, N concentration in leaves and improved dry matter production
(Table 11.14).

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Table 11.14 Effect of sulphitation press m u d (SPM) on p H , N uptake, 3 - 6

N content of leaves and dry matter of planted cane
SPM Soil pH N uptake 3-6 N Dry matter
treatment (1 : 2.5) (kg ha - 1 ) content of (t ha - 1 )
(t ha - 1 ) leaves (%)

0 7.84 128 1.44 26.21

10 7.67 146 1.59 27.93

20 7.52 159 1.67 28.86

30 7.49 195 1.80 29.15

Source: Yaduvamshi and Yadav, 1990

They also observed that SPM has increased stalk length and yield.

1.3.2 Phosphate Solubilising Microorganisms (PSM)

Many soil microorganisms can solubilise inorganic phosphates, which are largely
unavailable to plants. Lowering of soil pH by organic acids produced by PSM
brings about the dissolution of immobile forms of P. T h e organic anions such as
malates, citrates, oxalates are involved in the processes in the rhizosphere includ-
ing nutrient acquisition, metal detoxification, alleviation of anaerobic streams in
roots, mineral weathering (pedogenesis e.g. podzolisation) and pathogen attrac-
tion (Hinsinger, 1998). Some of the hydroxy acids may chelate with Ca, Al, Fe
and Mg resulting in the effective solubilisation of P and thereby its higher utilisa-
tion. T h e beneficial influences of artificial inoculation with PSM has been re-
ported for sugarcane crop under diverse agro-climatic conditions. The descrip-
tion of some P-solubilizing agents follow:
Agrobacterium radiobacter is a gram -ve rod-shaped bacteria which has a capac-
ity to solubilise rock phosphate and is known to produce plant growth promoting
substances (PGR) (Gour, 1990). Bacillus megaterium var. phosphaticum is also
reported to increase the efficiency of ground rock phosphate plus superphosphate
applied to neutral to alkaline soils. In general, response to phosphobacteria is
found in soils high in organic matter and low in available P (Marwaha, 1995).
Phosphobacterial inoculation along with low grade phosphates such as rock phos-

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phate, basic slag and bone meal might offer an economical alternative to the use
of chemical fertilizer. Phosphobacteria apart from increasing P availability pro-
duce growth promoting auxin and gibberellin like substances. T h e acids produced
by these microbes not only solubilise P but also Mg, Fe and Mn which contribute
to the better sugarcane yield (Gour, 1990). The dissolution of P in soil contrib-
utes to enhanced P uptake by cane. The beneficial effect of phosphobacterial in-
oculation is also attributed to the production of PGR and to fungistatis in the
rhizosphere. Aspergillus awamori renders solubilisation of rock phosphate, hydroxy
apatite and tricalcium phosphate. Further confirmation comes from our experi-
ments which suggest unequivocally the beneficial effect of PSM on cane yield and
sugar output (Tables 11.15 and 11.16). This helps us to conclude that soil inocu-
lation of Agrobacterium radiobacter or Bacillus megaterium in plant crop and As-
pergillus awamori and B. megaterium in ratoon crop ensure higher cane yield,
better net returns and a saving of 25 % P fertilizer (Shankaraiah, 1998). These
organisms also helped in the enhanced uptake of P and K. Further, inoculation of
phosphobacteria has improved quality parameters including CCS %.

Table 1 1 . 1 5 Effect of PSM on yield, yield attributes and quality estimates of

plant cane (Co 7804)
Treatments Cane Height Weight Millable Pol RS
yield (m) per cane po- (%) (%)
(t ha - 1 ) cane pulation
(kg) (10 3 )
Agrobacterium 187 2.86 1.68 87 20.12 1.37
radiobacter
Bacillus 186 2.84 1.67 89 20.33 1.39
megaterium
Aspergillus 176 2.69 1.58 86 19.93 1.41
awamori
Control 176 2.69 1.58 90 20.52 1.33
lsd.05 4.61 0.07 0.042 .NS NS NS
Note: Each figure is a mean of single superphosphate (SSP), Missouri Rock Phosphate (MRP) and
SSP plus press mud.
Source: Shankaraiah, 1998.

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Table 1 1 . 1 6 EfFect of PSM on yield, yield attributes and quality estimates of

ratoon cane (Co 419)
Treatments Cane Height Weight Millable Pol RS
yield (m) per cane po- (%) (%)
(t ha -1 ) cane pulation
(kg) (103)
Agrobacterium 133 2.26 1.32 104 19.20 1.17
radiobacter
Bacillus 136 2.32 1.36 102 19.17 1.15
megaterium
Aspergillus 137 2.34 1.36 103 19.35 1.12
awamori
Control 129 2.21 1.29 102 19.35 1.10
lsd .05 5.16 0.088 0.052 NS NS NS
Note: Each figure is a mean of single superphosphate (SSP), Missouri Rock Phosphate (MRP) and
SSP plus press mud
Source: Shankaraiah, 1998.

In short, sett/soil inoculation of P solubilisers at 5-10 kg ha - 1 improved the

yield by 5—10 per cent. This was also associated with improved quality. Chhonkar
(1994) tested a mixture of Pseudomonas striata and Bacillus polymyxa, commer-
cially known as 'IARI Microphos'. Local strains were better than the exotic ones.
These bioagents produced enzymes which are capable of dephosphorylating or-
ganic phosphates and also solubilise insoluble phosphates to more available forms.
These perform the function of transferring P from soil into the roots. Chhonkar
(1994) admits that yield increase is due to the production of PGRs and fungistatis
in the rhizosphere. On balance, the future emphasis is more on the P-mobilisa-
tion than P-solubilisation. Mobilisation of nutrients like P and other nutrients is
better achieved by Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM).

11.3.3 Mycorrhizal symbiosis

Mycorrhizae involve a unique symbiotic association between plant roots and the
infecting fungi. This association often increases growth and yield of many crops
by enhanced nutrient uptake, resistance to drought and salinity and increased

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tolerance to pathogens (Arshad and Frankenberger Jr. 1998). They are broadly
classified as ecto- and endo-mycorrhizas depending on the physical relation be-
tween the fungus and the host plant root. Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM)
result from the colonization of young roots by fungi of the family Endogonaceae.
The main genera are: Gigaspora, Glomus, Acaulospom and Scierocystis. VAM are of
great importance to field crops. Following arbuscular development, structures
known as vesicles develop along, or at the tips of hyphae, which function as tem-
porary storage organs (Fig. 11.6). In reality, the hyphae are the extension of the
root system and substantially increase the P acquisition by plants. Sugarcane has
shown variable response to VAM (Glomus mossae; G. fasciculatus, G. fasciculatum).
VAM is more effective in P deficient soils. Jones (1985) observed that C4 plants
including sugarcane are VAM dependent.

Fig 1 1 . 6 VAM structure (Brady, 1990)

The term mycorrhizosphere refers to the zone of influence of mycorrhizae (fun-

gus root) in the soil and has two components. One is the rhizosphere, a thin layer
of soil that surrounds the root and is under the joint influence of roots, root hairs
and AM hyphae (Arbuscular mycorrhizae) adjacent to the root. The other is the
hyphosphere which is not directly influenced by the root. The hyphosphere is in
the zone of AM hyphae-soil interaction and is densely permeated by the AM soil
mycelium. The extra radical hyphae can extend several centimetres into the soil
and deliver fairly large amounts of nutrients, i.e. Zn, Cu besides P (Marchener,

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

1998). T h e root-free soil outside the rhizosphere is referred to as bulk soil. De-
pending on the physicochemical conditions of soil and management, sugarcane
mycorrhizosphere may have a population of beneficial microorganisms such as
N 2 fixers, plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PG PR) and phosphate solubi-
lising bacteria. Besides improved P nutrition in mycorrhizal symbiosis, increased
biomass and yield is associated with high production of PGRs. The PGRs re-
leased include IAA, GA and Cytokinin like substances (Zeatin).
Also mycorrhizal symbiosis plays an important role in maintaining cytokinin
levels under drought conditions. Several studies have demonstrated increased auxin
content known as 'hyper auxiny' in response to mycorrhizal infection. This indi-
cates a positive role of auxins in the symbiosis.
It is pertinent to note that acquisition of organically bound P is enhanced by
acid phosphatases released as ecto-enzymes from roots and microbes including
AM fungi. Thus the activity of acid phosphatases in the rhizosphere help in P
uptake.
There are clear indications of mycorrhiza mediated improvement in soil aggre-
gation with increased number of water stable aggregates. The rhizobacterial popu-
lation is involved for greater water stable aggregation.
As of now, habitable pore space will enable greater N 2 fixation, pathogen con-
trol, promotion of PGRs and soil stabilization. T h e ultimate aim is to achieve a
healthy relationship between biotic and abiotic components for sustainable sugar
and cane production.

11.4

POTASSIUM

Sugarcane requires potassium in much larger amounts than any other nutrient. Its
demand may exceed 800 kg ha - 1 , albeit this includes luxury consumption. Ac-
cording to Humbert (1968), a 100 ton crop on an average may remove 500 kg
K 2 O ha - 1 . In general, the K uptake in red, mixed red and black soils, and black
soils have ranged from about 150 to 200 kg K 2 O ha - 1 . A typical plant growth and
K potential relationship is shown in Fig. 11.7. An increased response is followed
by optimum K concentration to luxury consumption and toxic levels. In fact
addition of K should be at the response stage to reach an optimum level.

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Fig 1 1 . 7 Plant growth and K potential relationship

T h e functions of potassium are many: it is required for cell structure, carbon

assimilation, photosynthesis, protein synthesis, starch formation, translocation of
proteins and sugars, entry of water into plant, and normal root development.
More than 60 enzymes are activated and it is basic to sugarcane for synthesis and
accumulation of sugar (Clements, 1980). Decreased translocation of labelled
photosynthates and increased respiratory activity in sugarcane is observed due to
K deficiency. Its role in water relation is well recognised. And late K dressing to
cane is advocated to circumvent drought conditions. Application of K is prophy-
lactic measure against diseases like eye spot. Lodging in cane is greatly restricted
by K fertilization. The most important function of K in sugarcane is the improve-
ment in cane quality which it affects by converting reducing sugars to recoverable
sugar and helping to flush out tissue N and moisture. In general, improvement in
yield following K addition is reflected by improvement in pol (sucrose) per cent
cane. Thus, adequate K is required to utilize the assimilated N in cane to bring a
stage of maturity when reducing sugars are converted to recoverable sugar. But
deficiency of K is seen in older leaves first as it is highly mobile in the plant. Leaf
emergence and tips become brown with necrotic spots which coalesce and show
typical 'marginal firing' under severe K deficiency.

11.4.1 Forms of potassium

Four forms of soil K are recognised as regards its availability to plants. They are:
structural (matrix), non-exchangeable (not easily available), exchangeable, and
solution K which are all in equilibrium with each other (Fig. 11.8b). Figure 11.8a

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

shows the position of K on the clay mineral. T h e K on the planar and edges are
easily exchanged with solution K. The interlattice K is the fixed K. Despite K
fixation, K recovery is to the extent of 80% by sugar cane.

Fig 1 1 . 8 a Exchange position of K on clay mineral

Fig 1 1 . 8 b Interrelationships of various forms of soil K

In reality the agricultural soils are nearly always in a state of disequilibrium

with regard to K transformation, more so the sugarcane soils which are intensively
cropped and heavily fertilized. The interrelationship of various forms of soil K
and the fate of fertilizer K are shown in Fig. 11.9. It may be noted that apart from
plant uptake, K is subject to intense leaching.

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 Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Fig 1 1 . 9 Different forms of soil potassium

11.4.2 Soil K extractants

The extractants for soil K have ranged from a large array of buffer solutions, acids,
percolation techniques, exchange resins to Electro Ultra Filtration (EUF) and
potash potential (Hunsigi and Srivastava, 1976). For more than three decades,
neutral normal ammonium acetate (N, N H 4 OAC, pH 7) has been widely ac-
cepted as a measure of exchangeable soil K and for sugarcane 100-125 ppm ex-
changeable K has been taken as a critical limit. However, this author asserts based
on experimental evidence, that exchangeable K per se is not a good indicator of K
supply to long duration crops like sugarcane/ratoons (Hunsigi and Srivastava,
1981). For routine soil testing, extraction with cone. H 2 S O 4 predicts K availabil-
ity better than N, N H 4 O A C (pH 7). Thus the critical limit under cone. H 2 S O 4
extraction is 300 ppm. A detailed investigation by this author led him to conclude
that a portion of non-exchangeable K but plant available form known as 'step PC
predicts better K availability to plant or ratoon cane (op. cit.). Wild (1988) reaf-
firmed that the prediction of K availability is improved by the inclusion of readily
released non-exchangeable K. Out of the chemicals tested, sodium tetraphenyl
boron (NaTPB), a specific K extractant is better suited, for it seems to simulate
the mechanism of plant removal in a more rational manner. But this chemical is

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not cost effective. Continuous extraction in boiling H N O 3 has a drastic action

besides introducing large analytical errors. T h e constant rate K(CRK) under con­
tinuous boiling H N O 3 extraction reflects the structural or matrix K (Hunsigi and
Srinivasa, 1981). The equilibrium activity ratio (ARoK) and potash chemical po­
tential (ΔGoK) are good indices of K availability to sugarcane but can hardly be
used in large-scale soil testing. A nomogram based on six methods of measuring K
supply power to sugarcane has been presented elsewhere (op. cit.).

11.4.3 Source, m e t h o d and t i m e of K a p p l i c a t i o n

All sources of K are equally effective. Potassium scheonite (24% K 2 O) is as good

as muriate or sulphate of potash (Hunsigi, 1993a). Potash is band placed in the
cane furrows below the set but 3—5 cm away from it. Point placement/spot appli­
cation is preferred in ratoons where stools are distinct. As regards time of applica­
tion, it is mostly given as a single basal application. However, split application is
advisable in very sandy soils. T h e recommended time of application in different
crop and soil situations is given in Table 11.17.

Table 11.17 Time of K application to sugarcane

Single basal application for Two equal splits, namely, planting
and 60 DAP for

1. Ratoons (stubble Low tillering varieties and Cvs with

root is restricted) low initial vigour
2. Medium black and black Loamy sands a n d sandy loam soils
soils with high C E C
3. Early maturing short Late maturing and non-flowering canes
duration and drought
tolerant CVs
Late K application (6 months) under
moisture stress condition

11.4.4 Rate of K application and response studies

Almost all soil types responded to K addition including the alluvial soils of Indo­
Gangetic plains which contain K bearing minerals like illite and micas (Yadav,

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1999). Increased tonnage following K addition was observed more in red, mixed
red and black soils and black soils of peninsular India. Agronomic value of K rests
with improved girth and volume of cane (Cane volume V = P x L x D x 3/4; L =
cane length, D = cane diameter). The application rates have ranged from 50 to
200 kg I C O ha - 1 , depending on soil type and agroecological situations. The re-
sponse varies from 0.01 to 0.352 t ha - 1 per kg K 2 O. Under rainfed conditions, K
response was around 0.27 t ha - 1 per kg KjO (loc. cit.). Potash yield relationship
can be better explained by the second degree polynomial or modified Mitscherlich
equation. Many field studies in peninsular India support the contention that re-
sponse of cane applied K can be better predicted by a second degree polynomial
(Table 11.18). Further optimum K index (3-6 leaf sheaths) should be maintained
at 2.25% under better level or management (Clements, 1980). Since all K in cane
is dissolved in cell sap, K - H 2 O index (i.e. K content of 3—6 leaf sheaths expressed
as per cent sheath moisture) is envisioned.

Table 1 1 . 1 8 Some potassium response equations in sugarcane

Region Soil Crop/ Quadratic equation
type variety

Mandya Red Plant crop = 154.012 + 0.0315 K- 0.0004K 2

soil Co 419
Sankeshwar Black Plant crop = 139.96 + 0.2400 K- 0.00179 K 2
soil Co 740
Anakapalle - Plant crop = 78.9760 + 0.0452 K- 0.0061 K 2
Co 419
Cuddalore Alluvial Plant crop = 91.12 - 0.1850 K- 0.00041 K 2
soil Co 658
Source: Srivastava and Hunsigi, 1978.

11.4.5 Response to NPK fertilizers

Sugarcane requires 3.71 to 5.23 kg of NPK per ton of millable cane. The nutrient
requirement of cane is maximum for K followed by N and P. Admittedly, emerg-
ing deficiency of P, S, and micronutrients in cane may limit the efficiency of other
nutrients. T h e positive interactions between N x K, N x P and N x P x K support

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this contention and call for adequate dressing of NPK. The relative cane yield as
influenced by NPK levels is shown in Fig. 11.10. Highest response was observed
in N followed by P and K in red soils (alfisols) of Mandya. Our survey in the
farmers' fields of Karnataka has revealed that there is a great imbalance in favour
of N application. Also due to the cost factor, P and K applications are totally
dispensed with or inadequately dressed. T h e recommended NPK dose ranges from
1 2 0 - 4 0 - 5 0 to 2 5 0 - 5 0 - 1 0 0 kg ha - 1 (Adsdi crop 4 0 0 - 5 0 - 1 0 0 kg ha - 1 ). The yield
yardstick at the recommended dose is 52 to 218 kg cane per kg of N P K (Yadav,
1999). Table 11.19 shows the recommended fertilizer dosage in different parts of
the country (TIFAC, 1991).

Fig 1 1 . 1 0 Relative cane yield (plant crop) as influenced by N P K levels

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

There is a tendency among the sugarcane farmers, particularly in peninsular

India to apply more fertilizers (specially N) than the recommended dose. Obvi-
ously this is not economical and leads to reduced profits. Hence N P K recommen-
dations have been given to the target yield (Table 11.20). Yadav (1999) provided
convincing evidence that target yield could be achieved within 8% variation with
fertilizers applied on soil test basis. It stands to reason that application of N P K on
soil test basis rather than the general recommendation gives higher yield response
and better benefit: cost ratio (B : C ratios).

Table 1 1 . 1 9 Recommended fertilizer dosage for sugarcane in different parts

of the country
S. State/region Situation/crop Dosage (kg ha - 1 )
No. N P2O2 K2O

1. Andhra Pradesh Coastal region - - -

Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam - 112 -
East Godavari and
Krishna Eksali 168 - -
West Godavari Eksali 168 - -
Rayalaseema region Eksali 224 - -
Telangana and Medak Eksali 112 - -
Nizamabad Eksali 250
Adsali 400
2. Assam Spring 130 60 60
3. Bihar- Moderately
northern region irrigated 90 70 30
Adequately 90 70 30
irrigated
Trench 170 85 130
planted
contd.

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

Table 11.19 contd.

S. State/region Situation/crop Dosage (kg ha -1 )
No. N P2O2 K2O

4. Gujarat Eksali 250 125 125

5. Haryana Jagadhri Spring 150 50 -
tehsil and Ladwa block planted
Other areas Spring 150 - -
planted
irrigated
6. Karnataka Eksali 250 75 125
Mandya region
Tungabhadra Adsali 250 75 75
project and
Bhadra area
Belgaum area Eksali 250 75 185
Heavy rainfall areas Eksali 187 125 125
7. Kerala Eksali 165 80 80
Pandalam and
Thiruvalla areas
Chittoor area Eksali 225 75 75
8. Madhya Pradesh Spring 300 80 45
planted
9. Maharashtra Adsali 400 170 170
Deccan canal region Pre-seasonal 340 170 170
Vidharbhaand Pre-seasonal 250 170 170
Marathwada region
Deccan canal region Suru (Eksali) 250 115 115
Vidharbha a n d Suru (Eksali) 170 115 115
contd.

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Table 1 1 . 1 9 contd.
S. State/region Situation/crop Dosage (kg ha - 1 )
No. N P2O2 K2O
Marathwada region
Konkan region Sum (Eksali) 150 110 110
10. Orissa Spring 220 100 60
11. Punjab Spring 150 -
planted
Autumn 225 - -
planted
12. Rajasthan
Northern region Spring 150 - -
South eastern region planted 150 - -
Southern and 170 - -
central-eastern region
13. Tamil Nadu
Coastal belt Eksali 275 62 112
Canal irrigated areas - 275 62 112
Lift irrigated areas - 225 62 112
Jaggery areas - 175 62 112
14. Uttar Pradesh Spring 150 -
planted
Autumn 180 -
planted
15. West Bengal Spring 160 60 60
planted
Source: TIFAC (1991) "Sugarcane Cultivation and Sugar Production Technologies" P. 20-28.

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

Table 1 1 . 2 0 Nutrient requirement for targeted yield

Target yield Nutrient required Total NPK
(t ha -1 ) N P K (kg ha -1 )
80 146 56 170 372
90 165 63 191 419
100 183 70 212 465
110 201 77 233 511
120 210 84 254 548
130 239 91 275 604
140 256 98 296 650
150 275 105 317 697
160 293 112 339 744
170 311 119 360 790
180 329 126 382 837
190 348 133 403 884
200 366 140 424 930
Source: Naidu, 1999.

11.5

SULPHUR

Intensive agriculture and use of sulphur free complex fertilizers have caused wide-
spread deficiency. Hence it assumes great importance in sugarcane nutrition and
is next only to NPK. The typical deficiency symptoms are: intervenial chlorosis,
leaves become narrower, shorter and pointed. Canes are thinner and taper rapidly
at the tips (Tandon, 1991).
Sulphur in soil exists as organic S, soil solution S and is adsorbed on clays and
oxides of Fe and Al (Allophanes). The immediate source of S to crops is SO4 in
soil solution. This is replenished by desorption from soil clays and hydrous ox-
ides. It is reasonable to assume that SO4 adsorption is beneficial since it prevents
or minimises leaching losses.

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Mineralisation of sulphur is associated with C : S ratio of 200 : 1 or N : S ratio

of 10 : 1 to 20 : 1. But immobilisation takes place at a C : S ratio of 400 : 1.
Normally rains add 10 kg ha - 1 S. Due to atmospheric pollution, S compounds are
in gaseous or in particulate or aerosol form.
Sulphur requirement ofcane is about 0.91 kg per ton of millable cane or 1.81 kg
per ton of dry mater. Tandon (1991) observed that a crop of 87 t ha - 1 removed
2 to 4 kg S ha - 1 which approximates to 0.3 kg per ton of millable cane. Also it is
observed that uptake of S by sugarcane mirrors dry matter production.

Fig 1 1 . 1 1 Effect of sulphur on cane and sugar yield (Gosh et al. 1990)

In a more systematic study, Fox (1976) has found internal (40 kg S ha - 1 ) and
external (10 kg S ha - 1 ) S requirement for cane. Improved cane yield following S
addition is reported by several workers (Fox, 1976, Ghosh et al., 1990). In an S-
deficient alluvial soil at Lucknow in Uttar Pradesh, significant yield increase was
recorded following S application and 80 kg S ha - 1 seems optimum (Fig. 11.11)
Yield increase of about 10 t ha - 1 was attributable to more millable canes, heavier
canes and root weight. Tandon (1991) while reviewing Indian work reported yield
increase from 10 to 32 t ha - 1 with a mean value of 21 t ha - 1 due to sulphur
dressing. Under All India Coordinated Project, Yadav (1999) reported yield in-
crease from 170 to 585 kg cane per kg S at 20 kg h a - 1 in the subtropics. In the
tropics, the response ranged from 130 to 250 kg cane per kg S. In Thiruvalla,
Kerala, response increased from 80 to 250 kg cane per kg S when the application

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

rate increased from 20 to 80 kg S ha - 1 . Yadav (1999) asserts that besides NPK,

application of S is likely to be essential for increasing cane productivity. Recent
research reveals that S dosage may range from 4 0 - 8 0 kg ha - 1 , depending on soil
type and management practice. Ghosh and his associates (1990) observed that S
was directly connected with N utilization and thus improved Nitrogen Use Effi-
ciency (NUE). Better N U E following S application is possibly associated with
increase in nitrate reductase activity which is a key enzyme for the utilization of N
in the plant (Table 11.21).
According to Ghosh et al. (1990), a critical soil S is 40 ppm. However, this is at
variance with Tandon (1991) who indicated 20 ppm in ammonium acetate ex-
traction (0.5 N N H 4 O A C + 0.25 N H O A C ) . Based on the available information,
it is generalized that the critical soil S is 20—30 ppm for sugarcane. But the critical
S concentration ranges from 0.5 to 0.8% in index leaf sheath, and in index blades
from 0.08 to 0.15% (Jones, 1985).

T a b l e 1 1 . 2 1 Effect of S on N use efficiency (NUE) and in vivo nitrate reductase

activity (dm (g) g -1 N m - 2 )
Levels of S NUE Nitrate reductase activity
ppm (dm (g) g -1 N m - 2 ) (n mol NO 2 g - 1 fresh wt. hr - 1

0 2.166 1652.4
40 2.226 1774.8
80 3.015 1989.0
120 2.536 2020.3
160 2.667 1805.4
Source: Ghosh et al. 1990.

11.5.1 Sources of S

Ammonium sulphate, gypsum, single super phosphate, ammonium phosphate

sulphate, pyrites and industrial wastes like press mud are good sources of S. At a
given level of S, press m u d is inferior to gypsum and single super phosphate, but
superior to pyrites. Yaduvamshi and Yadav (1991) showed that sulphitation press
m u d is a more effective source of S for sugarcane as it contains 2 - 3 % S. Wherever

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S deficiency is encountered, 50-100 kg elemental sulphur per ha may be mixed in

the soil prior to planting. Large increases due to soil application of elemental S
have been reported from alkaline-calcareous soils of Rajasthan.
In such soil, the effect of sulphur effect is partly due to lowering of soil pH and
correcting of crop chlorosis.

11.6

CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM

For near normal growth of sugarcane, 12% Ca saturation of exchange complex is

suggested (Tisdale et al. 1985). A crop yielding 88 t h a - 1 is estimated to remove
132 kg Ca ha - 1 (Hunsigi, 1993b). The critical level of exchangeable Ca in soil is
around 100 ppm. The Ca index (3-6 leaf sheaths) is 0.14 to 0.175% or 0.06% in
8-10 internodes. Top Visible Dewlap Lamina (TVD) is perhaps more sensitive to
Ca deficiency for which threshold values are 0.05 to 0 . 1 % Ca.
Acid soils in India cover about 50 m ha and occur in the Eastern, North East-
ern and Peninsular regions (Biswas et al. 1985). These soils are deficient in Ca and
Mg. Sugarcane grown in acid soils of Kerala, Assam, West Bengal and Goa re-
sponds to liming. Application of limestone at 1-3 t ha - 1 is recommended to plant
crop, which takes care of subsequent ratoons also.
Magnesium is more mobile in the plant than Ca. A ton of cane removes 0.85 kg
Mg (Clements, 1980). Mg shortage is accompanied by thinner stalks, shortened
internodes and internal browning (Evans, 1959). The T V D leaf of affected plant
contains 0.03 to 0 . 5 % Mg. Threshold exchangeable Mg in soils is around
30—50 ppm but sheath Mg of 0 . 1 % or 0.05% in 8-10 internodes appears to be
adequate. Clements (1980) suggests a tentative optimum level of Mg at 0.175%
in 3-6 leaf sheaths. Field deficiency of Mg by sugarcane grown in India has not
been observed. But in acid soils, it is safe to thoroughly mix dolomite in soil at
500 kg ha - 1 which provides both Ca and Mg. However, Biswas (1991) observed
that many soils in South China are deficient in Mg. Sugar and starch crops have
high Mg requirement. The sugarcane yield jumped from about 53 t ha - 1 in N P K
treated plots to 103 t ha - 1 by application of N P K + Mg. He recommended broad-
casting 0.5 — 1.0 t ha - 1 of dolomite to these soils.

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11.7

SILICON

Paddy and sugarcane are high siliciferous plants and the importance of Si has
been recognised since the time of Liebig. Saccharum sp. and the allied genera are
known accumulators of silicon. Its essentiality is questioned. However, the con-
sensus is that it is a beneficial element (Wild, 1988). The beneficial effect of Si is
due to its structural role, it increases resistance to insect pests and reduces lodging.
It increases strength and rigidity of cell walls and is instrumental for better water
relation. Silicon application to soil raises soil p H , reduces P fixation and toxicity
of Fe, Al, Mn, Zn and other metallic ions.
The control of 'freckling' in sugarcane is due to Si application, which acts as a
corrective measure to excess absorption of Fe, Al, Mn, Zn etc. (Clements, 1980).
Further, decreased acidity following Si addition caused better microbial activity
and release of organically bound N, P, and S. Better water use efficiency is also
attributed to Si uptake. In a significant contribution, Alexander (1973) contended
that Si application (in a narrow concentration) inhibits invertase activity and low-
ers the levels of acid phosphatase, improving sucrose synthesis. Clements (1980)
has presented the critical limits for secondary and beneficial elements in elongat-
ing leaf sheaths.

Dry weight, soluble sugar-free basis, % in 3—6 leaf sheaths

Ca Mg S Si
0.17 0.08 0.22 2.2
Source: Clements, 1980.

Response of cane to silicate materials can be anticipated only in highly water

logged tropical soils with low p H . This author admits that there is no significant
response to soil application of silicate amendment in acid soils of Kerala, Assam,
and West Bengal. But quality distinctly improves following the silicate sprays.
Calcium or sodium metasilicate acts as a ripener by converting reducing sugars in
the top internodes to recoverable sugars.

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11.8

MICROINUTRIENTS

Micronutrients or trace elements are required in small quantities, yet play a piv-
otal role by participating in the enzyme systems. These invariably have synergistic
or antagonistic effects with other nutrients. They interact with secondary ele-
ments such as Ca, Mg, Si and S, and have large influence on yield and quality of
cane. Another secondary element Na is beneficial to sugarbeet but is distinctly
harmful to sugarcane for it reduces cane quality. However, with inadequate K
supply, Na in a narrow range can take the physiological function of K. The im-
portance of Na and C1 for C4 plants, notwithstanding sugarcane, was well recog-
nised for they increase the activity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, a pri-
mary enzyme in photosynthesis (Tisdale et al., 1990), of C4 plants. Interestingly,
lack of Na will cause some plants to shift their CO 2 fixation pathway from C4 to
C3 (op. cit.). Both Na and C1 are known to regulate water relation and largely
influence sugar output.
Under field conditions the deficiencies of Mo, C1, Cu and B are practically
unknown (Jones, 1985). But deficiency of Fe, Mn and Zn is of economic impor-
tance for sugarcane grown under field conditions.
Based on the available literature, some generalizations are presented in Ta-
ble 11.22 with regard to the role of minor elements in cane yield and sugar out-
put. Further, the FUE of micronutrients is very low, in the range of 2 - 3 % (Singh,
1999).
Investigation in sand culture showed that the deficiency of Zn, Cu, and Mo
causes chlorosis and shortening of internodes and depression in catalase activity
(Agarwala et al., 1986, 1987). While maximum reduction in catalase activity was
observed in Mo deficient plants; boron deficiency caused marked reduction in
sucrose in cane stalks. T h e critical limits in elongating leaf sheaths of sugarcane
reported by Clements (1980) are 2 ppm B and 10 ppm for Zn, Cu, or Mn on
sugar-free dry weight basis.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

11.8.1 Iron and manganese

Iron deficiency cannot be seen in isolation since iron interacts with Mn. True iron
deficiency is quite rare since sett contains sufficient Fe to support early growth.
But lime, carbonate, bicarbonate, P, and heavy metal induced iron chlorosis is of
frequent occurrence in States of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Ma-
harashtra, and in certain areas of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Iron-manganese
interactions-are well documented. In normal cane Fe : Mn ratio is 15 : 1 or more.
But Fe deficiency/Mn toxicity results in a narrow ratio of 1 : 1 or even less. Iron
deficient plants accumulate Fe in the nodal region. It is reasonable to assume that
inactivity of Fe in the tissues due to high pH of cell sap is responsible for iron
chlorosis. Further explanation is given by Marschener (1998) who states that in
calcareous soils p l a n t s a d o p t "strategy I I " w i t h e n h a n c e d release of
phytosiderophores (PS) with specific uptake system for Fe +3 .
Amelioration of Fe deficiency is achieved by soil application of F e S O 4 at
25-30 kg ha - 1 or foliar spray of 2%. Yadav (1993) obtained a field response of
2083 kg and 2508 to 7809 kg cane per kg of soil applied Fe and Mn respectively.
He recommended 10 kg ha - 1 of soil application of M n S O 4 in Mn deficient soils.
As foliar spray the response was 5800 kg ad 2340 kg cane per kg of F e S O 4 and
M n S O 4 respectively (loc. cit.) Iron chelates like Fe EDTA or Fe E D D H A are
more effective than iron salts. However, sulphur application at 500 kg h a - 1 is
most effective in correcting the iron chlorosis.
It can be concluded that S application created balanced nutritional environ-
ment, forestalled chemical/biological inactivation of Fe and thereby improved
yield and quality of cane.
Manganese differs from other elements in that both deficiency and toxicity can
be seen under field conditions. Interveinal chlorosis is a distinct symptom of Mn
deficiency in sugarcane. In Mn deficient soil 10 kg M n S O 4 ha - 1 is applied to soil.
Foliar application at 2 kg ha - 1 as M n S O 4 is equally effective.

11.8.2 Zinc

The deficiency of this element in sugarcane is widespread and is frequently en-

countered when sugarcane is taken in rotation with rice. In South Africa large
areas show Zn deficiencies due to monocropping (Meyer, 1999). T h e deficiency
symptoms can be recognised by the stunted growth and patchy appearance. T h e

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

distinctive symptoms are: defective and deteriorative spindle, young leaves tend
to curl and stalks are severely piped. Severe Zn deficiency often results in drastic
reduction in cane and sugar yield. Liming induces Zn deficiency and solubility
decreases as pH increases. Antagonism between Zn and P is well documented;
they are physiologically inactivated in the roots itself. This adversely affects the
translocation of both the elements to the upper plant parts. Besides P, high con-
centration of Fe, Mn, and Cu causes severe Zn deficiency. This can, however, be
overcome by soil application at 20-25 kg Z n S 0 4 ha - 1 or foliar spray of 1-2%.
Yadav (1993) obtained a response of 2181 kg cane per kg of Zn applied through
soil. T h e response to foliar spray was 5518 kg per kg Zn. It is evident that foliar
spray is superior to soil application. Among the varieties, Co 6304 responded
more in tonnage to application of Zn and other micronutrients than C o C 671
and C o C 8201. Interestingly in Sindh province of Pakistan, sugarcane setts are
treated with zinc oxide (0.2%).

11.8.3 Other micronutrients

Under field conditions the deficiency of Mo, CI, Cu, and B in C4 plants is prac-
tically unknown (Jones, 1985). It is observed that the level of C1 in sugarcane is
high enough to be recognised as a major element. Agarwala and his associates
(1987) in sand culture studies observed maximum reduction in catalase activity
in Mo deficient plants. The problems of Cu and Mo is less severe than Fe since the
former elements have residual values. Boron deficiency results in marked reduc-
tion of sucrose in cane stalks. The primary role of B is the transport of sugars
across cell membranes as poly-hydroxyl-complexes (sugar-borate complexes). This
author obtained more than 1% pol in juice following a boron spray (1 kg B ha - 1 ).
Copper exists in the chemisorbed or occluded form in hydrous oxides of Fe,
Al, Mn or complexed with organic matter. This explains its low availability in
histisols of Florida (Barnes, 1974). The copper deficiency in cane is well recog-
nised by 'droopy top' and slow unfurling of spindle leaves. The stalks are soft and
rubbery in Cu deficient plants. There is hardly any need to apply Cu through soil/
foliar for sugarcane grown in vertisols/alfisols/entisols of tropical or subtropical
India.

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11.9
VISUAL SYMPTOMS OF NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES AND DISORDERS

Nutrient deficiencies and their disorders can be recognised by visual symptoms

which are very characteristic to that nutrient. This needs a very close observation.
And a lot of experience is needed to diagnose them visually and suggest remedial
measures. The typical deficiency symptoms in sugarcane are listed here under.

Nutrient Mobility in plants Symptoms

N Highly mobile Paling or chlorosis of old leaves reduced tillering,

gradually entire crop appears yellowish and growth
stunted.
Highly mobile Stunted growth, purple, orange or pink colour of
leaves, prominently seen in young leaves in wee
hours. Older leaves dark green colour. Reduced
tillering and lowered shoot root formation.
K Highly mobile Older leaves show marginal burning starting from
tips. Inverted 'V Shaped burning ('marginal fir-
ing'). In extreme case the entire plot looks 'fired'
(brown coloured).
Ca Immobile Rarely encountered under field conditions. N e w
leaves become white, growing points die and curl.
Mg Slightly mobile Marginal or interveinal cholorosis with pinkish
colour of older leaves. Some times leaf rolling
occurs as in drought conditions.
s Highly mobile Interveinal chlorosis of older leaves, leaves become
narrower, shorter and pointed. Canes Thinner and
taper at the tips.
Zn Mobile Stunted and patchy growth. Rusting in 'strips'
of older leaves, chlorosis in mature leaves
reduced tillering.
Fe Immobile Chlorosis of younger leaves. Under severe defi-
ciency entire leaf becomes yellow and then white.

con td.

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

contd.

Nutrient Mobility in plants Symptoms

Mn Mobile Interveinal chlorosis, starts from older leaves.

Advanced stages show necrosis.
Cu Mobile Rare under field conditions. Young leaves become
yellow, stunted. On severely affected older leaves
die back. Advanced stages dead tissue appears along
tips and edges of leaves, similar to K deficiency.
Cl Highly mobile Very rare under field conditions. Chlorosis of
young leaves, rolling and die back.
Mo Mobile Mottled pale appearance in young leaves bleach-
ing and withering of leaves.
Bo Mobile Pale green tips of blades, bronze, tint, death of
growing point.

Table 1 1 . 2 3 Critical nutrient concentration in index tissues.

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The critical or threshold nutrient concentration in index tissues at early to

grand growth stage (3-6 months) are presented in Table 11.23.

11.10

NUTRITION MANAGEMENT

11.10.1 Soil and tissue testing

Soil testing remains an excellent pre-plant advisory tool although soil-test crop
correlations are still to be worked out in many cases. As a very general indication,
soils having less than 0.5% organic carbon or 250 kg ha - 1 of alkaline permanga-
nate-oxidisable N are rated low in N, soils having less than 20 kg P 2 0 5 ha -1 are
rated deficient in P, and those having less than 150 kg K 2 O ha - 1 are rated low in
available K.
Tissue tests quantify the nutrient status of the plant, and can be supplemented
with soil test data.

11.10.2 Crop logging

Clements (1980) is credited with having given a comprehensive system, popu-

larly known as 'crop logging'. According to him, the crop log like a ship's log is
record of progress from its start until the arrival of harvest. It is essentially a criti-
cal concentration approach and critical levels need to be determined for each
region.
By and large, sheath moisture index (3-6 leaf sheaths) is universally accepted as
a single parameter which predicts the performance of the plant. Another advan-
tage of crop log data is that midterm corrections can be made. The index tissue of
N is 3—6 leaves and for all other elements 3—6 leaf sheaths are taken. Work done in
India shows that crop logging based on index sheaths is better than stalk logging
(8-10 intemodes) or third dewlap (Lakshmikantham et al., 1970). The indices
supposed to give good growth, high yield and better sugar recovery in tropical
and subtropical regions of India are given in Table 11.24. It is intriguing that crop
log is rarely adopted in sugar factories in India.

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T a b l e 1 1 . 2 4 Crop log data for different growth phases of sugarcane in South India

11.10.3 Diagnosis and Recommendations Integrated System

(DRIS)

The critical or threshold concentration (crop log) approach has been contested as
a means to fertilise the crop. Hence DRIS has been suggested as a better alterna-
tive. It provides a method of simultaneously identifying imbalances, deficiencies
and excesses in crop nutrients and ranking t h e m in order of importance
(Bailey et al., 1997). T h e DRIS model is designed to show when the nutrient
contents of crops are insufficient (—ve indices), adequate (zero indices) or exces-
sive (+ve indices) for maximum dry matter production. In essence, DRIS takes
into account nutrient ratios. Apart from nutrient ratios, dry matter index has also
been developed. T h e Nutrient Balance Index (NBI) denotes the balance among
nutrients and is obtained by adding the values of DRIS indices irrespective of
their sign. The larger the value of NBI, greater is the imbalance among nutrients.
The chief advantage of DRIS over crop log lies in its sensitivity to factors like type
and age of tissue, position of the tissue or the cultivar. A typical DRIS chart
showing NPK requirement by sugarcane (Cv Bo varieties) grown in aridisols
(calciorthids) is shown in Fig. 11.12. T h e DRIS chart shows the zone of suffi-
ciency and nutrient imbalance. T h e DRIS is not employed in India as an advisory
tool for scheduling fertilizer application to sugarcane. It has been found useful in
South Africa and USA, for the large plantations there.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

The South African sugar industry greatly depends on soil and leaf analysis
conducted by its Fertilizer Advisory Service (FAS) for identifying and correcting
nutrient disorders in sugarcane (Meyer, 1999). The computerisation of FAS rec-
ommendations lead to a programme known as NIRS (Nutrient Information Re-
trieval System). NIRS stores soil and leaf analysis data to categorise soils with
respect to their nutrient deficiency or sufficiency levels. Yield plateauing of sugar-
cane is attributed to acidification, Al-toxicity and P-fixation (op. cit.).

Fig 1 1 . 1 2 DRIS chart showing N, P and K requirement by sugarcane—A case

study with BO varieties

11.10.4 Integrated Nutrient Management System (INMS)

High input agriculture is at the crossroads and environmentalists warn us of seri-

ous ecological imbalance nothing short of disaster. Therefore, emphasis is now
placed integrative processes such as minimum/conservation tillage, use of cover
crops, green manuring and residue management to avoid crusting and compac-
tion. Recycling of industrial or organic wastes improves water and fertilizer use
efficiency. Moreover, the nutrient ratios (N : P 2 O 5 : K 2 O) have been very wide for

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

sugarcane (12 : 3 : 1). The optimum ratio for sugarcane is 2 : 1 : 2 (Humbert,

1968). A rational blend of organics and inorganics will remove the constraints,
contain yield plateaus and help to maintain soil quality. Sustained production of
cane and sugar is possible through INMS and its components as follows:
(a) use of organics such as farmyard manure, compost, etc.
(b) green manuring
(c) rotation and /or intercropping with short duration leguminous crops
(d) crop residues (stubble, trash etc.) incorporation
(e) use of industrial wastes
(f) biofertilizers—N 2 fixers both symbiotic and associative and P solubilizers
(g) balanced and optimal dose of inorganic fertilizers including the use of sec-
ondary nutrients and micronutrients (whenever needed).
Integration implies a happy blend of organic and inorganic sources of fertilis-
ers and bioagents. It is reasonable to postulate that at least 30% of chemical ferti-
lizers should be replaced by organic sources and biofertilizer. Yadav (1999) has
presented a big jump in cane yield following I N M S (Table 11.25) in different
locations.

Table 11.25 Effect of integrated use of Sulphitation Press Mud Cake (SPMC) and
biofertilizers with fertilizer nitrogen on yield of sugarcane planted crop at different
locations

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

T a b l e 1 1 . 2 6 Constraints in fertiliser use and suggested remedial measures in

important cane erowine areas of the country
Productivity (t ha - i )
State Present Immediate Constraints in Remedial measures/
1995 achievable fertiliser use strategies
-1996
Andhra 71.1 84.5 a) Moisture stress Supplemental irrigation
Pradesh and late K dressing
b) Waterlogging Drainage
in some areas
Assam 43.0 50.0 a) No proper fertilizer Balanced fertiliser use
schedule
b) Soil acidity Liming at 1-3 t ha - 1
Low-yielding varieties Responsive varieties
Bihar 53.7 60.0 a) No proper dose, Balanced fertiliser
time and method use of NPK 2 : 1 : 2
of application Adequate early N
fertilisation & PK dressing
b) Waterlogging Drainage
c) Poor ratooning Ratoons to be manured
Karnataka 80.5 85.0 a) Imbalanced use Balanced use of N P K
of fertilisers i.e. 2 : 1 : 2
b) Improper time and Point placement of
method of application fertilisers at peak need
c) Heavy dose of N
in canal areas
d) No proper varietal mix
Kerala 66.1 70.0 a) Fertiliser responsive Responsive varieties
variety needed to be identified
b) Soil acidity Use of liming material
including filter cake
c) Moisture stress at Trash mulching
grand growth
contd.

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Table 11.26 contd.

Productivity (t ha - 1 )
State Present Immediate Constraints in Remedial measures/
1995 achievable fertiliser use strategies
-1996
Maha- 88.8 104.7 a) Moisture stress Supplemental irrigation
rashtra in non-canal areas from groundwater,
Trash mulching
b) Saline alkali Reclamation through
filter cake application
Punjab 63.1 75.0 a) Freezing temperatures Use of polythene mulch or
and low F U E trash mulch to warm soil
soil to improve FUE
b) Saline and alkali soils Reclamation by amendment
Tamil 101.2 110.0 a) Moisture stress Trash mulching and late
Nadu K dressing
Exploitation of groundwater
Uttar 55.3 81.6 a) Low fertiliser dose O p t i m u m fertiliser use for
Pradesh and ratoons taken plant and ratoon crops
as free crop
b) Faulty method and Band placement at peak need
time of application
c) Moisture stress Trash mulching
Source: Srivastava et al. 1988 (modified). FUE = Fertiliser Use Efficiency

11.10.5 Constraint analysis

The production potential of cane is 4 7 5 t ha - 1 . Some progressive farmers in Ma-
harashtra and Karnataka have attained yields of over 250 t ha - 1 . This big yield gap
can be bridged by better management of fertilizers, water and adoption of supe-
rior management practices. Some of the constraints in fertilizer use and their
remedies in major cane growing areas of India are listed in Table 11.26.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

In the final analysis, fertiliser management holds the key for economic produc-
tion of cane. The integrated nutrient supply system comprising organic and inor-
ganic sources, biofertilisers and green manuring ensures sustained cane and sugar
production. Spot application of fertilisers and synchrony between nutrient de-
mand by plants and supply help to improve substantially the fertilizer use effi-
ciency.

11.11

BIOLOGICAL SOFTWARE IN SUGAR INDUSTRY

The Biological Software (BSW), naively defined, are the microflora and fauna
which increase nutrient bioavailability, enhance degradation of crop residues, in-
crease pathogenesis and offer resistance to many biotic and abiotic stresses. The
general BSWs are show in the flow diagram.
The rhizosphere, the volume of soil influenced by root activity, supports ben-
eficial bioagents like N 2 fixers, plant growth promoting rhizobacteria, and phos-
phate solubilising bacteria. There is rhizo disposition and lowered pH due to the
production of organic acids. Phytosiderophores or root exudates are produced
with strong complexation of metal ions. Root exudates detoxify Pb, C D , Al, etc.
due to complexation. There is production of Plant Growth Regulating substances
(PGR) or growth hormones (Hyperauxiny) like IAA, IBA, gibberellins, cytokinins,
and ethylene. Change in redox potential increases Fe+2 (ous) ionic species with
enhanced Fe availability, with reduced iron chlorosis. Rhizosphere is implicated
in pathogenesis (pathogen attraction). T h e poor root syndrome of sugarcane caused
by Pythium graminicola may possibly be controlled by rhizobacteria. In essence,
all nutrients are acquired, sense strictu from the rhizosphere.
Of concern to sugarcane are associative N 2 fixers (Rhizocoenosis). In tropical
soils, N is the most deficient nutrient element. Hence Biological Nitrogen Fixa-
tion (BNF) has an assured place in agriculture. T h e free living organisms (non-
symbiotic) found in association with sugarcane are Azotobacter sp., Azospirillum
sp., Acetobacter diazotrophicus, Bacillus, etc. Azospirillum is associative and
microerophylic and performs well under low O 2 tension; hence it is preferred in
compacted ratoon soils. Azotobacter is aerobic, hence, it is suited to planted crop.
Azotobacter fixes 30-35 kg N ha - 1 . Azospirillum is an important bacterial group as
it secretes PGRs like IAA and GA. It has high adaptability to varied temperature

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 11 Nutrition and fertiliser management

and soil p H . Acetobacter diazotrophicus, a saccharophilic bacterium is known to

significantly enhance sugarcane yields.

Cellulolytic microbes such as Cellulomonas, Trichoderma viridae decompose

recalcitrant material like trash and hasten production of humus. Further sapro-
phytic fungi of Trichoderma are antagonistic to pathogenic fungi. 77 viridae and
Paecilomyces lilacinus have the most potential as bio-control agents for soil borne
pathogens, i.e., root rot, wilt, damping off, etc. Incidentally, it is worthy of note
that T. harzianum has allelopathic effect on successive ratoons of cane.
Generally, cellulolysis and diazotrophy are carried out by a mixed microbial
community (microbial consortium) in which N 2 fixers can use either cellulose
and/or hemicellulose directly or their byproducts.
Mandal and Sen (1999) reported that siderophores produced by Aspergillus
niger AN 27 have fungistatic activity with better Fe supply to plants. They con-
firm that A. niger AN 27 produced b o t h groups of siderophores, namely,
hydroxamate and catecholate. Thus A. niger AN 27 has antagonistic activities,
rhizosphere competence and promotes growth.
Phosphate solubilizing microbes were causal in enhancing P and K uptake
with improved yield and quality of cane. This includes fungi, such as Aspergillus
awamori, Pencillium digitatum, and bacteria like Bacillus polymixa and Pseudomonas

187
Sugarcane In agriculture and industry

straita. Soil inoculation of Agrobacterium radiobacter or Bacillus magatherium in

plant crop and Aspergillus awamon or Bacillus megatherium in ratoon crop im-
proved yield and quality with 25% saving in P fertilizer.
' Mycorrhizae (ecto and end-) involves a unique symbiotic associate n between
plant roots and injecting fungi. The hyphae of Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae
(VAM) are the extension of the root system and are in fact P-mobilizers. This
association has increased nutrient uptake resistance to drought, salinity and. in-
leased tolerance to pathogens and promoted better soil aggregation. Sugarcane
has shown variable response to VAM (Glomus sp., Gigaspora, Acaulospore,
Solerorystis,). The VAM is more effective in P-deficient soils. These also improve
seedling vigour and growth. VAM has a role in the nutrition of P, Zn, Cu and S.
The importance of earthworms (Lumbricidae) has been known since the Ro-
man times. These are aptly called the Cinderella of organic matter. T h e impor-
tance of burrowing activity in relation to drainage, aeration, and soil aggregation
is well recognised. The mixed population of Eudriulus eugcniae, Perionyx excavatus
and Eisenia fetida in partially decomposed waste ensures a good vermicompost
which is a friable, loose humus with excellent manurial quality.

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 Water management

Sugarcane tolerates moisture stress to some extent but responds to irrigation; sub-
stantial inputs of water are needed to achieve maximum yield. Yields have been
found to increase directly with the amount of water available for unirrigated plots,
irrigated furrows and drip irrigated crops and upto a water application rate
1.46 times the rate of pan evaporation (Wiedenfeld, 1995). In tropical India the
number of irrigations range from 3 0 - 3 6 while in the subtropics it is 5-10. The
duty of water for sugarcane is fixed at about 80 ha or 200 acres. T h e water require-
m e n t of sugarcane grown in India varies widely from 114.3—304.8 cm
(Hapase et al.3 1990). In Maharashtra where the annual rainfall is about 50 cm,
the water requirement of sugarcane varied from 240 to 300 cm for suru crop
(January—February planting) and 320 to 350 cm for adsali crop (June—July plant-
ing). T h e water requirement of sugarcane grown in different states is given below.

Besides climatic and soil factors, the large variation in water requirement is due
to variation in the duration of the crop, ranging from 12 to 18 months. In a
recent study, Gupta and Tripathi (1998) stated that the water requirement in the
subtropics ranges from 800 to 1200 mm in the subtropics and from 1500 to
2000 mm in die tropics.
Soil also influences water requirement as it determines water holding capacity
(Sundara, 1998). T h e water availability increases with the fineness in soil texture.
In general, the available soil water (—0.033 to - 1 . 5 Mpa) in heavy textured soils is
200 m m , in medium textured soil is 140 mm and in coarse textured soil is 60 mm
per metre depth of soil. Quoting others, Sundara (1998) has presented available
soil moisture holding capacity of different soils in India (Table 12.1).
There are some special features of water requirement in sugarcane. There is a
linear relationship between water use and dry matter production. A positive N x
irrigation interaction is prominent which suggests that if the water supply is lim-

189
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

ited, sugarcane cannot take advantage of increased N availability (Wiedenfeld,

1995). However, mild water stress is necessary to promote root growth. Excessive
water at tillering reduces tiller production. A clear 'cut-out' or 'dry-off period of
4 - 6 weeks prior to harvest ensures better sugar recovery. According to Robertson
and Donaldson (1998) abstraction of water for 6—8 weeks during the maturation
phase is beneficial. But they caution that increase in sucrose yield occurred when
decrease in stalk biomass was no greater than 10%. This is the basis for determin-
ing the trade-off between the reduction in stalk biomass and sucrose yield. Admit-
tedly, increase in sucrose concentration occurred due to increase in soluble solids
and dehydration.

Table 12.1 Approximate available soil moisture holding capacity of different

soil textural classes

12.1

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET) OR CONSUMPTIVE USE (CU),

IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY (IE), AND WATER USE EFFICIENCY (WUE)

The terms Evapotranspiration (ET) or Consumptive Use (CU) are used to desig-
nate the losses due to evapotranspiration and the water that is used by the plant
for metabolic activities since the water used in the metabolic process is insignifi-

190
 12 Water management

cant (1.0% of ET). ET for sugarcane has been calculated by Hunsigi (1993a)
based on the modified Penman's equation.

ET = Kc. ETm ,

where E T m is maximum ET with no limitation of water and K is the crop coefficient.

For sugarcane, K is a minimum of 0.5 at crop emergence, has a maximum
value of 1.15 at full canopy and declines to 0.6 at maturity. ET or CU can be
calculated from USWB Pan evaporation (EO) since a good correlation exists be-
tween ET and E O . T h e coefficients for sugarcane range from 0.4 at the juvenile
stage to 0.8 at the formative stage. The peak water need is at the 'rapid close-in
period' or boom phase and the coefficient could be 1.0 to 1.2 (Fig. 12.1). Robertson
and Donaldson (1998) suggested a factor of 1.46 at the grand growth phase.
Figure 12.1 is suggestive that the coefficient declines to 0.6 at maturity.

Fig. 1 2 . 1 ET as a function of crop factor (F) and pan evaporation (E o )

(ET = F.Eo)

The Irrigation Efficiency(IE) indicates how efficiently the available water sup-
ply is used (Michael, 1978). T h e degree of land preparation, the irrigation system,
and the skill and care of the irrigator are the principal factors influencing irriga-
tion efficiency. Loss of irrigation water occurs in conveyance and distribution. In
sugarcane, mostly ridges and furrows are made and the runoff losses are highest at
the end of the irrigation borders and furrows. T h e Irrigation Use Efficiency (IUE)
is defined as the ratio of cane yield to the total amount of irrigation water used.

191
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

The important parameter most often used is Water Use Efficiency (WUE)
which is defined as the ratio of cane yield to seasonal net water used. In the present
context, WUE is defined as the ratio of cane yield and consumptive use.
WUE = Y/ET
Soopramanian (1999) in his review has shown that WUE ranges from 30 to
20 t ha-1 per 100 mm of water. The WUE for different countries may be obtained
from the slope of the relationship between cane yield and water use. Hunsigi
(1993a) has shown that WUE ranges from 0.7 to 1.45 t ha - 1 cm - 1 in different
sugarcane growing regions of the world. He concluded that W U E of 1.0 t cane
ha -1 cm - 1 or 0.11 sugar ha -1 cm -1 is optimum under the furrow irrigation system.
Gupta and Tripathi (1998) have shown that W U E varies from over 4 0 0 to
2200 kg cane ha -3 cm - 1 in different agro-climatic conditions of India (Table 12.2).

Table 1 2 . 2 Water Use Efficiency (WUE) of sugarcane grown in different agro-

climatic regions of India

WUE can be increased by improved varieties, N application, and irrigation

method. To further improve WUE, farmers in Australia are introducing ring tanks
or dams to collect tail water and surface runoff during the rains (Soopramanian,
1999). This water is recycled.

12.2

SOIL MOISTURE STATUS AND LEAF WATER POTENTIAL

Adequate soil moisture is necessary for growth, development, and yield of cane.
This also influences sucrose content and ultimate sugar recovery. Periodic soil

192
 12 Water management

samples are taken to know the moisture status. It is highly tedious. Tensiometers
are installed at regular intervals and irrigation is resumed when the tensiometer
readings are —25 to —35 Kpa.
In Australia and Columbia, mini-evaporation tanks are used to schedule irriga­
tion. It is a device with a plastic bucket of 20 litres capacity. T h e minimum stor­
age capacity is defined by the height of the overflow orifice near the rim and two
marks indicate the need to irrigate when the water level approaches them
(Soopramanian, 1999).
Turner (1990) pointed out that plants mirror the water need better than the
soil does. For example, the sheath moisture index of 3-6 leaves is 8 3 - 8 5 % during
the active growth phase (tillering to grand growth) and is 72—74% at maturity.
Similarly, 5 and 6 internodes (stalk logging) reflect the soil moisture status.
T h e leaf rolling index is a sensitive indicator of reduced soil-water availability.
But Inman-Bamber and Dejager (1986) reiterated that the leaf water potential
(Ψ L ) in situ is the most practical method of scheduling irrigation. T h e sequence of
events is presented in Table 12.3.

T a b l e 1 2 . 3 Leaf water potential (Ψ L ) of potted cane at different physiological

stages and moisture levels
Events Plant status ΨL (Mpa)

1. Plant extension rate reduced and the

youngest unfurled leaf begins to roll -0.8
2. Stomatal resistance starts to rise -0.8 to-1.0
3. Green leaf area reduced -1.0 t o - 1 . 7
4. Plant extension rate ceases and stomatal
conductance reaches a m i n i m u m - 1 . 3 to —1.7
5. Youngest unfurled leaf becomes fully rolled -2.0
6. Least number of living leaves and eventual stalk death -2.8
Source: Inman-Bamber and Dejager, 1986.

It is concluded that irrigation should be resumed before the young leaves start
to roll at a leaf water potential (Ψ L ) o f - 1 . 0 to -1.5 Mpa.
Three cardinal questions that require an answer are:

193
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

(a) When to irrigate?

(b) How much to irrigate?
(c) How to irrigate?

12.3

WHEN TO IRRIGATE?

Table 1 2 . 4 Irrigation intervals for different textured soils under different

climatic regimes
Soil textural class Irrigation interval (days)
Rabi Summer

Medium to fine textured deep soils 25-30 14-18

Coarse textured medium deep soils 10-14 5-6
Source: Deshmukh and Jadhav, 1999.

Table 1 2 . 5 Irrigation intervals (days) for different cane growth phase under
varying soil types
Growth phase Irrigation intervals (days)
Coarse Medium Fine
textured soil textured soil textured soil

Germination
(0-45 days) 5-6 6-7 8-10
Tillering
(45-120 days) 6-7 7-10 12-15
Grand growth
(120-270 days) 7 10 12-15
Ripening
(270-360 days) 10 12-15 15-20
A clear cut-out period is to be observed for 4-6 weeks prior to harvest
Source: Sundara, 1998.

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 12 Water management

Irrigation to the crop depends on the soil, the climate, and the physiological stage
of the crop. In sandy soils more frequent irrigations are given. Similarly in arid
climates and in the formative stage of the crop irrigation frequency is more. The
national seminar on irrigation suggested the following irrigation intervals
(Deshmukh and Jadhav, 1999) (Table 12.4).
Soils play an important role in scheduling irrigation, primarily due to their
available moisture status. Sundara (1998) has furnished irrigation intervals for
different growth phases of cane grown in varying soil types (Table 12.5).
T h e critical period of a crop is an important concept which aids in scheduling
irrigation. T h e critical period is the stage during which the absence of irrigation
results in yield reductions upto 5 0 % or more. In sugarcane, tillering and grand
growth are critical stages. Even in tillering, the first, second, and third order tiller-
ing are critical in that sequence. At the stalk elongation stage, abstraction of water
leads to shortened internodes with more pith formation. However, sugarcane can
recover from a short period of water stress when o p t i m u m irrigation is resumed.

12.4

HOW MUCH TO IRRIGATE?

This also depends on the soil type. In sandy loam soils the normal depth of irriga-
tion under furrow method of irrigation is 2.5 to 3.75 ha—cm at the early forma-
tive phase. At grand growth including stalk elongation, the irrigation depth is 5.0
to 6.5 ha—cm. In Maharashtra, for cane grown under heavy soils the depth of
irrigation is 7.5 ha—cm. However, with increased depth of irrigation, irrigation is
less frequent.
Experiments have also demonstrated that sugarcane can be irrigated at 7 5 %
available soil moisture or 5 0 % available soil moisture, if a trash blanket of
5-8 t h a - 1 is provided. This author has shown that irrigating cane at 74 mm
Cumulative Pan Evaporation or CPE (15 days interval), after providing a trash
mulch of 8 t ha - 1 , has resulted in a very high yield in sandy loam soils of Mandya.
Frequent irrigations at 19 mm C P E (4 days interval) and a trash mulch of
8 t ha - 1 greatly reduced the cane yield (Table 12.6). He has also observed that
irrigating cane at the rate of U S W B Pan evaporation (1.0 x EO) was far superior
to irrigating at half the rate of pan evaporation (0.5 x EO) (Table 12.7).

195
12 Water management

196
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

197
 3™*r'T—^^"TT

Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

12.5

HOW TO IRRIGATE?

There are several methods to irrigate sugarcane. In subtropical India, wild flood-
ing is practised where the cane is planted in flat beds. There is a considerable loss
of water with reduced water use efficiency. The most common method of irriga-
tion is the ridges and furrow method, which is essentially, a surface method of
irrigation. There are micro-irrigation systems such as the overhead or sprinkler
system and the drip system or trickle system.

12.5.1 Sprinkler irrigation

This is suitable in undulating topography and where surface irrigation is difficult.

It simulates rainfall. The amount of water applied is equal to or less than the
infiltration rate of the soil. Sprinkler irrigation is suitable in sandy soils where the
infiltration rate is high. Hapase and co-workers (1990) at the Vasant Dada Sugar
Institute, Pune have shown that the sprinkler system resulted in a yield increase of
15-20% with about 30 to 40% saving in water. In Cuba, over 50% of the cane
area is irrigated through sprinkler systems.
Plastic pressure pipes or polyethylene pipes can be used with static or mobile
machines. There is overhead equipment such as mobile gun travellers. The use of
medium and low pressure nozzles (100 kPa or less) has helped to develop sprin-
klers such as drag line. They have gained popularity in African countries. The
boom sprinkler system has been in use in some countries. The raingun sprinkler
system can also be used to irrigate sugarcane fields. The centre pivot or linear
move system is considered a recent breakthrough. The efficiency of the sprinkler
system is as much as t i e drip system but the field corners are not irrigated. A
software package HYDRUS-2D has been developed which allows analysis of wa-
ter and nutrients (Soopramanian, 1999).
The sprinkler system has many disadvantages. It cannot be used in heavy clays,
dark Mg clays and black cotton soils, where the infiltration rate is very low. It
needs power and considerable skill to operate. It requires high initial investment;
uniform water distribution is not possible on gusty-windy days. A serious prob-
lem of the sprinkler system is that the roots are shallow with a tendency to lodge.

198
 12 Water management

This system of irrigation is not found in India and the author is not aware of any
large-scale plantation under the sprinkler system of irrigation.

12.5.2 Furrow method of irrigation

This is the most common method of irrigating sugarcane in India. Despite poor
water application and low W U E , the furrow system is followed in large areas of
the world. Initially, ridges and furrows are made and cane is planted in the fur-
rows. At final earthing up (3-4 months later), the ridge becomes a furrow and
serves as an irrigation channel. At this stage, long furrows are connected in the
form of a serpent; it is popularly known as 'serpentine method of furrow irriga-
tion'. Fertilisers can be applied through the irrigation water (fertigation); a bag of
urea can be placed near the entry of water. T h e length of the furrow depends on
the slope and the soil type. In a level land, the furrow length could be 5 0 - 1 0 0 m.
Soopramanian (1999) has stated that if the furrow length is increased from
300 to 700 m, the W U E decreases from 7 3 % to 4 2 % . Narrow 'V' shaped furrows
are preferred to wide ' U ' shaped furrows. Sundara (1998) has stated that in Tamil
Nadu 'check-basin cum furrow' irrigation is followed. In this, the water is let into
a set of 5-6 furrows which are connected at both ends. However, the check basin
method of irrigation is advocated in sodic soils.
The National Seminar on irrigation has recommended the replacement of the
traditional basin-cum-furrow irrigation by straight a n d c o n t o u r furrows
(Deshmukh and Jadhav, 1998).
The straight furrows are suited where the land slope does not exceed 0.75%. In
intensive rainfall areas, the slope should not exceed 0 . 5 % to minimise soil erosion.
The contour furrow method is similar to the graded and level furrow methods
where furrows carry water across a sloping field rather than down the slope. Con-
tour furrows are curved to fit the topography of the land. T h e furrows are given a
gentle slope along their length as in the case of graded furrows. Contour furrows
can be employed in most soil types except in light sandy soils or cracking soils.

Alternate furrow/skipped furrow irrigation

Under water scarcity situations, it is advisable to adopt skipped/alternate furrow
irrigation. T h e author has found that alternate furrow irrigation and skipped double

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

row planting economised the total water use by about 32%; the latter treatment
improved cane yield by 14% compared to the normal practice (Table 12.8).
Another low cost technology is to irrigate alternately—alternate irrigation. In
this system, the first furrow is irrigated and the second furrow is skipped. In the
next irrigation, the second furrow is irrigated and the first furrow is skipped and
so on. There is at least a 30% saving of water and this is suited to areas under well
irrigation and drought-prone areas.

T a b l e 1 2 . 8 Effect of irrigation treatments on yield, yield attributes, quality

and total water used by plant cane
Treatments Spacing Plants Weight Cane Total Pol in
between per per yield water juice
rows m2 cane (t ha -1 ) used* (%)
(cm) (kg) (mm)

1. Alternate 90 15.72 1.00 110 1292 18.66

furrow
irrigation
2. Skipped 90 14.94 1.01 101 1193 17.03
furrow
irrigation
3. Double 60 16.72 1.05 129 1193 18.32
row planting
with 120 cm
skipped
4. Normal 90 16.50 1.25 113 1541 19.08
practice
(conventional)
*Inclusive of 455 mm rainfall.
Source: Hunsigi and Shankariah, 1982.

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 12 Water management

Surge irrigation

Surge irrigation is the regulated, pulsed application of water in furrows, irrigating

the permeable soils in furrows by interrupting the irrigation when only half or
two-thirds of the advance is completed (Stewart, 1995). The irrigation is then
completed 12—48 hr later. According to Stewart (1995), interrupting the supply
and dewatering of the soil decrease the soil infiltration capacity and thus improve
the water advance in subsequent pulses. It is believed that surge irrigation would
restrict deep percolation losses and permit uniform water application. The reason
offered for lowered percolation losses is the filling of the pores. The water saving
is 25—33% in sandy soils and 2 0 % in loamy and clay soils.

12.5.3 Drip or trickle irrigation

Drip irrigation is the frequent and slow application of water to the base of the
root zone of each plant through mechanical devices or holes called emitters (drippers
or applicators) placed along the water delivery line. The drip system can be kept
on the ground surface, under the ground surface or even at a certain height above
the ground surface. T h e drip irrigation systems used in sugarcane can be catego-
rised as follows:
I. Surface drip system
(a) Microtube system
(b) Pressure compensating drip system
(c) Non-pressure compensating drip system
II. Subsurface drip system
(a) Bi-wall system
(b) Turbo tape system
Studies at the Vasant Dada Sugar Institute, Pune have amply proved that sur-
face drip irrigation is superior to subsurface drip irrigation. T h e surface drip sys-
tem is shown in Fig. 12.2. The water carrying lateral pipes are placed on the soil
surface close to the plant and emitters are fixed at regular intervals to discharge
water at required rates. Water so delivered wets the root zone and there are no
water losses. The water saving is to the extent of 50—60%, yield increases by 1 2 -
3 0 % and sugar recovery improves by 0.5 to 1.0 unit. In the subsurface system, the

201
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

lateral pipes are buried in the soil near the root zone and water is delivered in
trickles. The bi-wall system of irrigation is a subsurface system. Surface drip irri-
gation is far better than the subsurface system. The fertiliser tank (Fig. 12.2) is
employed to apply fertilisers (fertigation), chemicals (chemigation), and herbi-
cides (herbigation). Drip irrigation is used under well or tank irrigation where
water is scarce. Poor quality water such as saline water can also be used for irriga-
tion. But, dripper clogging is frequent, due to salt encrustation. This can be man-
aged by regular acid treatment. It is done by feeding 30% hydrochloric acid through
venturi into the drip system until the pH of the farthest emitter is below 4.0 and
then leaking it overnight and flushing. Drip tubes and drip tapes are better de-
vices but their disposal after the crop cycle can become an environmental issue.

Fig. 1 2 . 2 Field layout of the drip irrigation system

Drip irrigation has many disadvantages like clogging of the emitters, damage
by rodents and damage to the system during cultural operations. Due to the de-

202
 12 Water management

velopment of surface feeder roots, cane is bound to lodge severely. The system
requires considerable skill to install and operate. At present the cost of drip sys-
tems ranges from Rs 50,000 to Rs 80,000 per hectare depending upon the type of
system and the size of the field. To be cost-effective, the m i n i m u m cane yield
under drip systems should be 250 t ha - 1 . Paired row planting as well as four row
planting is proving more beneficial under drip systems.

12.6

DRAINAGE

Irrigation and drainage are inseparable. Removal of excess water on the soil sur-
face is termed 'surface drainage', while the removal by downward flow through
the soil profile is referred to as 'internal drainage'. Sugarcane needs at least 10%
aeration for root respiration. Moreover, sugarcane cannot stand 'wet feet' for a
long time. In ill-drained soils, cane shows yellowing and curling of young leaves;
adventitious roots are formed with restricted root system—yield and quality are
lower. Poorly drained soils are associated with low soil temperature and reduced
microbial activity. T h e greatest disadvantage of poorly drained soils is that
trafficability is reduced which hinders cane haulage. Clements (1980) demon-
strated that in ill-drained soils cane 'freckling' occurs which is a symptom of Si
deficiency and toxicity of Fe, Mn, and Al. Application of calcium metasilicate is a
corrective measure to reduce the toxicity of Fe, Mn, and Al, and control sugarcane
freckling. The application rate of calcium metasilicate is 1.0 to 1.5 t h a - 1 in acidic
ill-drained soils.
Drainage of sugarcane soils can be improved by surface or subsurface drains.
The cheapest method is to have the surface drains at regular intervals and drain
the water at a common outlet. In some cases, if a c o m m o n outlet is not available,
the drained water has to be pumped out. Tile or tube drainage can be used suc-
cessfully to improve internal drainage and lasts for several years although initial
costs are high. Perforated clay tiles are cheap and can be used with advantage in
heavy black soils. Some layout designs for sugarcane field drainage are given else-
where (Hunsigi, 1993a).

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Plate 12.1 Drip system

Plate 12.2 Layout

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 12 Water management

Plate 12.3 Fertiliser mixing tank

205
 Managing the ratoon cane

13.1

RATOONING DEFINED

The origin of ratoon is obscure but a century ago an unknown Hawaiian farmer
recorded that only good ratoons pay. But the earliest ratoon seems to have started
in Fujian province, East China in 1727. The word ratoon seems to originate
either from Latin word retenus or Spanish word reteno or the French word rejeton.
Essentially, ratoon cropping implies more than one harvest from a single plant-
ing. Thus, early man's observations in the regrowth of grassland as a basis for
multiple harvest from the original root system has led to ratoon cropping in some
crops including sugarcane (Plucknett et al., 1970).
It is difficult to estimate the area under ratoon cane either globally or regionally.
There could be as many as 6 to 8 successive ratoons, as in Taiwan or just a single
ratoon (plantooning) as in Hawaii due to soil problems and mechanical damage
to stools. Ideally, in a plantation the ratoon and plant crop should make up 3 3 %
and 67% of the total cane area respectively.

13.2

WHY RATOONS?

There is an old cliche that ratoons only pay and to ignore a ratoon is to ignore the
provenance of nature. The quintessence of ratoon cropping is shorter crop cycle,
reduced cost of production (particularly seed) and better utilization of climatic
conditions, especially the monsoon. Ratoons help to extend the grinding period
of sugar factories for they mature earlier than the plant crop due to early dehydra-
tion of tissues and flushing out of N.
In terms of energy consumption, Kishan Singh (1981) observed that produc-
tion of one ton of ratoon cane requires 89.04 million calories while 204.55 mil-
lion calories is needed by the plant crop. The most important advantage of ra-
tooning is its economic production. There is a clear saving of 5 - 7 t ha - 1 of seed
material. One survey has indicated that plant cane requires 482 man days as
against 295 for ratoon crop. There is a net saving of 1 3 - 1 5 % in the total cost of
production.

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 13 Managing the ratoon cane

Ratoons are not bereft of limitations. In fact, they are inferior bio types evolved,
in the ecological mosaic and have many disadvantages—build-up of pests, dis-
eases, weeds build-up, runout of commercial varieties, and poorer utilization of
applied fertilizers, especially nitrogen. To produce a ton of cane from plant and
ratoon, the N required is 0.97 kg and 1.99 kg respectively (Lakshmikantham,
1983). Ratoons contain more pith and fibre than the plant crop. N o t only does
arrowing commence early but it is perhaps more in ratoons than in the virgin
crop. In some varieties like Co 419, Co 62175, and Co 4 2 1 , water shoots or 'lalas'
(bull shoots or suckers) are more in ratoons than in plant crop.
In general, ratoon yields tend to be lower with reduced juice quality compared
to plant cane, though there are exceptions to this rule. But the greatest disadvan-
tage of ratoon is its restricted stubble root system. Van Dillewijn (1952) has al-
luded to the rope system of ratoon stubble roots which is less efficient in absorb-
ing water and nutrients. Several investigations led to the convincing conclusion
that the absorption of major and minor elements at the critical stages is restricted
(depends on the formation of shoot roots) with a transient symptom of ratoon
chlorosis (Hunsigi, 1993a, and Humbert, 1968).

13.3

THE ROOT SYSTEM IN RATOONS

A study of the root system in ratoons is of special significance, because response to

cultivation, fertilizer application, and water management depends to a great ex-
tent on the stubble roots of ratoon . T h e special features of ratoon root system are:
(a) Ratoons have a shallower root system than the plant crop as far as the ab-
sorbing part is concerned (Peng, 1984).
(b) The shoots of successive ratoons originate at higher levels than those of the
plant crop; hence ratoons have less anchorage and are more susceptible to
lodging and water stress.
(c) Initially, ratoons start functioning on the old stubble roots which is essen-
tially a rope system (Van Dillewijn, 1952). T h e old stubble root is less effi-
cient in absorbing nutrients and water because it is highly suberized.
(d) In the beginning, the functional white succulent shoot roots of ratoons are
very much restricted.

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(e) The transition period between the decay of stubble roots and the initiation
of new shoot roots depends on soil and climatic conditions, and may vary
from 6-8 weeks. The old root system gradually ceases to function and de-
cays. Under tropical conditions, a ratoon will have developed its own root
system in 2 - 3 months.
(f) The trend of tiller production closely follows the pace of shoot root forma-
tion (op. cit.). Hence the presence of late tillers is an indication of a vigor-
ous root system.
A detailed examination of the root system of ratoons of Co 62175 in red soils
of Mandya (alfisols, xeralfs) was carried out adopting the method of Evans (1935)
by using a jet of water. During the first, 3—4 weeks after stubble shaving, more
than 9 0 % of the root system comprised stubble roots. T h e lateral spread of stub-
ble roots was 1.76 m and the depth was about 1 m. White new shoot roots just
begin to form. The stubble roots show great ramification, are darker in colour,
highly suberized, and less efficient. Humbert (1968) demonstrated rather con-
vincingly that the absorption of 3 2 P was limited due to stubble roots. Similar
observations were made at the ISSR, Lucknow.
Operations like 'off-barring' or shoulder breaking coupled with heavy early
earthing up are advocated to facilitate the decay of stubble roots and ensure early
formation of shoot roots. The decaying stubble roots may temporarily immobi-
lize nitrogen and reduce its availability to the crop. Immediately after the harvest
of the first crop, stubble shaving is done to encourage the development of vigor-
ous shoots at the ground level, ensuring synchronous tillers with firm anchorage.
However, these operations are not recommended in many sugarcane growing coun-
tries like Australia, South Africa, Taiwan and many parts of Latin America. Torres
and Villegas (1995) demonstrated that the use of tynes seemed to have a detri-
mental effect due to root pruning which adversely affected the growth of succeed-
ing ratoons in the wet mollisols of Columbia.
Soil compaction has a detrimental effect on ratoons. Srivastava (1981) studied
the relevance of soil compaction in ratoon management. Taking more than one
ratoon resulted in deterioration of soil physical conditions as judged by Bulk
Density (BD) values and per cent pore space (entisols) (Table 13.1).
T h e ideal bulk density of sugarcane soils is 1.2 to 1.3 kg m-3. Similar observa-
tions were made in vertisols of Kolhapur region.

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Another disadvantage of ratoons is their imbalance in the shoot-root ratios at

the beginning; the optimum ratio of 15 to 20 is attained at a much later stage.
Chapman (1988) suspected that the old root system eventually may provide an
unfavourable rhizosphere to the new root system.

Table 13.1 Effect of number of ratoons an bulk density values (BD) and %
pore space
Soil depth BD kg m-3 (Co 1148)
(cm) IRC II RC III RC IV RC
0-15 1.48 1.59 1.61 1.48
16-30 1.57 1.62 1.63 1.54
31-45 1.63 1.65 1.73 1.56
46-60 1.67 1.67 1.76 1.61
% pore space
0-15 43.8 40.0 39.2 43.8
16-30 40.0 38.8 38.5 41.9
31-45 38.5 37.7 34.7 41.1
46-60 37.0 37.0 33.6 39.2
Source: Srivastava, 1989.

13.4

FERTILIZATION

13.4.1 Nitrogen

Nitrogen is a key nutrient and influences the yield and quality of the cane. It is
known to increase the primary sources, i.e. leaves, tillers, and dry matter produc-
tion. Adequate and early N fertilization is highly essential for ratoon cane to ob-
tain the desired objectives of high cane and sugar yield. But research has amply
demonstrated that to produce 1 ton of ratoon, nearly double the dose of N is

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required as compared to the plant crop. The data of Chow and Samuels (1977)
show that the Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) was 1111 kg cane per kg N applied
for the first crop and the values for the successive ratoons decreased to 1020 and
902 kg cane per kg N. Leaf N dropped more in ratoons than in plant crop.
Nitrate reductase activity in the leaf lamina is lower in ratoon than in plant cane
(Rai er al., 1989). Hence higher dose of N is required to produce more sugar from
ratoons than plant cane. Limited experiments conducted in the Mosso region of
Burundi (Central Africa) showed that the response to N was consistent but was
linear in the first ratoon and curvilinear in the second ratoon (Hunsigi, 1993a).
There was no residual effect of N in subsequent ratoons. At best 2 to 6% residual
N is used by the ratoon crop (Ng Kee Kwong and Deville, 1987). Therefore,
Zende (1990) advocated a soil log of 40 ppm N O 3 - N throughout the crop cycle
to ensure an optimum yield of plant crop and successive ratoons.
Sundara and Tripathy (1999) established convincingly that in multi ratooning
(one PC + 3 RC) Soil Available N (SAN) declined sharply by 2 6 . 3 % at the end of
the third ratoon (Table 13.2). Sugarcane varieties influenced SAN levels; high
yielders depleted SAN more than low yielders. Additional N to the tune of 2 5 %
of the recommended dose improved SAN levels. N losses are more pronounced in
multi ratooning. Thus, additional N application, trash mulch and subsequent
decomposition by cellulolytic bacteria (spreading cow dung slurry) are the sug-
gested remedial measures to increase SAN levels under multi ratooning (op. cit.).

Table 1 3 . 2 Mean Soil Available N levels (mg kg -1 ) under multi ratooning in

tropical vertisols
Measure- After I Ratoon II Ratoon III Ratoon
merits plant crop

Mean of 103.3 98.1 94.1 87.1

12 Cvs
lsd .05 4.2 2.8 3.6 3.2
Source: Sundara and Triparhi, 1999 partially modified, Initial soil available N 118.2 mg kg-1

Globally, the average range of responses varied from 0.05 to 0.21 kg - 1 N applied.
Still greater responses are anticipated in highly N-deficient soils. An increased
ratoon yield following N addition is attributed to the increased number and weight

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 13 Managing the ratoon cane

of millable stalks. A reduced NUE in ratoons is ascribed to an imbalance in the

shoot-root ratio at the juvenile stage, delayed shoot-root development, and rela-
tively inefficient stubble roots.
Gascho et al. (1986) demonstrated that with a normal rate of N application,
ratoon yields are far less than the plant crop yield (Table 13.3).

Table 1 3 . 3 Effect of N rate on the yield and its attributes in plant and ratoon
canes
Nrate Millable Stalk (Yield t ha -1 )
(kg ha-1) stalks weight Cane Sugar
(x10 3 ha -1 ) (kg)
Plant crop
0 34.2 0.52 24.1 3.1
56 45.3 0.56 29.7 4.0
112 41.2 0.57 27.7 3.9
224 47.7 0.59 32.7 4.4
Ratoon crop
0 27.0 0.39 15.5 1.7
56 35.4 0.50 20.3 3.0
112 39.0 0.52 20.3 3.0
224 50.0 0.66 36.8 5.5
448 58.5 0.67 42.9 5.9
896 42.8 0.63 33.3 4.0
Source: Gascho et al., 1986.

This is attributed to lowered internal and external NUE in ratoons compared

to the plant crop. The internal NUE is defined as one kg of sugarcane or sucrose
per kg of N accumulated in the above ground portion. External NUE is one kg of
sugarcane or sucrose per kg of applied N. In a recent study of sugarcane
(cv. Co 7804) grown in red sandy loam soil of Mandya (alfisols, xeralfs), it was
observed that ratoons not only had less internal or external NUE, but lowered N-
harvest index (HI N ) (Table 13.4).

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It is to be noted that the external or internal N U E and H I N declined as the

applied N levels increased.

Table 1 3 . 4 External and internal nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and Nitrogen
harvest index (HI N ) of plant and ratoon cane (First ratoon cv. Co 7804)
N Levels External Internal N-Harvest Index
(kg ha -1 ) NUE NUE HlN
Plant
150 1.207 1.418 0.650
250 0.813 1.291 0.540
375 0.526 1.129 0.530

Ratoon
150 0.814 1.058 0.380
250 0.661 0.782 0.380
325 0.624 0.685 0.400
Note: Nitrogen harvest index (HIN) = Nitrogen content in stem (kg)/total N uptake (kg)
Source: Hunsigi, 1993b.

Response to applied N also depends on the cane cultivars. It was observed in

red sandy loam soil of Mandya that cultigen Co 7804 is more responsive to N
than Co 419. Similar observations were made by Gascho et al. (1986), who ob-
served that CP 65-357 gave higher response to N in terms of both cane and sugar
yield. This cultivar has the highest NUE. The authors advised that the N U E can
be enhanced by the selection under low N conditions.
Conscious efforts were made to improve N U E in ratoon cane by the use of
slow-release N fertilizers. But the results are not consistent. Zinde (1990) had
shown that urea blended with neem cake (cake made from seeds of Azadirachta
indica) proved to be effective and he recommended a blending of 300 kg N as
urea with 140 kg neem cake (-10-12% neem oil). However, studies in red soils of
Mandya have shown that point placement of Urea Super Granules (USG) re-
sulted in an extra yield of 17 t ha-1 over an average of 4 seasons (Table 13.5).

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 13 Managing the ratoon cane

Table 1 3 . 5 Effect of urea vs USG on ratoon cane yield (t ha -1 ) in Co 62175

N Source Plant crop IR 2R 3R 4R
1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84
Urea 125 99 94 100 90
USG 124 109 112 109 102
Increase
over USG 1 10 18 9 12
Source: Hunsigi, 1993a.

Extensive field studies have shown that in some soil types associative N fixa-
tion termed 'diazotrophic rhiozocoenosis' results in the addition of over
75 kg N ha -1 (Boddey et al., 1991). The promising N fixers are Azospirillum and
Azotobacter, and cane cultivars differ in their response to these bioagents. The data
presented in Table 13.6 reveal an interaction between N levels and biofertilizers.

Table 13.6 Interaction between N levels and biofertilizers (cv. Co 62175 grown
in alfisols, xeralfs)
N levels Cane yield (t ha -1 )
Untreated Treated with Azospirillum Mean
Azotobacter

125 148 152 154 151

250 199 203 207 203
375 194 198 200 197
Mean 181 184 187 -
lsd 0.5 - 6.04 - -
CV% - 2.76 - -
Note: Biofertilizers at 25 packets, each of 200 g (5 kg ha -1 ) were applied to the soil.
Source: Hunsigi, 1993b.

It is evident that Azospirillum is slightly superior to Azotobacter. It is obvious

that their effectiveness reduces with the increase in N dosage. The study further

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suggested that Azospirillum being micro-aerophillic, is more suited to compacted

ratoon soils.
Another sure way to improve NUE is the incorporation of intercropped leg­
ume residues like French beans, sunnhemp, greengram or soyabean. Both the
quality and quantity of biomass incorporated in soil determine the improvement
in ratoon cane yield (Table 13.7).
The biomass incorporated in soil should be succulent, high in N content, and
easily decomposable. Incorporation of legume residue is associated with increased
mineralizable N (-200 kg ha - 1 ) for upto 6 months and with increased dehydroge­
nase activity (30-35 μl H, evolved per 5 g soil). The data in Table 13.7 reveals
that there is a saving of 50 leg N ha - 1 and at a higher N level, the effect of residue
incorporation is diminished.
Response of ratoon cane to applied N has been well described by Hunsigi
(1989). Among the several models tested such as Mitscherlich, power functions,
etc. the second degree polynomial predicted the ratoon yield to N levels in most
soils.

Table 13.7 Effect of incorporation of legume residue on yield (t ha - 1 ) First ratoon

of Co 419
Treatment N levels (kg ha - 1 )
200 225 250

1. Incorporation of legume 156 159 152

residue (mean vield of 4
intercrops)
2. Entire cane 111 138 147
Increase of 2 over 1
treatment (%) 28.8 13,2 3.3
Source: Hunsigi, 1993a.

13.4.2 Phosphorus

Clements (1980) reiterated that ratoons require nearly double the amount of P
compared to the plant crop because they have to start the root system denovo.

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 13 Managing the ratoon cane

Phosphorus is essential to hasten the formation of shoot roots and increase tillering
of ratoons. But its availability depends on the fixation of native and applied P. To
circumvent this problem, it is suggested that P should be applied in localised
concentrations through carriers like compost, FYM, bagasse, etc. Workers in South
Africa felt that top dressing of P over cane trash was more effective in ratoon cane.
Similarly, Pelwatte Sugar Co. Ltd., Srilanka advocated P application to trash
blanket.
Among the sources of P, concentrated triple super phosphates (44—52% P 2 O 5 )
are used in the sugar industry. If sulphur deficiency is anticipated, then single
super p h o s p h a t e is used. T h e greater effectiveness of rock p h o s p h a t e s
(27—41% P 2 O 5 ) with a fineness of 100 mesh (150 μm) in acid soils is well recog­
nised. The ratoon crop benefits from the residues of P applied to plant cane
(Fig. 13.1). The data in Fig. 13.1 indicates a progressive decrease in the advantage
derived by the ratoon from the soil built-in P. This is possibly due to early shoot
root formation.

Fig. 1 3 . 1 Performance of successive ratoon on plots containing substantial

residues of P applied to plant cane (+ RP) and without residual P (-RP)

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In general, the response of ratoon cane to P dressing is more consistent than

that of plant crop and 1 kg P 2 O 5 results in a response ranging from 0.035 to
0.075 t h a - 3 . Nevertheless, lower concentration of P is recorded in cane leaves of
ratoon crop than in the planted cane. As regards the efficiency of applied P, both
plant and ratoon crop seem to behave similarly. T h e improved yield following P
application is attributable to increase in tiller production, weight per cane, and
final stalk population. Addition of P tends to increase the pol in juice at an opti­
mum P level; besides, juice purity is enhanced.
The recovery of added P is barely 2 0 % due to its fixation. Hence, efforts should
be made to improve P-use efficiency through Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizae
(VAM) and P-solubilising bacteria. Fox and his associates (1990) contended that
sugarcane is least mycorrhizae-dependent. T h e species of Pseudomonas, Bacillus
and Streptomyces are the major microbes responsible for P solubility. Among the
fungi, Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, and Aspergillus awamori are known to solubilise
P. Recent studies have shown that phosphobacterin Bacillus megatherium
var. Phosphaticum improved the yield and quality of both plant and ratoon cane
when it was mixed with rock phosphate.
Filter press mud (PM) is an important source of P fertilizer. Prasad (1976)
advocated thai the application of 20 t h a - 1 PM is optimum and increase in cane
yield ranges from 30-60% in plant and ratoon cane. There is an improvement in
sugar yield following PM application. Investigation in Mauritius (Ng Koe Kwong
and De Ville, 1988) and Cuba (Arzola and Carrandi, 1982), confirm these results
and suggest that PM increases organic matter content of soils with enhanced N
uptake. Press mud is a better source of P than triple super phosphate and supplies
both secondary and minor elements. At Bacita Sugar Estate, Nigeria, PM with an
average composition of N (1.05%), P (0.47%) and K (0.68%) at 10-20 t h a - 1 in
conjunction with recommended fertilizer dose ensured highest cane and sugar
yield besides sustainable productivity.

13.4.2 Potassium

Adequate K in the root environment is a sine qua non for successful production of
ratoons. T h e agronomic value of K rests with the increase in volume of cane,
[Volume of cane, V= π x L x D x 3/4; where L = length of cane (cm), D = Diameter
(cm)] which in turn reflects the improved girth and weight per cane.

216
 13 Managing the ratoon cane

Potassium is also associated with cane quality as it improves pol per cent in
cane. A good response to applied K was observed in red, mixed red and black
soils, but the response is doubtful in alluvial soils as they contain K-bearing min-
erals like illite. Threshold values of exchangeable K, in neutral ammonium acetate
for sugarcane range from 65 to 150 ppm (Duflo, 1976). In South Africa, this
value was raised to 225 ppm in heavy textured soil. We assert that exchangeable K
per se is a poor index of K availability in continuous cropping as in sugarcane
ratoons. Hence, a portion of non-exchangeable K but plant available fraction
termed the 'Step-K' should be included along with the labile pool to predict sat-
isfactorily the K availability to ratoon cane. This is further confirmed by Wood
and Shroeder (1992) who have employed 0.1 m BaCl 2 as soil K extractant, which
extracts non-exchangeable K from inter-layer sites of clay mineral. They concluded
that BaCl 2 extraction has led to improved K prediction for sugar industry soils.
The response to applied K in red, mixed red and black soils range from 0.06 to
0.117 t ha - 1 kg - 1 K 2 O at an optimum level of K 2 O 100-120 kg ha - 1 . However,
in heavy textured soils, the K response decreased progressively, a phenomenon
which may be associated with soil compaction, decreased aeration, and conse-
quent restricted root growth.
Interaction between the major elements in ratoons is noticed. Potash addition
in the presence of P improved both yield and quality of cane in red, mixed red and
black soils. In view of such positive interactions, H u m b e r t (1978) suggested an
optimum N P K ratio of 2 : 1 : 2. Duflo (1976) suggested N : K ratio of 1 : 1.7. It
is generalised that for ratoons N P K ratio of 1 : 0.7 : 1.5 seems optimum.
The response of varieties to applied N P K levels in planted and ratoon cane
differs significantly.
Figure 13.2 depicts the overall response of the varieties (plant and ratoon) to
composite NPK levels and shows that ratoons have a response pattern similar to
that of plant cane but their yield potentials are of a lower order.
A generalised response of ratoon cane to three major elements is depicted in
Fig. 13.3. The range of response is more with K followed by N and P. It is further
observed that the Mitscherlich equation and Cobb-Douglas function failed to
predict satisfactorily the response of ratoon cane to applied N P K fertilizers. How-
ever, the quadratic and square root models satisfactorily explained the nature of
response to applied major nutrients (Table 13.8).

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Fig. 13.2 Response of plant and ratoon cane to NPK fertility levels

Table 13.8 Response models of ratoon cane to applied NPK

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 13 Managing the ratoon cane

Fig. 1 3 . 3 Range of response of ratoon cane (t ha l ) per kg of N, P 2 O 5 , and

K 2 O at their optimum levels of application

13.4.3 Secondary, m i n o r , and beneficial elements

Micronutrient or trace elements are required in small quantities, yet play a pivotal
role in plant growth. These invariably have synergestic or antagonistic effects with
other nutrients. Secondary elements which usually interact with other
micronutrients and have large influence on yield and quality of cane are Ca, Mg,
S, and Si. Other micronutrients like Na and C1 are known to regulate water rela-
tion (osmoregulatory) and influence sugar output. The information on this as-
pect is sketchy.
In the early years of the fertilizing practice for continuous cropping with sugar-
cane, these minor and secondary elements were 'incidental'. But monoculture of
cane, lack of addition of organic matter, and use of high analysis fertilizers led to
the deficiency of minor/secondary nutrients in some regions. Hence this requires

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corrective measures. A permanent solution could be the rendition of cane with

prolific surface and subsurface feeder root system to exploit micronutrients present
in the soil.
In acid soils, deficiency of Ca and Mg is usually encountered. Hence applica-
t i o n of limestone at 1-3 t ha - 1 to the plant crop improves the yield of subsequent
ratoons. But it is cautioned that excessive liming reduces the uptake of Mg, K,
and other minor elements with a concomitant decrease in yield and sugar output.
Ca acts as an ameliorate/conditioner; Mg is more a nutrient. Qu-Ming and Ju-
Ming (1986) reported t h a t vast areas of Fujian province of China are deficient in
Mg and respond to a d d i t i o n of Mg.
Liming improves t h e yield and quality of cane grown in acid soils. In Belle
Sandy Phase, Bacita Sugar Estate, Nigeria, liming at 10 t ha - 1 has increased cane
and sugar yield of r a t o o n crop (Table 13.9).

T a b l e 1 3 . 9 Effect of lime on yield and quality of cane (First ratoon, Cv. Co

997), Belle Sandy Phase, Bacita Sugar Estate, Nigeria

Source: Pers. commn. S. P. Jaiswal.

Similarly in acid soils of Thiruvilla, Kerala, lime applied to the plant crop
improved the yield a n d quality of ratoon cane (Hunsigi, 1993b) (Table 13.10).

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 13 Managing the ratoon cane

Table 1 3 . 1 0 Effect of lime on yield and quality of ratoons in acid soils of

Thiruvilla, Kerala, India, applied to plant crop

Source: Hunsigi, 1993b.

LR—Lime requirement, NS—Non Significant

Sulphur is the fourth important nutrient for sugarcane next to N, K, and P. Its
deficiency is increasingly widespread. The typical deficiency symptoms are
interveinal chlorosis and anthocyanin pigmentation on leaf margins. Leaves be-
come narrower, shorter, and pointed (Tandon, 1991). Canes are thinner and ta-
per rapidly at tips. Ratoons are more susceptible to S deficiency than plant crop
(loc. cit.).
In a more systematic study, Fox (1976) has found the internal (40 kg S ha -1 )
and external (10 kg S ha -1 ) requirement of S for cane. In another significant
contribution, Ghosh et al. (1990) observed that S is directly connected to N uti-
lization with associated improvement in NUE. Increased NUE due to S dressing
is possibly due to increased in vivo nitrate reductase activity which is a key enzyme
for the entry of N into the plant system. Positive and significant S x N interaction

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is being noticed. Sulphur also acts as a slow release N fertilizer. Sulphur coated
urea provides sustained N supply. With an emphasis on recycling of industrial
wastes, PM from sulphitation process is better than carbonation process. Wher-
ever severe S deficiency is observed, 20—30 kg elemental sulphur is mixed into the
soil prior to planting, which takes care of subsequent ratoons.
Iron deficiency cannot be seen in isolation. Hence, Fe-Mn interaction is con-
sidered. True iron deficiency is a rarity under field conditions. But lime, C O 3 ,
H C O , , P and heavy metal induced iron chlorosis is of frequent occurrence. Ra-
toons are more prone to Fe deficiency due to restricted root system in the initial
stages. In acid soils, Fe-Mn interaction is well documented. In a normal cane
Fe : Mn ratio is 15 : 1 or greater, whilst, Fe deficiency/Mn toxicity is associated
with a ratio of 1 : 1 or even less (Evans, 1959).
Iron deficient plants have an accumulation of Fe in the nodal region but the
mobility in the tissues is very much restricted. It is reasonable to postulate that the
inactivity of Fe in the tissues is due to the high pH of cell sap which is primarily
responsible for iron chlorosis. Ratoon chlorosis observed in red soil of Mandya is
due to Fe deficiency. But it is transient and this nutritional disorder is observed
when plant crop is harvested leaving large butts or planted shallow. In general, Fe
deficiency can be ameliorated by 25—30 kg FeSO 4 soil application or 2 kg FeSO 4
as foliar spray. Iron chelates are more beneficial.
Manganese differs from the other elements in that both deficiency and toxicity
can be seen under field conditions (Jones, 1985). Interveinal chlorosis and small
pointed leaves in ratoons are a distinct symptom of Mn deficiency.
Zinc deficiency in sugarcane plant/ratoon is frequently seen in South and South
East Asia where cane is taken in rotation with flooded paddy rice. T h e deficiency
symptoms can be recognised by the stunted growth and patchy appearance. Liming
induces Zn deficiency and its solubility decreases as pH increases. Antagonism
between Zn and P is well documented. Besides P, high concentration of Fe, Mn,
and specially Cu causes severe Zn deficiency. This, however, can be overcome by
soil application (20-25 kg Z n S O 4 ha - 1 ) or foliar spray ( 1 - 2 % Z n S O 4 ha - 1 ). Foliar
spray is superior to soil application.
T h e deficiency of other micronutrients like M o , CI, Cu, and B in C4 plants is
practically unknown in field-grown conditions (Jones, 1985). Bowen (1972) ob-
served that the level of C1 in sugarcane is quite high for CI to be recognised as a
major element.

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 13 Managing the ratoon cane

Silicon is a beneficial element. Paddy and sugarcane are highly siliciferous plants
and the importance of Si has been recognised since the time of Liebig. Saccharum
and the allied genera Miscanthus and Erianthus are Si accumulators (Jones, 1985).
It is absorbed as silicic acid [Si(OH)4] by an active process. The multiple effects of
Si include rise in soil pH, improved P nutrition and water relation in plants, and
reduced uptake of Mn, Fe, Zn, and other heavy and toxic metals. It is instrumen-
tal in disease resistance, reduces lodging and improves stalk length in cane. 'Freck-
ling', a necrotic leaf spot condition, is a symptom of low Si in sugarcane receiving
direct sunlight. But Si addition ameliorates this malady since it filters harmful
ultraviolet radiation (Tisdale et al., 1990). Recent evidence affirms that silica cells
in sugarcane provide 'windows' in the mesophyl tissues, thus improving light in-
terception and CO2 fixation, leading to high growth rate and increased sugar
accumulation. It is well documented that Si suppresses the activity of invertase,
peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, and phosphatase (loc. cit.). The reduced activity
ratio of acid invertase to natural invertase (AI/NI) is evident following sodium
meta silicate sprays (Hunsigi, 1993b).

Table 13.11 Response of first ratoon to silicate rates (Cv. CP 63-588)

Source: Elwad et al., 1882.

To ascertain the role of Si, experiments were conducted by Elawad, et al. (1982)
with TVA and Florida slag as sources of silicon. These materials contain 16-24% Si
and 16-18% Ca as well as other essential minor elements. Irrespective of the
source, Si application to low silica soils, such as histisols, improved yields of cane
and sugar (Table 13.11). An increased cane yield following Si addition was attrib-
uted to the increases in plant size, plant height, stem diameter, stalk density, and

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improved photosynthetic efficiency (Table 13.11). The applied Si improved leaf

chlorophyll content and corrected leaf 'freckling'. The authors concluded that Si
is necessary for normal growth of plant/ratoon and that leaf 'freckling is a symp-
tom of its absence. The optimum rate of application of silicate material for ra-
toons is 5-15 t ha-1 (Elawad et al., 1982).

13.5

FOLIAR DIAGNOSIS

Crop log was introduced by Clements (1980). Crop log is a record of progress
from the start until the arrival at harvest. Crop logging is successfully used to
monitor, evaluate or schedule fertilizer application to maximise crop production.
This approach has been contested in recent times. Soil tests remain an excellent
pre-plant practice and Critical Nutrient Levels (CNL) are good guides for sched-
uling fertilizer application to plant crop. But its reliability is questioned for suc-
cessive ratoons (Elwali and Gascho, 1984). Recent research seems to be in favour
of nutrient ratios rather than the CNL approach. Hence Diagnosis and Recom-
mendation Integrated System (DRIS) seems to have an edge over the Clements/
Hawaiian crop log approach. Eiwali and Gascho (op. cit.) pointed out that DRIS
is suitable for successive ratoons as a foliar diagnostic technique and is a better
guide to fertilizing cane. They obtained higher cane and sugar yield when the
fertilizer dose was based on DRIS, rather than on soil test values or the CNL
approach (Table 13.12).

Table 13.12 Effect of soil testing, CNL approach and DRIS system on Ratoon
cane and sugar yield

Source: Eiwali, and Gascho, 1984.

224
 Improved yield is attributed to late application of both major and minor ele-
ments as revealed by DRIS.
T h e relation between DRIS index and N levels in plant and ratoon crops of
Bo 91 grown in alluvial soils (aridisols, calciorthids) is shown in Fig. 13.4. It is
seen that ratoons tend to have more negative DRIS values than the plant crop
confirming that ratoons are less efficient utilizers of N than plant crop.

Fig. 1 3 . 4 Relation between DRIS index and N levels in plant and ratoon crop
(cv. Bo 91) in alluvial soils of Pusa, Bihar

Advances in foliar analysis technique are provided by Schroeder and co-work-

ers (1995). According to them, DRIS is more appropriate for young cane. This
provides corrective fertilizer treatment to the current crop. And leaf analysis of
ratoon cane is subsequently used for evaluating the correctness of the original
advice based on soil tests (loc. cit.).
DRIS is specially suited for micronutrients as antagonism (P-Zn) or synergism
(S—N) is more prevalent. As an illustration, DRIS indices of ratoon cane obtained
by Elwali and Gascho (1984) are presented in Table 13.13. The DRIS indices
may be positive or negative but their sum is always zero. The most negative index
indicates the nutrient most required and most positive index indicates the nutrient

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least required. An index close to zero suggests that the nutrient concerned is present
in adequate supply.

Table 1 3 . 1 3 DRIS indices of ratoon cane in Histisols of Florida

Source; Eiwali, and Gascho, 1984. Partially adopted.

The Nutrient Balance Index (NBI) presented in the last column is the measure
of balance among nutrients in each field. Thus NBI is obtained by adding the
values of DRIS irrespective of sign. The larger the value of NBI the greater is the
imbalance among nutrients.

13.6

TIME AND METHOD OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION

Studies in Australia have shown that the plant crop takes 3.5 to 5.0 months to
'close-in' compared to 3 to 3.5 months in ratoon. The fertilization schedule should
be completed before the 'rapid-close-in' period. Hence early fertilization to ratoons
is obvious.

Table 1 3 . 1 4 Fertilization schedules for ratoon cane

Single basal application after Two equal splits: Immediately
harvest of crop after harvest and 3 - 4 weeks later

Medium and heavy black soils Very sandy and sandy loams
with high C E C
Early maturing, short duration Late maturing and non-flowering varieties
and drought tolerant varieties
Co C 6 7 1 , CoJ 64, CoC 90063
High tillering varieties wirh initial Low tillering varieties with low initial vigour
vigour
e.g.: N C O 310, N C O 376, Heavy rainfall and coastal regions
B 37172, Co 62175,
Q 58 Co 7804, Co 86032, Co 8371

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 13 Managing the ratoon cane

To improve the fertilizer use efficiency, time and method of application assume
great importance. Band or point placement to the stool is recommended as this
ensures easy availability of nutrients through mass flow and diffusion. Some broad
generalizations on the time of fertilizer application to ratoons are given in Table
13.14. Employing 15 N labelled fertilizer, Ng kee Kwong and Dieville (1995) dem-
onstrated the superiority of a single application at grand growth stage or in two
equal splits. N carriers had little effect on N recovery.

13.7

YIELD ATTRIBUTES OF RATOON CANE

An attempt was made to find out the yield components of ratoon cane which can
be manipulated through agronomic, physiological, and genetic means. It was ob-
served that the yield attributes like cane length, girth, and weight per cane have
substantial contributions towards ratoon yield (Cv. Co 7804) and the situation is
represented in the multiple regression equation:

y = - 1 1 0 + 6.8363 X 1 + 25.8352 X 2 + 607.0244 X 3 ,

+ 0.0430 X4(R2 = 0.955)
where Y= ratoon cane yield (t/plot)
X1 = cane length (cm)
X2 = cane girth (cm)
X3 - cane weight (kg)
X 4 = cane population per plot

The combined effect of these yield attributes contributes nearly 96% of the
variation in yield. It is worth noting that the weight per cane and cane girth have
a greater contribution than the stalk density and cane length as is evident from the
significant slopes associated with these parameters. T h e path coefficient analysis
is depicted in Fig. 13.5. It is seen that cane weight has a direct contribution to
cane yield, while others have more indirect contributions.
Similar observations were made by Chapman (1988) who reported that the
stalk weight and stalk number are important ratoon yield determinants. While
explaining the yield variation in ratoon yield, Chapman (loc. cit.) concluded that
both Light Interception (LI) and Light Use Efficiency (LUE) declined in ratoon

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crops. LUE is dependent on gross photosynthesis, Specific Leaf Nitrogen (SLN),

temperature, and dry matter partitioning. Low LUE explains reduced stalk weight
at harvest in ratoon crops.

Fig. 1 3 . 5 Path coefficient showing yield contributing factors in ratoon cane

The physiological basis of variation in ratoon yield is the shift in population

dynamics. To start with, ratoons would have a plant density of 30 m -2, but there
would be an exponential drop and the density stabilizes at 10-12 m - 2 . Tiller mor-
tality is to the extent of 50-60% in the formative phases. The exact nature of tiller
mortality needs to be unravelled. Perhaps, lack of light due to mutual shading
causes high tiller mortality.

228
 13 Managing the ratoon cane

13.8

QUALITY: RATOON VS PLANT CANE

Ratoons mature earlier than the plant crop due to early dehydration of the tissues
and flush-out of N. This is why ratoons are preferred for milling early in the
season. T h e quality estimates of plant and ratoon cane (Table 13.15) are made by
the Pol Ratio (PR), namely, Tons Cane/Tons Sugar (TC/TS). And admittedly, the
lower the pol ratio, better the quality; PR values may range from less than 5 to
over 15 (Table 13.15).

13.9

CULTURAL REQUIREMENT

A great diversity exists in the cultural requirement of ratoons. In India, Kenya,

and Uganda, stubble-shaving and shoulder breaking or off-barring are advocated,
while these operations are totally dispensed with in countries like South Africa,
Australia, Taiwan, and in many Latin American countries. It is reasonable to be-
lieve that in regions where manual harvesting is done, stubble-shaving has a dis-
tinct advantage in promoting uniform, stout, and vigorous shoots. Further, shoulder
breaking opens the soil, permitting better aeration and water infiltration. This

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facilitates the decay of old stubble roots and promotes early shoot root formation.
In Swaziland and South Africa, ripping and chiselling did not result in yield ad-
vantage (Leibbrandt, 1984). It is a common truism that successive ratoons leave
the soil compact with increased bulk density and reduced porosity. Humbert (1968)
opined that root development was gradually retarded as the bulk density increased
from 1.1 g cc -1 to 1.6 g cc - 1 . Root proliferation and extension of roots practically
ceased at a bulk density of 1.9 g cc - 1 . In such compact soils, 0 2 potentials are low
with a subsequent reduction of water and nutrient uptake.
Thus, under most soil conditions, sub-soiling in the interrows of ratoons is not
worthwhile and a conventional plough depth of 20—25 cm is quite adequate
(Moberly, 1969). From his review, Soopramanian (per. commn.) concluded that
soil ripping or deep inter-row cultivation is of little value, except in heavy soils
where compaction is a problem. Conservation tillage has been recommended in
Australia, while minimum tillage through chemical ploughing using glyphosate
has been advocated by Iggo and Moberly (1975) in South Africa.
With respect to spacing, a closer spacing of 0.5 m is better than 1.0 or 1.5 m to
obtain higher biomass, cane, and sugar yields. On the other hand, closer spacing
creates problems with weed control (Shih and Gascho, 1980) and working with
machinery. The final banking up operation is done in many countries which greatly
contains lodging. This would be difficult in a closely spaced crop. As a practical
measure, 1.0 m spacing seems optimum in many sugarcane growing soils. Re-
garding harvest time on subsequent ratoons, the general consensus is that they
should be harvested early. Ambient temperature, humidity, and other parameters
have a profound influence on ratoon yield and quality.
Trash handling is an important operation in ratoons. It is invariably burnt after
the previous harvest of the crop. But as environmental concerns are uppermost,
we recommend that a trash blanket be aligned in the cane rows, which inciden-
tally controls weeds. One distinct advantage of trashing (putting trash on the soil
surface or trash mulching) is conservation of soil moisture. But trash does not
easily decompose due to high content of lignin and hemicelluloses. Hence a sug-
gestion is made to add lime/superphosphate/press mud/urea or cowdung slurry
to act as starters and facilitate the decay and organic matter build up.
 13 Managing the ratoon cane

13.10

NUMBER OF RATOONS

Mainland China has nearly three-centunes-old ratoons but this does not justify
multi-ratooning, which is perhaps a contingency. And to take as many ratoons as
feasible is an oversimplification of the complexities involved in ratoon cropping.
In Venezuela, 9-20 ratoons and in Taiwan 7-8 ratoons are common. In Australia
2-3 ratoons are grown, while Hawaii adopts single ratooning (plantooning).
Careful study by this author in Mosso region of Burundi (Central Africa), indicated
that relatively more ratoons can be taken (4—6) in heavy alluvial soils than in light
textured ferrisols. But even a single ratoon is improbable in saline/sodic/acidic
soils. Interestingly, Blackburn (1994) has observed that the number of ratoons are
controlled by a statute or by legislation in Barbados, Queensland, Java, and Taiwan.
Multi-ratooning can probably be practiced in well-drained deep soils with high
native fertility. This calls for careful gap filling, judicious and timely application
of organics (including green manure) and inorganics, trash mulching to conserve
soil moisture, and a high level of management.

Fig. 13.6 Sugarcane crop cycle, Bacita, Nigeria

Figure 13.6 depicts the crop cycle observed in Bacita Sugar Estate, Nigeria
(pers. commn. S. P. Jaiswal). It was suggested that ratoons are not economical
beyond 4.The yield declining factors (FY) have been proposed by Brzesowsky
(1986). These are:
FYP = 0, FYR 1 = 0.9, FYR 2 , = 0.85, FYR3 = 0.75, FYR4 = 0.65, FYR5 = 0.55
and FYR5 = 0.50

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

where P represents plant crop and R1 , R2, etc. are the first, second ratoons, etc.
The declining trend in subsequent ratoon yields is due to soil compaction, extent
of gaps, and pests and diseases associated with ratoons. In soils with 2 : 1 clay,
soils get compacted with decreased number of ratoons. Yields are reduced due to
restricted root system following reduced 0 2 potentials, water, and nutrient u p -
take.
The decision to replant may also be guided by Breakeven Yield Difference
(BYD). Threshold cane yield may also be taken as a benchmark to decide replant-
ing (Fig. 13.6). Shaw (1989) introduced Ratoon Performance Index (RIP) which
considers the accumulated yield decline between a reference yield (annual average
yield of plant/ratoon cane) and the yield of second to fifth ratoon. In monetary
terms, replanting should be done when the value of the accumulated yield decline
exceeds the planting cost (Soopramanian, G. C. pers. commn.)
Prudence, ecology, and economics dictate that the number of ratoons should
be restricted and pulse crops be rotated for sustained productivity. Hence, Peng
(1984) has asserted that in recent years, there has been a tendency to reduce the
number of ratoons to no more than 2 due to an evident build up of injurious
pests, diseases, and weeds.

13.11

RATOONING POWER OF CULTIVARS

Good ratoon ability of cane cultivars is an essential prerequisite for success but
many questions arise as to what makes one a better ratooner than the other
ratooners. The significance of ratooning power was well recognised from the 1930s
and varieties like Co 312, Co 205, and Co 285 were released for general cultiva-
tion. It was postulated that the varieties with a high content of Spontaneum plasma
are better ratooners.
Eurgo, Co 419, Co 740, Co 6806, Co 6415, and Co 1158 proved to be better
ratooners. The experience of this author has shown that B 37172, N: Co 310,
and N C O 376 are good ratooners. However, cane needing special attention, thick
cane like Q 49 is not a good ratooner. It was conjectured that high contents of
both recoverable and reducing sugars in the stubble, induce ratooning power in
successive ratoons. Findings of Shrivastava et al. (1981) confirm these observa-
tions (Table 13.16). Further, partitioning of dry matter in ratoons indicated that

232
 13 Managing the ratoon cane

the contribution of leaf and sheath was proportionately more in ratoons than in
spring or autumn planted cane.

T a b l e 1 3 . 1 6 Sugar content, leaf, and sheath weight in planted and ratoon

cane (Cv. Co 1148)

Source: Shrivastava et al. 1981. Data modified and adopted.

It is hypothesised that reducing sugars in stubble play a dominant role in im-

parting greater ratooning power to cultivars since they are utilised for respiration
of newly emerging sprouts. However, Singh and Agarwal (1981) propounded the
nutritional theory for a succession of ratoons. The presence of adequate quantities
of both major and minor elements in stubbles and subsequent availability to ra-
toon shoots would possibly decide the ratooning power of cane cultivars.
The inheritance of ratooning ability in sugarcane was studied by Milligan et al.
(1995). Ratooning Ability (RA) was defined as second crop yield (SR) per cent of
plant cane yield. Stalk number in younger crop was the only trait correlated with
the ratoon cane yield. Hence, selection for stalk number in young crop is sug-
gested to improve ratoon yield. However, Sundara (1989) suggested that a high
stalk number, bud viability, vigorous root formation, and high biomass are in-
dicative of good ratooning power of cane cultivars. Maintaining stalk weight in
older crops has been noted by Chapman (1988) as an important parameter. In-
variably varieties with high plant cane yields produce high ratoon yields.

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13.12

WATER REQUIREMENT

Ratoons are more prone to moisture stress than the plant crop. It is therefore,
recommended that the plant crop be irrigated at 50% Available Soil Moisture
(ASM), compared to ratoons at 7 5 % ASM in sandy loams and medium black
soils. Workers in Australia found that ratoons can be irrigated at a pan ratio of
0.85. It was observed in sandy loam soils (Hunsigi, 1989) that when ratoons were
irrigated at 74 mm Cumulative Pan Evaporation (CPE, 14-15 days) in conjunc-
tion with use of trash mulch 3 t ha - 1 , yields were on par with those obtained when
frequent irrigations at 19 mm CPE (4 days interval) were used. Table 13.17 sug-
gests that ratoons responded more to drip irrigation than to subsurface irrigation
(Shih, 1989).
Shih (op. cit.) observed a linear relation between yield and ET. Similar correla-
tion was observed in Pelwatte Sugar Co. Ltd., Sri Lanka (pers. commn. S. P Jaiswal).
But at any ET value, yields are lower in ratoons than in plant crop as shown by the
regression lines for the plant cane and first ratoon.

Plant cane yield = 61.7 + 0.327 ET (r = 0.89, n = 11)

1st ratoon yield = -24.5 + 0.0653 ET (r = 0.82 n = 11)

234
 13 Managing the ratoon cane

The linear regression lines between yield and ET are depicted in Fig. 13.7.
In Bacita Sugar Estate, Nigeria, reference evapotranspiration (ET ) was calcu-
lated by the modified Penman method (pers. commn. S. P. Jaiswal). The maxi-
mum evapotranspiration (Etm) is given by the relation

Etm = K .ET
c o

The crop coefficient Kc increases from a minimum value of 0.4 at emergence

to a maximum of 1.15 during grand growth phase and declines to 0.6 at maturity.
Based on this equation, the ET varied from a low of 2.4 mm d_1 to a maximum of
7.9 mm d -1 . Thus the total ET for the plant or ratoon crop ranged from 1719 mm
to 1804 mm under Bacita conditions (pers. commn. S. P. Jaiswal). However, these
figures are very high. Soopramanien (pers. commn.) indicated that the ET of cane
ranges from 1267 mm in South Africa to 1522 mm in Australia. Water Use Effi-
ciency (WUE) also declines with older ratoons. In well-drained soils, not only are
more number of ratoons taken but ratoon yields are also quite satisfactory.

Fig. 1 3 . 7 Relation between yield and ET of plant ratoon cane, Pelwatte Sugar
Co, Sri Lanka

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 Sugarcane in agriculture a n d industry

WUE was 1 • 18 t h a - 1 cm - 1 for drip irrigation compared to 0.67t ha -1 cm -1 for

furrow irrigation. A m o n g the surface irrigation methods, alternate furrow irriga-
tion is s u p e r i o r to n o r m a l practice. But double row planting with a skipped area
or 1 2 0 cm a n d m u l c h e d with 3 t ha -1 trash gave the highest cane yield. Lowest ET
was o b s e r v e d in s k i p furrow irrigation, (Hunsigi and Shankaraiah, 1982).
13.1 3

GAP FILLING

nis is an i m p o r t a n t operation for successful ratooning in sugarcane. Almost with-

o u t e x c e p t i o n , l o w r a t o o n yields can be attributed to gaps or stubble death. Nearly
2 5 - 3 0 % of t h e a r e a needs to be gap filled. Poor ratoons in Taiwan are attributed
to t h e failure of b u d s to germinate due to the presence of nymphs of Mogannia
hebes w h i c h p o s s i b l y produce a toxin called bud germination inhibitor. Recent
evidence i n d i c a t e s t h e allelopathic effect of old stubbles. Research by Prasad et al.
( 1 9 8 1 ) reveals t h a t m o r e than 20% gaps results in considerable yield loss
(Table 1 3 . 1 8 ) .

236
 13 Managing the ratoon cane

It is worth replanting if gaps exceed 50%. For the establishment of filled-in-gaps,

super-saturated soil moisture condition and high ambient humidity is desirable.
For surer establishment, pre-germinated buds are recommended. The transplant-
ing of seedlings raised in polybags are the best choice. Seedlings are raised in
polyethylene bags of 10 x 15 cm filled with soil, sand and FYM in equal propor-
tions. 4-6 weeks old transplants are used for gap filling. If a single bud is used,
horizontal planting is better than vertical planting.
Under adverse climatic conditions like low temperature and frost as in sub-
tropical India, sprouting is encouraged by transparent polyethylene mulching.
This resulted in increased shoot and stalk population with consequent increased
yield. Polyethylene mulching effectively controls weeds. Liquid mulch is suggested
as it is cost-effective with improved yield and quality.

13.14

TRASH MANAGEMENT

The nutrient value of trash is negligible (Ng Kee Kwang et al., 1987). But its
distinct utility in conserving soil moisture is well appreciated. Hunsigi (1999)
reiterated that ratooned cane is ideally suited to organic farming since 7% total
biomass is left in the field in the form of stubbles, roots, etc. The earlier practice
of burning trash is nothing short of a disaster; trash needs to be conserved in situ.
Trash is raked and spread uniformly between the cane rows. Cowdung slurry and
urine or press mud are sprinkled for early decomposition. Trash can also be de-
composed by employing microbes such as Trichoderma Viridae. Trash associated
N2 fixation in combination with cellulytic bacteria could be the strategy in the
future to achieve sustained ratoon cane production. Trash also acts as a mulch to
conserve soil moisture and control the weeds. Recent research amply demonstrates
that weed control is also achieved due to the production of allelochemicals from
mulched trash.
In the cane rows trash is allowed to decompose either by the addition of press
mud/cow dung slurry/cellulytic microbes. This decomposition is allowed for 4—6
weeks. After the incubation period, N2 fixers like Azotobacter/Azospiriltum are
added at 5 kg ha -1 to the cane rows. Azospirillum, being microaerophyllic, is more
suited than Azotobacter in the compacted ratoon cane soils.

237
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

At this stage P-Solubilizing Microbes (PSM) and enriched press mud are mixed
in the soil and final earthing up is done by 2½-3 months.
13.15

M A N A G E M E N T OF W E E D S , PESTS, AND DISEASES ASSOCIATED

WITH RATOONS
The weeds which persist in ratoons are Cynodon dactylon, Panicum repens, Imperata
cylindrica, Ipomea hardwichii, Cyperus rotundus, Sorghum halepense, etc. Ratoons
require an early weed-free environment (60—75 days) before the 'rapid-close-in'
period. Pre-emergence sprays of Atrazine/Diuron at 2.5 kg ha -1 effectively manage
the weeds.
Diseases associated with the ratoons are: smut, grassy shoot (GSD), ratoon
stunting (RSD), red leaf spot, and ratoon chlorosis, Diseases like smut, RSD, and
GSD are fairly controlled by heat therapy. Pests specific to ratoons are shoot, root
and top borers, pyriila, black bugs, white fly, scale insects, and mealy bugs; their
control measures are detailed elsewhere in this book.

13.16

EFFECT OF G R O W T H REGULANTS ON SPROUTING AND RATOON

YIELD
Sugarcane has four types of growth regulants namely auxins, gibberellins,
cytokinins, and growth inhibitors. Literature is replete with their role in plant/
ratoon cane and Hallman (1990) has presented a comprehensive review of these
regulants. Kanwar and Kaur (1977) have shown that spraying of mercurial com-
pounds like emisan/agallol to stubbles improved sprouting, stalk density, and yield.
This is attributed to their hormonal influence besides their controlling of sett
borne diseases. Growth regulants such as gibbereilic acid (GA3), indole acetic
acid (IAA), indole butyric acid (IBA), triode benzoic acid (TIBA), Ethrel (2, chloro-
ethyl phosphonic acid), and chlorocholine chloride (CCC) have improved early
sprouting and the sprouts are converted to millable canes; hence there is increased
yield. Quality remained unaffected due to these growth regulators. A recommen-
dation is to spray C C C to stubbles at 8-10 kg ha -1 to improve ratoon sprouts and
yield. Growth regulants can be mixed with pre-emergence herbicides and sprayed
onto stubbles.

238
13 Managing the ratoon cane

239
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Further, these growth regulators help to fight abiotic stresses like frost and drought.
A detailed investigation by Bhale and Hunsigi (1994) showed that ethrel 500
ppm or CCC at 2000 ppm significantly improved sprouting. These are also in-
strumental in increasing millable cane population, length and girth of cane with a
consequent increased yield (Table 13.19). Root pruning was equally effective as a
low cash input in increasing the ratoon yield. Recently Mathan (1998) demon-
strated that granular application of cytozyme at 15 kg ha -1 at 45 DAR (Days After
Ratooning) followed by a supplemental dose of 12 kg ha -1 at 75 DAR resulted in
higher cane yield in plant and ratoon crops of Co 86010.
Increased yield is attributed to increase in plant density at harvest, weight and
girth of cane. Two sprays of cytozyme each 0.1% at 45 and 75 DAR are equally
effective. Cytozyme is a biologically derived product containing protein extract
enriched with micronutrients, GA3, and cytokinin. Other growth regulators such
as Phytotron and Agrispon have affected positively the LA, LAI, LAD, and parti-
tioning.

13.17

ALLELOPATHY IN RATOON CROPPING

Allelopathy is derived from two Greek terms meaning mutual harm. This term
was first introduced by Molisch in 1937 and refers to biochemical interactions
among plants including those mediated by microorganisms. Rice (1984) defines
allelopathy as "the direct and indirect, harmful or beneficial effects of one plant
on another through the production of chemical compounds that escape into the
environment and generally into the rhizosphere". But allelopathy is divorced from
resource competition. Autotoxicity and heterotoxicity are two types of allelopa-
thy. Further, secondary plant metabolites and their degradation products are im-
portant in allelopathic effects in all agro-ecosystems. Allelopathy results when
living organisms produce bioactive molecules which in turn may be modified.
These compounds enter the environment and produce direct or indirect effects
on the growth and development of plants.
Several phytotoxic substances produced from plant tissues and soils are sus-
pected to inhibit germination and growth. These substances are called
allelochemicals, and are secondary plant products or waste products of the main
metabolic pathway in plants. These may be water soluble, and are released directly

240
 13 Managing the ratoon cane

from living plants into the environment through leaching, root exudation and
volatalization, and decomposition of plant residues. The diversity of allelochemicals
produced by plants is vast and chemicals range in structure from simple hydrocar-
bons to complex polycyclic aromatics. Almost every class of secondary metabolites
has been implicated in allelopathic interactions. Rice (1984) has classified these
allelochemicals in 5 categories, namely, phenyl propenes, acetogenins, terpenoids,
steroids, and alkaloids. Some important allelochemicals are quinones, tannins,
gallic acids, polypeptides, coumarins, flavonoids (condensed tannins), terpenoids,
and steroids.
Most of the allelopathic affects were studied in mulch/crop residue on plants.
Trash management is an important component of ratoon cropping. But trash
mulch can serve as allelopathic mulch and provides weed suppression through
physical presence on soil surface and release of allelochemicals or microbially al-
tered products. These chemicals inhibit the germination of many weed species.
Miller (1996) indicated that saponins have the potential of herbicides. Thus the
use of cover crops or trash in cane may augment weed control methods to com-
plement conservation tillage in crop production.
Understanding allelopathy may hold the key to a new weed management strat-
egy. Weston (1996) emphasized that it offers potential for biorational weed con-
trol through production and release of allelochemicals from roots and decompos-
ing material. He observed that under appropriate conditions allelochemicals may
be released in adequate quantities to suppress weed seedlings. More often than
not, they exhibit selectivity like synthetic herbicides. Biorational weed control
through allelochemicals ensures environmental preservation, which is of utmost
public concern. The phytotoxicity is a function of both concentration and flux
rates in soil and rhizosphere.
In general, soil sickness under monocropping is due to allelopathy since many
toxins are added. But tillage alters the toxic levels. In continuous cropping as in
sugarcane ratoons, gaps are likely to be due to allelopathy. Verma (1995) con-
cludes diat the number of ratoons in sugarcane is restricted due to toxic sub-
stances in the rhizosphere from fungi like Fusarium oxysporium, and Tricho derma
harzianum. The success of a large number of ratoons depends to a large degree on
co-adaptation and co-evolution to detoxify the range of allelochemicals. Future
work must address these problems in a more directed manner.

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13.18

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN: A PLEA FOR INTEGRATED NUTRIENT

MANAGEMENT (INM)

Sugarcane is not only heavily fertilized but heavy machinery is also used for har-
vesting and cane haulage. It is obvious that soils become compacted leading to
erosion losses. Conway and Pretty (1988) have discussed fertiliser risks in pollut-
ing the surface and ground water in developed and developing countries. As quoted
by them, the regional averages are 30 kg N ha -1 for Asia, 15 kg N ha -1 for Latin
America and 4 kg N ha -1 for Africa, compared with the averages of 188 kg for
Western Europe and 146 kg for Japan. Nitrates and the phosphates are the chemi-
cals involved in pollution with the former subject to leaching and the latter being
lost through soil erosion. Adiscott and his associates (1990) demonstrate that the
surplus nitrate curve can be expected when N fertilization is beyond the point of
saturation (Fig. 13.8). Such NO3 finds the way to ground water, thence to lakes,
streams and rivers. Nitrate consumption can lead to the 'blue baby syndrome' or
mathamoglobinaemia. Hence World Health Organization (WHO) and United
States Public Health Service have placed a safe limit of 45 mg nitrate 1-1 in drink-
ing water. Chemical fertilization cannot be totally dispensed with. Even in the
best organic farming system, nearly 20—25% reduction in yield can be antici-
pated. Reduced yield of cane/sugar cannot be the goal of the developing countries
of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Hence Integrated Nutrient Management (INM),
a happy blend of bulky manure and chemical fertilizers is practical.
Non-symbiotic N-fixing bacteria such as Azotobacter and Azospirillum can add
30-75 kg N ha -1 to sugarcane fields. Based on many experiments, Srinivasan
(1989) has categorised cane varieties with respect to their responsiveness to
biofertilizers. P-solubilising bacteria like phosphobacterins in conjunction with
rock phosphate need to be used extensively in ratoon culture. Industrial wastes
such as filter press mud should increasingly be used, which greatly aid in organic
matter build-up. Time-tested green manuring should be a part of cane culture.
Intercropped legumes and crop residues like stubble, trash etc. should be incorpo-
rated into the soil after cane harvest. Experiments have amply demonstrated that
N responses are nearly doubled in the presence of crop residue resulting in a
saving of 50-100 kg N ha -1 .

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 13 Managing the ratoon cane

Fig. 1 3 . 8 Surplus N 0 3 - N curve (Addiscott et al., 1990)

To wrap up, Hunsigi (1999) has emphasised the organic way of growing ra-
toon cane. To achieve successful organic ratoon cane, synchrony between the plant
demand and nutrient supply is highly essential. High degree of synchrony is pos-
sible in a long duration crop like sugarcane with expansive root system, multiple
cuts, mixed cropping and high plant densities. But in sugarcane, recalcitrant ma-
terial such as ligno celluloses, hemicellulose and polyphenols enter the organic
pool. Hence nutrient release is restricted/limited. It becomes essential to add high
quality litter to fasten plant decomposition. 10 t ha - 1 press mud or cow dung
slurry is added to trash. This assures Soil Organic Matter build-up (SOM). In
tropics the soils should be mulched to reduce decomposition of SOM. As a thumb
rule, 5% S O M and a minimum of 30% replacement of inorganic fertilizers lead
to sustainable production. This also provides soil resilience so that the soil comes
back to its original condition. A consortium of microbes involving cellulytic bac-
teria (Trichoderma viride), trash associated N2 fixers and P-soiubilizers could be
the strategy in the future to achieve organic farming and sustainable crop produc-
tion.

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 Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Plate 13.1 GA

Plate 1 3 . 2 Emisan

244
 13 Managing the ratoon cane

Plate 13.3 ETH (Ethrel)

Plate 1 3 . 4 Control

245
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Plate 13.5 Cycocel(CCC)

Plate 13.6 Trash + compost

246
 13 Managing the ratoon cane

-nit

Plate 13.7 Trash burning in situ

Piate 13.8 Trash + cow dung

247
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Plate 13.9 Trash + press mud

248
 Management of seed cane

The seeds obtained from fluff are not used for commercial cultivation but they
are used for breeding. Sugarcane is vegetatively propagated and in commercial
parlance, seeds are cane pieces with 2 or 3 eye buds, called setts. Three eye buds
setts are commonly used, but two eye bud setts are preferred.
A good seed in sugarcane is defined as the sett obtained from a healthy
8-month-old crop. It should be free from pests and diseases. A quality seed or sett
is one which has (a) high tissue moisture (b) reduced sugar content and (c) soluble
nitrogenous compounds. The sett should be fresh and each node should have a
healthy bud. The seed pieces should not have adventitious roots, or splits and
must be free from mixtures.
Farmers have a tendency to use the 1/3 top portion of non-flowered cane for
seed purposes, and the rest is sent to the factory for crushing. This is a contin-
gency plan and need not be a routine practice. The seed material from the ratoon
crop should never be used. In Java, Indonesia, a short crop (seed nursery) is raised.
It is a well-tended crop with adequate watering and manuring. The seed crop is
harvested after six months and this is folowed by another cut after six months. In
a normal seed crop the ratio is 1 : 10, i.e. 1 ha of seed would suffice for 10 ha. But
in a short crop, the seed multiplication rate can be as high as 25 to 100 times.
In India, the seed is prepared manually. Trash and green leaves are scraped by a
sickle without damaging the buds. If buds are prominent, self-detrashing cultivars
are preferred. However, extreme caution needs to be exercised while preparing the
seed material. Extensive damage takes place during transportation. It is always
preferable to use the seed material within the local area. If transporting of the seed
becomes inevitable, the entire cane with the trash and leaves is carried to the field,
and manual cutting is done in the plot intended for planting. Seed cutting ma-
chines are also available, which cut 12000 setts per hour. But wastage is to the
extent of 25%. Fresh setts should be used for planting. But if there is a delay in
planting for various reasons, the whole cane or setts are kept in shade covered with
trash or straw. Occasional sprinkling of water is beneficial. Cowdung slurry or a
1% urea solution spray on the heap of setts is quite useful.

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14.1

SETT TREATMENT

There are a number of sett-borne diseases like pineapple disease which cause loss
in germination. Setts are treated with organomercurial compounds like Agallol/
Areton at 0.1%. Bavistin, a systemic fungicide is now recommended at the rate of
1 gram per litre of water. Bavistin at the rate of 100 g is dissolved in 1000 litres of
water for planting one hectare. The setts should be dipped in this solution for 5
minutes. This ensures good germination and vigour of seedlings. Fungicidal treat-
ment of Bayleton at 0.1% for about 5-10 minutes is equally effective in control-
ling sett-borne infection of setts. Setts may be dipped for 10 minutes in 0.1%
Carbendazim.

14.2

AGRONOMY OF SEED CANE

The work in this aspect is sketchy. However, a wider spacing of 90—100 cm is

desired for inspection and roguing of the affected clumps. At the primary stage
about 25% higher seed rate is required due to germination loss following heat
treatment. The important seed borne diseases are Ratoon Stunting Disease (RSD),
Grass Shoot Disease (GSD), and smut. They cause a progressive loss in yield and
quality, and are also probably responsible for the varietal decline. Seed plots are
well-manured with 25 tons FYM per ha. Recommended dosage of fertilizer and
the number of times the fertiliser should be applied:
The recommended dosage is N —250-300 kg; P 2 O 5 —75-100 kg, K 2 O—
125-150 kg per ha.
The fertilizers may be given in 3 splits.
Basal: Full phosphorus applied in the bottom of the furrow.
At 30 days: 1/3 N + 1/3 K applied as band placement, close to the rows and
light earthing up.
At 60 days: 1/3 N + 1/3 K applied in bands and slightly earthing up.
At 90 days: 1/3 N + 1/3 K applied at the base followed by final heavy earthing up.
About 25% additional N and P, and about 30% extra K (tentative) are given 6-
8 weeks prior to harvest. Humbert (1968) suggests this as pre-fertilizing the crop.

250
 14 Management of seed cane

The prefertilized setts germinate rapidly with vigorous seedlings and a high pro-
portion of roots and shoots. Normal intercultivations and earthing up are done.
But the seed crop is harvested at the 8-month stage. For early maturing and short
duration varieties, it is harvested even at the 6-7 month stage.
It is ideal to irrigate the crop at 25% Available Soil Moisture (ASM) or IW/CPE
ratio of 1.0. This works out to 6—7 days interval in lighter soils and 10-12 days in
heavier clay soils. There should be no water stagnation. Weed-free environment
can be achieved by pre-emergence application of atrazine at 1.75 kg ai ha -1
(3.75 kg ha -1 of the commercial product).
The normal multiplication rate is 1 : 10 but this can be increased by single bud
direct planting or Spaced Transplanting Technique (STP). With these methods
the multiplication rate is 1 : 15 or even 1 : 20. It is also advisable to raise the
primary seed nursery in polythene bags or plastic cups. About 4—6 week old seed-
lings are transplanted. Before transplanting, the leaves must be clipped to reduce
the transpiration loss.
The following precautions should be taken while managing the seed nursery.
(a) Problematic soils such as saline/alkali soils should be avoided.
(b) Adequate irrigation facility should be provided.
(c) The seed nurseries should be distributed in different sections of the factory
reserve area for distribution.
(d) Primary nurseries should be raised by the factory farm/research stations/
Government seed farm.
(e) While preparing setts, knives must be dipped for about 5 minutes in 0.1%
solution of Agallol/Areton/Bavistin.
(f) Sharp knives should be used to cut the seed material, while placing the
dressed cane on a log of wood.

14.3

THERMOTHERAPY OR HEAT THERAPY

It is an age-old practice and is very effective against seed-borne diseases like GSD,
RSD and smut. The basic principle is that pathogens present in seed material are
inactivated or eliminated at temperatures not lethal for the host tissues. Hot air
treatment was advocated for 8 hours at 58 °C. But this caused drying of setts with

251
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

a serious loss in germination. It had to be dispensed with. Three types of heat

treatments are used for administering thermotherapy to sugarcane setts, i.e.
(a) Moist H o t Air Treatment (MHAT) at 54 °C ± 1 for 4 hours.
(b) H o t Water Treatment (HWT) at 50 °C ± 1 for 2 hours.
(c) Aerated Steam Therapy (AST) at 50 °C ± 1 for 1 hour.
In H W T , setts are placed first in preconditioning tanks with water at 40—45 °C
before treating at 50 °C to avoid shock.
Any one of the types may be used. There are no escapes (Despite heat therapy,
some setts show disease symptoms upon germination, hence the term escapes.).
T h e primary seed nursery is administered with thermotherapy and strict roguing
of affected clumps must be observed at all stages. General hygiene must be strictly
followed, and the primary seed nursery in the factory/Government farm must be
supervised by a technical person.

14.4

THREE-TIER SEED PROGRAMME

T h e three stages of seed multiplication are: the first stage—Foundation seed or

primary seed, second stage—certified seed and third stage—commercial seed. Al-
exander (1995) has presented a heat treated nursery programme utilising AST to
cover 10,000 ha area of the factory (Fig 14.1). T h e factory area of 10,000 ha is
divided into 5 sectors of 2000 ha each. In the first year, 20 ha in sector I is planted
with AST treated setts. In the second year, the cane in the 20 ha area in Sector I is
multiplied to 200 ha (10 times), and simultaneously 20 ha in sector II is planted
with AST treated setts.
In the third year, cane in the 200 ha area in sector I is multiplied to 2000 ha, thus
covering the entire sector. Cane in the 20 ha area in sector II is multiplied to 200 ha.
Simultaneously 20 ha in sector III is planted with AST treated setts (Fig. 14.1).
Thus the cycle is repeated covering the entire factory zone of 10,000 ha once in five
years. At each stage careful inspection and roguing is necessary. Under proper super-
vision, the treated material needs to be changed once in five years.
Chemical treatment of the setts is done to protect the cut ends from invasion
of soil-borne diseases like pineapple disease, wilt, etc. Organomercurial compounds
at 0.25% or Carbendazim at 0 . 1 % as a sett-dip for 10 minutes is recommended.
A combination of hot water treatment (50 °C ± 1 for 2 hours) and fungicidal

252
 14 Management of seed cane

treatment (Bayleton 0.1%) has been found to be effective in the control of the
sett-borne infection of smut.

Fig. 14.1 A three-tier sugarcane seed nursery programme to cover 10,000 ha

253
 Integrated weed management

Weeds—plants out of place—need to be effectively managed. They compete for

nutrients, moisture and light, besides serving as alternate hosts for many pests and
diseases. Bermuda grass (Cynadon dactylon) and Logon grass (Imperata cylindrica)
play alternate hosts to ratoon stunting disease. The losses caused by weeds is per-
haps more than that caused by insect pests and diseases. Peng (1984) has reported
that 200 species of weeds infest sugarcane fields and 30 are of economic impor-
tance. According to him the common families are Cyperaceae (35%), Umbelliferae
(30%) and Gramineae (18%). Some important weeds of sugarcane are listed in
Table 15.1.
World over the yield loss in cane is approximated at 15% while in India the
losses range from 12 to 72%. In Taiwan, yield loss was 8-18% in cane and 9-
39% in sugar (Peng, 1984). One estimate in India has shown a yield loss of
17.5 t ha - 1 in the tropics, and 23.7 t ha - 1 in the subtropics. Twining weeds like
Ipomea hederaceae and /. hardwichii can cause yield losses up to 2 5 % to 3 0 % .
Besides, they are a hindrance to manual harvesting. Sugarcane is widely spaced
and the initial growth is slow. Hence weed infestation is higher in the initial stages
and they rob 40—42% of the nutrients. The critical stage for sugarcane is the
initial 90-100 days before rapid-close-in, when a weed-free environment has to
be provided to the crop.
Weeds not only compete for moisture, nutrients and light, but are also known
to produce allelochemicals which reduce the yield of cane. Some weeds have al-
lelopathic effect on other weeds. The decaying rhizomes of Sorghum halepense
affect the growth of Setaria sp., Digitaria sp., and Amaranthus sp. The extracts of
Sorghum halepense (Johnson grass) have shown that certain flavonoids are pro-
duced which are harmful to Digitaria sp. and Amaranthus sp. As a consequence,
certain weed populations dominate the others.
The weeds serve as alternate or collateral hosts for many pests. Sorghum halepense
serves as an alternate host, and its removal reduces the infestation of stalk borers.
Some weeds are parasites on sugarcane. The weed Aeginetia indica (Bunga)
belonging to the family Orobanchaceae (Broom-rape family) is a sugarcane root
parasite. The roodess and chlorophyll-less flowering plant absorbs water and nu-
trients from sugarcane roots through its haustoria. This parasitic weed produces
enzymes which reduce sucrose to glucose and other reducing sugars.

254
 15 Integrated weed management

Table 15.1 Some important weeds in sugarcane fields

Source: Peng, 1984.

Growing a resistant variety like N C O 310 is a sure answer to this parasitic

weed. Another root parasitic weed is Striga sp. which is c o m m o n in black soil

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

when cane is grown in rotation with sorghum. Like all other root parasites, it
produces haustoria to absorb water and nutrients from sugarcane roots. Deep
ploughing and digging control this weed. Trap crops like gingelly, flax, coriander,
cowpea, sesamum, blackgram and greengram help to control his weed. Rotation
with cotton and pulses reduces the striga population. The chemical control includes
foliar application of amine salt of 2, 4-D at 1.0 1 ha¬1 in 900 1 of water or soil
incorporation of Fenac (Chlorofenac, 2, 3, 6 TBA) at 3 kg ha - 1 in 700 1 of water.
In cane fields, monocots and dicots together with Cyperus sp. are present to
form a balanced weed population. In sandy, sandy loam, loam, and clayey soils
broad-leaved weeds, grasses, and Cyperus sp. each 30%, and the remaining 10%
hard-to-control-rhizometous-perennials constitute the weed population. Over the
years spraying of one group of herbicides has lead to the control of dicots but the
dominance of perennial grasses has also increased. This shift in weed flora in
favour of grasses can be arrested by a combination of 2—3 groups of herbicides to
maintain a balanced weed population. Hence herbicide mixtures or 'cocktails' are
preferred to prevent the build-up of resistant species.

15.1

INTEGRATED WEED CONTROL

This includes
(a) Mechanical (interculture, handweeding, digging, etc.) methods
(b) Biological suppression of weeds by intercrop competition
(c) Biological methods
(d) Chemical methods
(e) Genetically modified Herbicide Tolerant (GmHT) crop plants which result
in weed reduction.
No single method is comprehensively effective, hence all combinations are em-
ployed to manage the weeds. Burning of trash to control pests, diseases, and weeds
needs to be discouraged. But mulching at 5-8 t ha - 3 suppresses the weed growth.
Proper rotation and intercropping keep the weeds at bay. Rotation with pulses,
cotton, and oilseed crops minimises the weed infestation. The smother crops like
cowpea, beans, potato and sunn hemp as intercrops substantially reduce the weeds
in sugarcane.

256
 15 Integrated weed management

Bioherbicides is a new concept where plant pathogenic organisms such as fungi,

bacteria, viruses are used as biocontrol agents. These bioherbicides are applied in a
manner which is similar to chemical herbicide application. A few mycoherbicides
(fungal pathogens) have been used to control weeds in soyabean, cotton, and rice.
Biological control is worth mentioning. The larvae of Bactra verutana (moth) have
been found to bore into the shoots of Cyperus rotandus. Geese are efficient biological
agents to control weeds in sugarcane.
Genetically modified Herbicide Tolerant (GmTH) plants are a recent introduc-
tion. Almost a decade ago, the first transgenic herbicide tolerant plant to be pro-
duced was the transgenic tobacco plant tolerant to glyphosate. This is done by trans-
forming tobacco leaf discs with an agrobacterium strain carrying a glyphosate toler-
ant enzyme. Gallo-Meagher and Irvine (1996) have introduced the bar gene to
sugarcane for herbicidal resistance to Ignite (glufosinate ammonium). Engineering
resistance to herbicide can be achieved by over-expression of the target enzyme.
The mechanical methods of weed control include flaming, flooding, deep till-
age, discing, blind tillage, hoeing, and harrowing. Mulching with trash at 5-8 t ha -1
controls the weeds. Mulching with opaque polyethylene (PE) has been tested with
success. After mulching, emerged weeds remain inside PE, become etiolated and
die. Intercropped green manure crops like sunn hemp and Sesbania sesban can
control weeds through smothering effect.
Chemical control in conjunction with other methods is quite effective in pro-
viding a weed-free environment for sugarcane in the first 100—120 days. The
chemical herbicides are classified into three groups depending on the type of treat-
ment and their mode of action.
(a) Contact herbicides. These are applied to the foliage but do not move far
from the site of action. They kill the tissues which come in contact.
(b) Translocative herbicides. These are applied to the foliage and can move from
the site of application to the other parts of the plant . Their action is sys-
temic and they move with the metabolites in the phloem tissue.
(c) Residual herbicides. These are applied to the soil and are absorbed by roots.
They are more persistent and move mainly in the xylem through the tran-
spiration stream.
Some examples of contact, translocative, and residual herbicides used in cane
plantations are presented in Table 15.2 and the mode of action is depicted in
Figure 15.1.

257
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Fig. 15.1 The movements of the two types of herbicides through leaves or
roots of the plant after their application on either foliage or soil surface (Peng,
1984)

The most commonly used herbicides in cane culture are: asulam, atrazine,
metrabuzin, diuron, cyanazin, ametryne, trifluralin, alachlor, metalochlor,
pendimethalin, hexazinone, paraquat and phenoxy acetic acid compounds. It is
generalised that herbicides like atrazine, diuron 2, 4-D applied at 2 to 2.5 kg ha -1
as pre-emergence spray are effective and economical. But metrabuzin (70%) at
1.0 kg ha -1 has qualified as an excellent grass killer. Glyphosate at 1.0 kg ha -1 as
early post-emergence spray is equally effective. This author has found that uracil
at 1.5 kg ha - 1 as pre-emergence spray effectively controlled weeds in sugarcane. In
ratoons 1.0 to 1.5 ai ha -1 of atrazine was effective and economical as pre-emer-
gence spray. The standard application is diuron + 2, 4-D or Atrazine + 2, 4-D
each at 1.6 + 1.6 kg ai ha -1 as pre-and post-emergence spray. Atrazine controls

258
 15 Integrated weed management

Table 1 5 . 2 Different types of herbicides

most of the dicots and grasses but not vegetatively propagated weeds like Cynadon
and Cyperus. In areas where monocots are dominating, metrabuzin (Sencor) at
1.0 to 1.5 kg ha -1 is effective. Metrabuzin at 1.0 kg ha -1 as pre-emergence spray
and 2 kg ha -1 of 2, 4-D as post-emergence spray was found suitable in many cane
growing areas. If a sensitive weed flora like Philaris minor is dominant, isoproturon

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(1 to 1.5 kg ha - 1 ) can be used. For Cyperus, paraquat, a contact herbicide can be

used at 0.75 to 1.0 kg ha - 1 when cane reaches the 6-leaf stage or 3 weeks after the
emergence of Cyperus. This is a directed, post-emergent application. Isouron has
been found to be very effective in controlling Cyperus, but it has phytotoxicity
with reduced tillers and yield. Under saline conditions, 2.5 kg ha - 1 asulam +
2, 4-D sodium salt at 1.6 kg ha - 1 as pre-emergence spray is effective in weed
control.
A list of herbicides, commercial names and their dosage used in sugar industry
is given in Table 15.3.
In Mauritius, the common herbicides used in sugar plantations are atrazine,
diuron, acetochlor, metolachlor, and oxyfluorfen as pre-emergence spray. T h e rates
of application range from 1 to 4 kg ai ha - 1 . High rates of application may lead to
environmental pollution. Mclntyre and Barbe (1995) observed that in Mauritius
the regular practice was the pre-emergence application of diuron + Actril-DS
(2.5 + 1.3 kg ai ha - 1 ) or diuran at 4.0 kg ai ha - 1 . These treatments have less
residual effect and the mixture of diuron + actril is phytotoxic. According to
Mclntyre and Barbe (1995), the objective was to screen newer herbicides with
longer residual action and safer post-emergent herbicides for young plants and
ratoon cane. T h e results indicated that oxyfluorfen alone at 1.0 kg ai ha - 1 or a
mixture of oxyfluorfen + diuron (0.5 + 2.0 kg ai ha - 1 ) were the best herbicides and
controlled weeds up to 6 months until the leaf canopy was formed. Acetochlor +
atrazine (2.0 + 2.0 kg ai ha - 1 ) or metazachlor + atrazine (0.75 + 2.0 kg ai ha - 1 )
were safe as post-emergence sprays in plant crop and regenerating ratoon cane.
Various trials showed good potential for new herbicides—oxyfluorfen, acetochlor,
and metazachlor for general weed control. Both acetochlor and metazachlor were
more effective against Kyllinga bulbose and Oxalis sp. (op. cit.).
Seeruttun and coworkers (1999) have tried thiazopyr as a potential pre-emer-
gent herbicide for sugarcane. Thiazopyr (trade name 'visor') is a pyridine herbi-
cide and is considered to be ecofriendly. Atrazine or diuron at 2.0 kg ai h a - 1 when
tank-mixed with thiazopyr and used as pre-emergence spray provides good con-
trol of weeds for sugarcane for at least 12 weeks. This combination is superior to
acetochlor + atrazine, or diuron, at 2.3 + 2.0 kg ai ha - 1 . Thiazopyr controlled
grasses such as Digitaria horizontalis, D. timorensis and Panicum subalbidum.
Seeruttun et al. (loc. cit.) maintained that thiazopyr is a good alternative to
acetochlor as it controls Panicum subalbidum.

260
15 Integrated weed management

261
 Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

262
 15 Integrated weed management

Adding thiazopyr to atrazine or diuron at 2.0 kg ai ha -1 improved the spec-

trum of weed control. Moreover, this has no adverse effect on cane. It is interest-
ing to note that the use of oxyfluorfen after planting and trash blanketing in sub-
humid areas have effectively decreased the use of herbicides (op. cit.) confirming
the findings of Mclntyre and Barbe (1995).
An attempt has been made in the Caribbean countries to use lower doses of
herbicides so as to reduce their adverse environmental impact. In the English
speaking Caribbean territories, chemical weed control in sugarcane relies on the
use of pre-and post-emergence treatments of atrazine, ametryne, diuron, and 2, 4-
D in various tank mixes. T h e post-emergence herbicides include terbutryne (early
stages), asulam or, occasionally, paraquat or glyphosate at later stages. Dasrat et al.
(1999) have observed that Isoxaflutole at 100—150 g ai ha - 1 can control grasses
and broad-leaved weeds. This herbicide has controlled noxious weeds like Rottboellia
sp. Panicum maximum, Echinochba colonum, Cleome ciliate, Croton trinitatis, etc.
[Isoxaflutole {Isoxaflutole = (5, Cycloprapyl-4—isoxazolyl) [2-methylsulfonyl)-
4-(trifluoromethyl) phenyl] methanone} acts by disrupting carotenoid biosyn-
thesis, and is selective in maize and sugarcane.] Its efficacy improved when it was
mixed with diuron or atrazine. It is conjectured that Isoxaflutole acts as an adju-
vant, and has an additive or synergestic effect in controlling the weeds. Yields
were not affected adversely by Isoxaflutole in the range of 100—150 g ai ha - 1 .
Care should be taken so that the dosage is not too high since the residues will
find their way into water bodies. T h e dosage that causes 2 0 % crop mortality
(ED 20) and that which achieves 8 0 % weed control (ED 80) are to be consid-
ered. T h e ratio of ED 20/ED 80 is called the Sensitivity Index (SI). A SI of 3.0
and above is preferred. To find out the commercial product from the activity
index (ai), the following formula is used.

Weight of chemical to be applied ai

Percentage of ai expressed in percentage

For example 1 kg ai of diuron is applied with 80% wp (wettable powder).

T h e commercial product, i.e. Karmex = 1.0/0.8 = 1.25 kg.

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15.2

HERBICIDE PROTECTANTS, ANTIDOTES OR SAFENERS,

SURFACTANTS AND ADJUVANTS

A new development in herbicide usage is the use of protectants or antidotes. This

protects the crop plant from possible damage by a herbicide. This means that it
may be possible to use certain herbicides on crops that would normally be af-
fected by the herbicide. Some of the protectants are:
(a) Napthopyranone derivative e.g. Naphthalic anhydride (NA) and phthalic
anhydride (PH 4 ).
(b) Chloracetamide e.g. allidochlor (CDAA) and dichlormid (DCCA).
(c) Oxime ether e.g. cycometrinil, GCA 133205 and pyridine aldoxime ethers.
Surfactant is coined from 'surface active agents' which include emulsifiers, de-
tergents, and wetting agents (Peng, 1984). There are two major classes of surfac-
tants, namely, the ionic and nonionic forms. Some of the emulsifiers belong to
the nonionic group. The ionic surfactants are detergents, wetting agents, chemi-
cals such as Citowett (alkylaryl polyglycolether) multifilm, Dalawet and even jag-
gery, molasses and common soap. The threshold concentration of surfactants is
within a range of 0.1-1.0%. Surfactants have the following properties:
(a) Increase spray retention
(b) Increase penetration of herbicide by increasing the contact area
(c) Act as solubilizing agents
(d) Increase direct entry by lowering the surface tension of the spray solution.
Herbicide mixtures are commonly used in agriculture to broaden the spec-
trum of weeds that can be controlled (Peng, 1984). It is generalized that
such mixtures have 'additive', 'synergestic or antagonistic' effects. There is
mostly an enhancement of the effect in controlling weeds. Normally
synergestic effect is seen when ureas and triazines are mixed with 2, 4-D
sodium salt as pre-emergence application. A similar result was observed
when asulam and 2, 4-D were mixed and sprayed as post-emergent spray. In
this case, 2, 4-D appears to play the role of an adjuvant more than that of a
herbicide (loc. cit.).
The compatibility of herbicides with fertilizers, insecticides and fungicides are
seen within the recommended dosage. Most of these interactions are synergestic
by controlling the pathogen and the weeds.

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15.3

WEED CONTROL IN CROP ROTATION AND INTERCROPPING SYSTEM

Crops that go in for rotation with sugarcane are rice, maize, potato, pigeon pea,
mustard and wheat. The common intercrops are wheat, potato, mustard, corian-
der, garlic, onion, peas, beans, soyabean, and groundnut. Herbicides such as atra-
zine, ametryne, metribuzin, and asulam which are the common soil herbicides for
cane are not suitable for intercropping systems. But in rotation, these herbicides,
up to 3—5 kg ha - 1 as pre-or early post-emergence herbicides, have no effect on the
crops. D u e to frequent intertillage and earthing-up operations, these herbicides
are detoxified in soil. Further, sugarcane has a long life cycle from 10—18 months,
and these herbicides are easily inactivated in soil.
For an intercropping system, herbicides which are more selective with lower
potency and shorter persistence are desirable. It has also been amply demonstrated
that intercrops like groundnut, cowpea, soyabean, french bean, etc. smother the
weeds and are effective in controlling weeds. For a sorghum + sugarcane inter-
crop, cynazin at 1.0 kg ha - 1 + diuron 1.0 kg ha - 1 as pre-emergence spray was quite
effective. For grain legume intercrops like groundnut and soyabean, linuron at
1.5 kg ha - 1 or alacholor at the same dosage controlled the weeds satisfactorily.
The selectivity index (SI) of these herbicides was around 3.0. Similarly, amiben at
0.7 kg h a - 1 on furrows as pre-emergence spray was suitable for the common inter-
crops like groundnut and soyabean in sugarcane. T h e weed control was to the
extent of 8 0 % with no adverse effect on yield and quality of cane. T h e generally
recommended herbicides under intercropping system with pulses, oilseeds and
potato are alachlor/linuron. Studies at Coimbatore have shown that oxyfluorfen
(Goal) as pre-emergence spray at 0.3 kg ai ha - 1 is useful when pulses and oilseeds
are intercropped.

15.4

CONTROL OF NOXIOUS PERENNIAL WEEDS

Some weeds propagate through rhizomes and some are vegetatively propagated,
and they persist in the soil for several years. The weeds which are difficult to
control are: Panicum repens (Torpedo grass) Cyperus rotundus (purple nutsedge),

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C. esculentus (yellow-nut sedge) Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass), and Sorghum

halepense (Johnson grass). Other prominent weeds are: Paspalum paniculatum,
Panicum maximum, mimosa invisa, Imperata cylindrica, Paspalum conjugatum. These
weeds persist in the soil for several years and are not easily controlled. T h e torpedo
grass (Panicum repens) can be controlled by spraying a combination of dalapon +
2, 4-D (6 + 4 kg ai h a - 1 ) . For Bermuda grass (Cynadon dactylon) TCA can be used
at 2 - 4 kg ha - 1 in 4 5 0 0 1 of water. Directed foliar application of paraquat, dal-
apon, 2, 4-D at 2 + 8 + 2 kg ai ha - 1 has controlled this weed for about 4 months.
Nut sedge (Cyperus rottmdus, and C. esculentus) produces tubers and seeds. It can
be controlled for 26 weeks by applying Glyphosate at 2, 4, 6 kg ha - 1 in three
applications. T h e C o g o n grass, Imperata cylindrica, is one of the world's ten worst
weeds. Glyphosate at 5—6 kg ha - 1 has been tested and has been found to be effec-
tive. Dalapon at 5 kg h a - 1 , repeated 2—3 times can prevent regrowth. In cane
p l a n t a t i o n s , a m i x t u r e of paraquat + d i u r o n or paraquat + d a l a p o n in
0.8 + 0.5 + 1.0 kg ai h a - 1 is quite effective. Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense)
which produces b o t h seeds and creeping rhizomes is widespread in Fiji, Australia,
India, etc. Picloram at 1.7 kg ha - 1 is effective as a pre-emergence spray but still it
is difficult to control J o h n s o n grass.

15.5

METHODS OF APPLICATION

For herbicides to be effective, care has to be exercised. The pre-emergence herbi-

cide is applied w i t h i n 3 days, and the post-emergence spray within 21 days. There
must be sufficient m o i s t u r e in the soil and the land should not be cloddy. Spray
drift should be avoided. It is preferable to spray the herbicides on a calm day in
the evening hours. T h e selectivity and tolerance limit are conditioned by the soil
type, variety, and m a n a g e m e n t practices. Cultivar N C O 310 is tolerant to diuron
even at 20 kg ha - 1 . Similarly F 152 is tolerant to atrazine at high dosage. Varieties
like Co 62175, Co 4 1 9 , Co 8371, and Co 86032 are relatively more tolerant to
herbicide application t h a n Co C 671. Transplanted crops are susceptible to herbi-
cides which have a residual effect. But ratoons have a fairly high tolerance to
herbicides due to t h e d e l a y in the formation of shoot roots. Rayungans (pre-raised
plantlets) are more susceptible to soil application of herbicides. As reiterated ear-

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lier, a mixture of herbicides is more effective in controlling a wider spectrum of

weed flora.
Generally, hand-operated knapsacks or backpack sprayers of 5—15 1 capacity
are used in India. Sprayers are fitted with different types of nozzles with varying
delivery rates. T h e droplet size is 4 0 0 microns. High v o l u m e sprays use
900-1000 1 ha - 1 of spray mixture and are useful for pre-emergence application of
herbicides. For power sprayers, the droplet size is 300 microns and the water
required is 2 0 0 - 3 0 0 1 ha - 1 . For Ultra-Low-Volume sprayers (ULV) the droplet
size is 50—70 microns and the spray volume is 3 0 - 6 0 1 ha - 1 . ULV is useful for
systemic herbicides like glyphosphate, 2, 4-D, etc. Extreme precaution should be
taken while spraying if sensitive crops like cotton, pulses, etc. are grown in the
neighbouring plots. After use, the sprayers should be thoroughly cleaned.
To sum up, yield losses in sugarcane due to weeds range from about 10—20%
in cane, and 10 to 4 0 % in sugar. No single method of control is effective. Hence
Integrated Weed Management (IWM), namely, mechanical, chemical, biological
suppression of weeds are suggested. The advantages of I W M are many:
(a) Shifts crop-weed competition in favour of crops
(b) Prevents weed shifts towards perennial nature
(c) Prevents resistance of weeds to herbicides
(d) Ensures environmental protection
(e) Gives higher net returns
(f) Suitable for high-cropping intensity
It is concluded with optimism that atrazine/diuron at 2—2.5 kg h a - 1 , or
metrabuzin at 1.0 to 1.5 kg ha - 1 is effective in controlling weeds in sugarcane.
Emphasis needs to be on trash blanketing, and on screening for low doses of
herbicides which are ecofriendly and protect the environment. Perennial grasses
and sedges are difficult to control but a weed-free environment has to be achieved
during the first 90—100 days. Surfactants and adjuvants have to be used to im-
prove the efficiency of herbicides. W h e n intercropped with sensitive crops like
pulses and oilseeds, low doses of herbicide have to be used with safeners or anti-
dotes. Transgenic sugarcane with tolerance to major herbicide groups is conten-
tious and needs to be watched carefully, lest the transgenic cane develops 'inva-
siveness' or 'weediness'.

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Sugarcane is attacked by a large number of pests and diseases. Losses in yield and
quality varies depending on the level of management and agro-ecological situa-
tion. Sugarcane stands in the field for 10-18 months and harbours a number of
pests and diseases. T h e pest-disease menace is further accentuated due to continu-
ous cropping as in racoons. Constant surveying and monitoring are essential to
contain pests and diseases from spreading on a large scale to prevent heavy losses.
Emphasis is now on Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and lntegrated Disease
Management ( I D M ) . T h i s includes cultural, mechanical, biological, varietal, and
chemical methods. T h e chemical control method should be 'need based' and is
used when the level of pest/disease exceeds the threshold limit. Field sanitation is
an important c o m p o n e n t of I P M and IDM.

16.1

PESTS

David (1995) reports that sugarcane is ravaged by 212 insect pests and 76 non-
insect pests. Yield losses could be to the extent of 20% depending on the level of
infestation. The major pests of sugarcane are detailed in the following pages.
T h e major pests of sugarcane can be grouped into three categories.

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16.1.1 Shoot borer (Chilo infescatellus Snellen)

This is commonly known as early shoot borer and is widely distributed. Its menace
is during the early phases of growth. The attack of the pest is accentuated under late-
planted and moisture-stress conditions. T h e borer larva enters the cane killing the
central leaf spindle and is easily diagnosed by the 'dead hearts'. The central leaf
spindle can be easily pulled out and such plants have a tendency towards increased
tillering. Hence Lakshmikanthan (1984) puts the threshold level at 30%. At the
threshold level and above, the yield loss is approximated at 10-15 t ha - 1 . However,
if the infestation is severe the yield loss could be much higher.
The control measures include cultural, mechanical, chemical, and biological
methods. Light early earthing-up prevents the entry of the larvae. 'Dead hearts'
are pulled out to kill the larvae. Late planting of cane is avoided and the crop is
irrigated more frequently (7-10 days interval). Lindane (20% EC) is applied to
the setts (Gamma H C H emulsion at 1.0 kg ai ha - 1 is applied over the sett at
planting). Soil application of Sevidol at 12.5 kg ha - 1 around the base of the clump
on the 30th and the 60th day after planting is advocated. This chemical can also
be applied in whorls. Biological methods include spray application of the granu-
losis virus at 10 6 -10 7 inclusion bodies per ml along with a surfactant like teepol
or sandovit at 0.05% at the beginning of the pest infestation. If desired, the appli-
cation may be repeated at fortnightly intervals.

16.1.2 Top borer (Scirpophaga excerpta/is walker)

It attacks at all stages of growth and is of economic importance in subtropical

India. T h e characteristic symptom is the 'bunchy top' due to the sprouting of the
top buds. T h e larvae bores through the central core and 'dead hearts' are found
which cannot be pulled out easily. Yield and quality loss could be to the extent of
20—30%. T h e control measures include collection and destruction of egg masses,
and roguing of the affected cane tops. A u t u m n planting is to be advocated.
Waterlogging should be avoided. Application of carbofuran 1.0 kg ai ha - 1 or
phorate 3 kg ai ha - 1 during June-July for autumn planted cane controls the top
borer. Varieties like Co J 67, Co 1007, Co 1158, and CoS 767 may be employed
in the endemic areas. Biological control method includes release of Trichogramma
japonicum in the subtropics and Isotima javensis in the tropics.

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16.1.3 Internode borer (Chilo sacchatiphagus indicus,Kapur)

This is widespread both in the tropics and the subtropics, and infects when the
internodes are formed. Lodged cane, water shoots, and canes in waterlogged con-
ditions are severely affected. It normally attacks the top immature internodes. T h e
larva tunnels upwards in a characteristic spiral fashion. Yield is reduced following
the reduction in length and girth of the cane which are important yield compo-
nents. The buds may not germinate with a consequent loss in yield and quality.
Subsequent to borer injury, secondary infections of wilt and pine apple disease
may occur.
The control measures include use of borer-free setts, detrashing at 5th, 7th,
and 9th month of the crop stage, removal of water shoots, and avoiding heavy
dose of N. Spraying 0 . 1 % monocrotophos reduces the initial borer population at
the grand growth period (4-6 months). Biological control with Trichogramma
chilonis released inundatively at 3.5 cc ha - 1 at fortnightly intervals from the 4th
month to harvest provides good protection against the internode borer.

16.1.4 Stalk borer (Chilo auricilius, Dudgeon)

This is a major pest in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Bihar, and Orissa. At
first, the larvae feed on the inner surface of sheaths, subsequently the sheath rots
and the leaf dries out. The feeding of the leaf causes longitudinal orange-yellow
streaks extending from the tip to the base. At a much later stage, the larvae bore
into the internodes and the infected canes produce dead hearts, which is similar
to what the early shoot borer does. The infected cane may dry up, and the dam-
aged internodes may show reddening and emit rancid smell. Prolonged drought
period, high N dose, frequent irrigation and waterlogged conditions favour the
attack of the stalk borer.
The cultural methods to control the stalk borer are providing drainage and
removal of water shoots. Control of Johnson grass (collateral host) will reduce the
pest attack. Detrashing, destruction of water shoots, trash burning, etc. keep the
stalk borer under check. Application of monocrotophos granules at 3 kg ai ha-1 in
July is effective in controlling the pest. Under severe infestation, the yield loss is to
the extent of 16-33%, and the sugar loss by 2 units.

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16.1.5 Gurudaspur borer (Acigona steniellus, Hampson)

This is the most serious pest of the subtropics. Its incidence was observed on an
epic scale in Gurudaspur, Punjab—hence the name. Upon the entry into the
internode, the larva feeds below the rind tissue in a spiral manner.
It makes minute punctures on the rind from within. Externally the tunnel
appears as a dark spiral ring made up of a series of punctures looking like beads in
a rosary. When the larvae feed below the rind, the leaves wither; later on the entire
whorl dries up. Cane growth is restricted and breaks if slightly pulled. Side shoot-
ing occurs due to bud sprouting. Yield loss could be 1 0 - 2 0 % but depends on the
infestation. The control measures include use of borer-free setts, destruction of
infested cane, burning of trash and stubbles, and avoiding ratooning of the highly
infested crop. Soaking the setts in 0.2% trichlorophon for 2 hours before planting
kills larvae present within the setts. Resistant/tolerant varieties like Co 11.48, CoJ
46, CoJ 64, Co 62175 should be used. Varieties with light sheath are less at-
tacked. Inundative release of egg parasite Trichogramma chilonis at 1,25,000 para-
sites ha - 1 checks the attack of this pest.

16.1.6 Root borer (Emmalocera depressella, Swinhoe)

This is the only borer which attacks the underground portion. T h e root borer is
widespread in the tropical belt, Northern Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and
Andhra Pradesh. It attacks only the young shoots and causes 'dead hearts.' It rarely
attacks well-grown sugarcane. External symptoms are rarely seen except yellowing
of the leaves. Only on digging and on root exposure, the infestation can be seen.
The dead hearts cannot be easily pulled out like in the case of early shoot borer. The
loss in yield is about 10—15% and sucrose loss is 0.5-1.0 unit. T h e infestation of
root borer is high when the ambient temperatures are high with moderate humidity.
The attack is severe under unirrigated conditions and in light textured soils (sandy
to sandy loam). Ratoons are more prone to attack by root borer than the plant crop.
The mechanical methods of control include deep stubble shaving of ratoons,
removal and destruction of affected clumps, collection of moths by using light
traps, and digging and destruction of stubbles after the harvest. T h e chemical
method of control consists of application of chloropyriphos or Ekalux 5 G at
1-2 kg ai ha - 1 during May and August. But control is not that effective. Pink
borer and green borer are minor pests.

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16.1.7 White G r u b s (Anomala sp., Holotrichia sp., Pentodon sp.,

Alissonoturn s p . , a n d Hetronychus sp.)

These grubs are 'C' shaped a n d fleshy with a white or grey body. The visible symp-
toms of attack include d r y i n g of leaves, drooping of inner spindles, and finally
wilting of the plant. T h e loss in cane yield ranges from 10-12 t ha-1 or even more if
the infestation is high. T h e clump is easily pulled out since the roots are damaged.
Integrated pest m a n a g e m e n t is the only solution to control the pest. During the
first summer showers (tropical India), the beedes emerge in large numbers to mate
and these can be collected a n d killed. Collection of large number of beetles (Holotrichia
serrata, Fabricus), and up to 300, 000 in one day has been achieved in the Belgaum
district of Karnataka. Fluorescent light traps can be used to attract the pest. An
infested field may be p l o u g h e d and the grubs, pupae, and beetles picked by hand
and destroyed. Wherever feasible, puddling the soil, and paddy if grown in rotation
for 2 - 3 seasons is a sure m e t h o d of control. Varieties like Co 953 and Bo 3 are
resistant to white grubs. Chemical methods of control include use of H C H dust
(10%) at 10 kg ai h a - 1 or as an emulsion at 2.0 kg ai ha -1 . Its efficiency can be
further enhanced by the u s e of farmyard manure which attracts the young grubs.
Quinalphos G at 2 to 2.5 kg ai ha -1 reduces the grub population, increases the
millable cane population a n d yield. Successful biological control has been achieved
in Hawaii and M a u r i t i u s (Blackburn, 1984). The grubs are parasitised by
Campsomeris marginella modesta (Smith) and Tiphia parallela (Smith). In Mauritius,
scoliid wasps introduced in t h e past for control of white grub phyllophttga Smithi are
still active. But gregarines have been found to infect a high percentage of larvae
(Rajabalee et al., 1995).

16.1.8 Termites

Large termite m o u n d s are seen in the sugarcane grown in Central and Eastern
Africa. T h e yield loss is q u i t e variable and may extend up to 60%. Important
species of termites are: Coptotermes beimi (Wasmann), Odontotermes assmuthi
(Holmgr), O. obesus ( R a m b u r ) , and O. wallonensis (Wasmann). Termites feed on
soft tissue and attack setts, stalks, and stubbles. The tunnel excavated by termites
is filled with soil with t h e rind intact. There is severe germination loss and the
affected cane dies. T h e a t t a c k of termites is more severe under drought conditions
and in light textured soils (sandy to sandy loam). Termite attack can be controlled

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by soil application of HCS 5% dust at 1 kg ai ha -1 or Gamma H C H (EC) at

1.0 kg ai ha - 1 . As a post planting operation, either aldrin (EC) or gamma H C H
(EC) drenching at 1.0 kg ai ha - 1 is advocated. Equally effective is chlorpyriphos at
1.0 kg ai ha - 1 . Digging out termite mounds to remove the queen and spreading
Vetox 85 would kill and destroy the pests. Wada (1997) informs that stem borers,
soil insects, and termites can be controlled by the following measures:
(a) Planting sugarcane as far away as possible from maize, millet, and sorghum,
and eliminating elephant grass from the vicinity of the cane farm.
(b) Planting healthy and clean setts which are free from borer infestation (no
bored holes).
(c) Handpicking and killing larvae and adults, and burning the infested parts
of the plant.
(d) Practising 2 - 3 year rotation with leguminous crops.

16.1.9 Scale insect: Melanapsis glomerata (Green)

The white scale insect is a sucking pest. There are 35 species of scale attacking
sugarcane but Melanapsis glomerata is of economic importance. It is prevalent on
a wide scale in Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab. With the formation of the internodes, scales ap-
pear on the cane. Heavy infestation of the scale insect starts from June and contin-
ues up to December. Scales are underneath the sheath, and are hence difficult to
control. When the infestation is heavy, the entire stem is covered by scale insects
and its encrustation gives a grayish black appearance. Canes are stunted and even-
tually die. The tips of the leaves show the signs of drying, and the leaves turn
yellow. The infested cane becomes shrivelled with stunted growth and has a re-
duced internodal length, resulting in lowered yield and quality. Highly infested
canes pose problems in milling. T h e problem of scale insect is more serious in
lighter soils than in heavy soils. Ratoons are more prone to scale insect attack than
plant crop. High temperature, humidity, and drought conditions favour the scale
insect attack. It spreads through setts, ratoon stubbles, and trash. Field sanitation
is of utmost importance. Ratooning of the infested fields should be avoided. In-
sect attacked seed material should never be used. Under severe infestation, trash
should be burnt. T h e setts can be immersed in the insecticidal solution of malathion
(0.1%) or Dimethoate (0.08 to 0.15%), or phosphomidon (0.05 to 0.08%). When

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the crop is 5-6 month old and scale insect infestation is high, monocrotophos at
1.5 kg ai ha - 1 can be sprayed after detrashing. Soil application of carbofuran
2 kg ai ha - 1 or Dimethoate 3 kg ai ha-1 or Aldicarb at 2 - 3 kg ai ha - 1 or
monocrotophos at 3.0 kg ai ha-1 is advocated. If the attack is severe, soil applica-
tion can be done at 15-30 day intervals.

16.1.10 Pyrilla [Pyrilla purpusilla, Walker)

Pyrilla is a very destructive sucking pest. The adults and nymphs suck the sap
from the undersurface of the lower leaves causing yellowish white spots to appear.
High levels of manuring, irrigation, waterlogged conditions, and lodging enhance
pyrilla build up. The hoppers exude a sweet fluid (honey dew) on which fungus
grows (Capnodium sp.). As a result, the leaves are completely covered by a sooty
mould. Due to sucking by a large number of sugarcane leaf hoppers, photosyn-
thesis is affected and the top leaves dry up and the lateral buds germinate. T h e loss
in yield due to pyrilla epidemics is approximately 28% and the loss in sugar is
about 1.6 units. Heavy rainfall, high humidity (70-80%), and high temperature
((26-30 °C) favour pyrilla build up. Under heavy infestation, the trash which
harbours the hopper is burnt. Detrashing reduces the pyrilla population. During
the pre-monsoon period dusting with HCH (5-10%) at 2 0 - 3 0 kg ha - 1 , or me-
thyl parathion (2%) at 12.5 kg ha-1 is recommended. Other chemicals used as
foliar sprays are chloropyriphos. (0.3 kg ai ha-1) and malathion (12.5 ai ha - 1 ).
During pyrilla epidemics, aerial sprayings of insecticide has been employed
safely. Insecticides like methyl demeton (1125 ml ha - 1 ), dimethoate (875 ml ha - 1 ),
fenthion ( 5 6 0 ml ha - 1 ), malathion (500 ml h a - 1 ) , p h o s p h o m i d o n
(250-300 ml ha -1 ), monocrotophos (1250 ml h a - 1 ) , and e n d o s u l p h a n
(750 ml ha - 1 ) gave effective control when applied aerially.
The pest has been successfully managed in recent years by releasing the lepi-
dopterous ectoparasite, Epiricania pyrillae North India.

16.1.11 White flies

There are three species of white flies, namely, Aleurolobus barodensis Mask,
Neomaskellia bergii Sign, and TV. andropogonis Corbett. Out of these, Aleurolobus
barodensis is of economic importance and severely infects cane in Bihar, Gujarat,
Haryana, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.

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The nymphs of white flies suck the sap from the undersurface of the leaves
which turn yellow, and pinkish in severe cases, and gradually dry up. T h e infested
leaves are covered by sooty moulds caused by fungus Capnodium sp. which ad-
versely affect photosynthesis. The white fly infestation retards cane growth and
reduces the sugar content. Drought, N deficiency, and waterlogged conditions
favour the build up of white flies. Varieties with broad and long leaves like Co C 671
and Co 775 are more susceptible to this pest.
To contain the spread of this pest, ratooning is discouraged, adequate phos-
phorus and potassium should be used, adequate drainage should be provide d and
the affected leaves should be clipped. In Thailand, Encarria ocliai (Viggiam) and
Azotus bimaculatus (Khan and Shafee) are important larval-pupal parasites of the
white fly (H. Barodensis Maskell). Chemical control consists of a spray of
monocrotophos (40 EC) or endosulphan (35 EC) at 0.2% after stripping the
leaves bearing puparia.
Other insect pests of less economic consequence are the mealy bugs. These are
ubiquitous, and 35 species of mealy bugs have been recorded on sugarcane. But
the pink mealy bug (Saccharicoccus sacchari Cockrell) is possibly responsible for
yield decline of commercial varieties. Mites (Acarina, Archinidd) are of minor
importance and about a dozen species infest sugarcane.

16.1.12 Non-insect pests

Among vertebrate pests, rats and jackals frequently visit sugarcane fields, causing
considerable damage and yield loss. Wang (1995) has shown that wild rodents
constituted more than 50% of the rat population. The domestic species Rattus
rattus was of little consequence. Among the wild rats, Musformosanus was most
predominant. T h e results indicated that spring and autumn planted canes were
more favourable for wild rodents to multiply. Baiting with zinc phosphide in food
grains or dry fish at a ratio of 1 : 19 controls these pests.
Blackburn (1984) prophesied that the sugar industry would be plagued by
Eldana borer in Africa, Chilo sp. in the Old World, and Diatrae in the New World
unless integrated pest control measures were adopted.
A schedule of management practices for sugarcane grown in tropical and sub-
tropical India is presented by David (1995) (Table 16.1).

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16.2

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SUGARCANE PESTS

In the recent past great strides have been made in the biological control of pests.
This is environmentally safe and offers better option for control of pests. Eswara
Moorthy (1995) has given an elegant treatise on the biological control of pests in
sugarcane.
The term biological control is used to signify the use of entomophages and
entomopathogens, whether introduced or manipulated to control insect pests. In
classical biological control, parasites, predators, or pathogenic microorganisms
are transferred from one area to another, and their population is established to
effectively parasitise the pests. This method is useful, used alone against the top
borer and internode borer in tropical India, and the pyrilla, both in the tropics
and the subtropics. But in several other cases, it can be integrated with varietal,
cultural, and mechanical control methods.

16.2.1 Parasites

Trichogrammatids

Trichogramma sp. are widely used for the control of sugarcane borer in several
countries. In India, seven species of Trichogramma and o n e species of
Trichogrammatoidea are found to parasitise the lepidopteran borers infesting sug-
arcane. Of these, Trichogramma chilonis is widely used for the suppression of the
internode borer. Chilo sacchariphagus indicus (Kapur) is recommended against
the early shoot borer, (Chilo infuscatellus Snellen) and stalk borer (Chilo auricillus
Dudgeon). On the other hand Trichogramma Japonicum Ashm is employed against
the top borer (Scirpophaga excerptalis Walker). For the suppression of the inter-
node borer, release of Trichogramma chilonis at 2,50,000 parasites h a - 1 in phases
during different stages of crop growth, i.e. 25,000 parasites ha -1 during the 4th
and 9th months and 50,000 ha -1 during the 5 th, 6th, 7th, and 8th months of the
crop is recommended. Periodical release of T. Chilonis in contiguous cane areas
throughout the year can effectively control the shoot borer. In North Bihar, weekly
releases of 50,000 adults ha -1 are found to suppress the shoot and stalk borers. In
Punjab, this parasite is useful against the Gurudaspur borer when releases are
made at the rate of 1,25,000 parasites ha - 1 against each brood.

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Isotima javensis Rohw has successfully controlled the top borer (Scirpophaga
excerptalis Walker) in tropical India. Under natural conditions, it also parasitises,
the Gurudaspur borer (Acigona steniellus sp. Hmpsn). Inundarive release of 125
mated female ha - 1 in the fields showing top borer incidence 'above 10%) may be
sufficient for colonisation of the parasite. T h e parasites are released by holding the
container open and moving in all directions in the field. Work in Thailand has
shown that Trichogramma chilotraeae (Nagaraj and Nagarkatti), Telenomus rowani
(Gahan) and Cotesia flavipes (Cameron) were the most important parasites for
early shoot borer, top borer and internode borer (Suasa-ard and Charensom, 1995).
Colonization of Epiricania melanoleuca has resulted in the suppression of Pyrilla
perpusilla in many parts of the country. High multiplication rate, short life cycle,
and parasitization at all stages of nymphs and adults, and the good searching
ability of the parasitic larvae are the main reasons for the success of this parasite.
Generally releases of 4000 to 5000 cocoons, or 4 to 5 lakh eggs ha - 1 result in the
effective suppression of the pest population. Stapling of leaves bearing 2 - 3 viable
egg masses or 5—7 live cocoons at each release point in the field is more effective
than simply scattering eggs and cocoons.
Under natural conditions, Sturmiopsis inferens T ns is active against shoot, stalk
and Gurudaspur borers. T h e parasite has a good host searching ability and it
distributes its offspring efficiently in borer tunnels. It has been tried against shoot
borers and stalk borers. Sequential releases of 125 gravid females ha - 1 from the
30th to the 50th day of planting is advocated. The flies can be released by slowly
moving in all directions in the field with the cages open.
Techniques have also been developed for the multiplication and field release of
three species of egg parasites of Pyrilla, namely, Ooencyrtus papilionis Ashmead,
Cheibneurus pyrillae Mani, and Tetrastichus pyrillae Crawford, and two parasites
of the scale insect, namely, Adelencyrtus mayurai Subba Rao, Botryoideclava bharatiya
Subba Rao (Eswara Moorthy, 1995).
The predators are Chilocorns nigritus F. and Pharoscymnus horni Weise which
prey on the scale insect {Melanapsis glomerata). Both grubs and adults have very
high feeding potential. Colonization of these predators is found to suppress the
population of scale insects (loc. cit.). Release of at least 1500 beetles ha - 1 is rec-
ommended at the first appearance of the pest. T h e beetles can be released by
keeping the container partially open and moving all over the field.

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Pathogens such as Granulosis virus are able to infect shoot borers and are found
effective in suppressing the population of the shoot borers (Eswara Moorthy, 1995).
It is infective to all larval stages. Another advantage is that the virus gets vertically
transmitted to the offspring through adults. It is host specific, and is safe to parasites
and predators occurring in the sugarcane ecosystem (op. cit.). Spraying of Granulosis
virus at 106—107 inclusion bodies/ml along with surfactants like teepol or sandovit
0.05% at the first appearance of the pest controls the pest. If necessary, the
application may be repeated at fortnightly intervals. The virus can be sprayed in
the evening hours on the leaf whorls and stem, preferably using a high volume
sprayer (Eswara Moorthy, 1995). The other pathogens are the entomogenous
nematode like Heterorhabditis indicus which is active against white grubs.

16.3

DISEASES

Sugarcane is ravaged by nearly 130 diseases but only 30 are of economic importance.
Among them red rot, smut, and wilt are of serious concern. A conservative estimate
shows that the loss in yield ranges from 10—15% in endemic condition. T h e red
rot and wilt in severe form can cause total yield loss (Alexander, 1995). Based on
the causal organisms, major diseases of sugarcane can be classified as under:

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 16 Pest and disease management

Many of these diseases can be kept under check by proper seed selection, deep
ploughing, crop rotation, thermotherapy, chemotherapy, a n d 3-tier seed
programme and field sanitation. Field drainage should be provided and wild flood-
ing should be avoided since red rot, wilt, pineapple diseases, etc. can cause con-
siderable damage. Dipping setts in organic mercurial compound (Areton/Agallol)
at 0.25% or Carbendazim at 0 . 1 % keeps fungal diseases in check. Moist hot air
treatment at 54 °C for 4 hours has been practised. A combination of hot-water
treatment (50 °C ± 1 for 2 hr) or aerated steam therapy (50 °C ± 1 for 1 hr) and
fungicidal treatment (Bayleton 0.1%) has been found to be effective in control-
ling sett-borne infections of smut. Soil drenching with 0.4% bleaching powder
has been found to be effective in reducing leaf scald incidence (Alexander, 1995).
Benlate (0.1%) is highly effective against many pathogens of sugarcane such as
red rot, smut, and wilt diseases. Dipping the sett in Carbendazim 0 . 5 % or Vitavax
(0.1%) controls both internal and external inoculum. H o t water treatment is also
effective. In this method setts are dipped in hot water which has a temperature
of 50-60 °C for 10 minutes. Cultivation of resistant cultivars like Co 6869,
CoLK 7807, CoLK 8001, and CoLK 8002 is equally important.

16.3.1 Red rot (Colletotrichum falcatum)

This is the most serious disease caused by fungus and is aptly called the 'cancer of
sugarcane'. At an advanced stage of the disease, the entire top including the crown
dies. The rind becomes dark. Reddish lesions are also noticed on the rind. Under
high humid conditions, a pinkish powdery mass of spores of the pathogen is seen
on the nodal region. Typical symptoms of red rot are observed in the internodes
of the stalk by splitting it longitudinally. These include the reddening of internal
tissue with white spots. The presence of these crosswise white patches is consid-
ered a diagnostic character of the disease. The diseased canes also emit a sour
smell (Agnihotri, 1983). An integrated approach helps to contain the spread of
red rot. In endemic areas, red rot susceptible varieties should not be grown. Since
the primary spread of the disease is through infected setts, Sundara (1998) even
suggested prevention of the indiscriminate movement of seed from one region to
another, through legislation. The best way to manage the disease is to grow resis-
tant/tolerant varieties. Varieties tolerant to red rot are: Co 8 0 2 1 , Co 7704,
Co 86010. T h e physiological resistance appears to be restricted to Saccharum

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spontaneum. Susceptible varieties are CoC 671, CoC 90063, and CoC 92061.
The integrated approach to manage the red rot is to grow resistant varieties, pro-
vide adequate drainage, destruction of debris and crop residues and green manur-
ing. Crop rotation with 2 crops of paddy seems to contain the spread of red rot.
Ouvanich et al. (1995) reported that nine fungicides inhibited the growth of
Colletotrichum falcatum a n d Fusarium moniliforme (wilt). The infected setts soaked
in four of these fungicides had increased germination, but the pathogen was not
c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t e d . T h e s e fungicides are: Benomyl, thiabendazole,
propiconazoltubuconazol, and thiophanate methyl at 500 ppm (op. cit.). Use of
any of these fungicides, use of disease-free setts, crop rotation, stem borer control
and other cultural practices help control red rot.

16.3.2 Smut (Ustilago scitaminea Sydow)

In India, smut is prevalent in all states but it is more so in the tropical states of
Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. Smutted plants are
stunted, and form excessive tillers with thin and narrow leaves. The patent symp-
tom of the disease is the production of a black whip like structure from the central
core of the meristematic tissue. This flagelliform appendage commonly called
'whip' is usually straight w h e n short and irregularly curved when 1 m long. The
disease is more prevalent in ratoons and is more pronounced in dry weather. The
loss in cane yield in plant crop is approximately 30-40% and 70% in ratoons.
The sucrose content of infected cane is reduced to 3-7%. The primary spread of
smut is through infected setts and the secondary spread occurs through windborne
black spores (teliospores). Strict roguing of diseased clumps should be done. Be-
fore the silvery membrane of the whip breaks, the infected cane is put in a polythene
bag, covered and destroyed outside the field. The resistant cultivars are Co 6806,
Co 449, Co 527, etc. Hot-water treatment at 50 °C ± 1 for 2 hours in combina-
tion with fungicide treatment, Bayleton 0 . 1 % concentration, will eliminate the
sett-borne infection.

16.3.3 Wilt (Cephalosporium sacchari Buller or Fusarium

moniliformae Sheldon)
This fungal disease is widespread but is of more serious concern in Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil N a d u , and Gujarat. The loss in yield due to wilt is 15—

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20% with a considerable drop in sugar recovery. Patil and his associates (1995)
have observed that ruling varieties like Co 419, Co 775, Co 975, Co 997, CoC 671,
Co 7219, Co 1148, CoS 8407, and CoS 8315 were affected by wilt. Biotic stresses
like nematodes, root borers, termites, scales, mealy bugs, etc. and abiotic stresses
like drought, waterlogging, etc. predispose the plants to wilt infection. The fungi
gain entry through injury. Patil et al. (1995) have confirmed that injury to roots
and stalks served as an entry to the wilt pathogen. According to them the losses in
cane yield due to the association of wilt and root borer were about 47%. The
reduction in CCS is to the tune of 32% and sugar recovery decreased by 3.3 units
(op. cit.). Wilt affected plants are stunted. This is followed by yellowing and/or
withering of crown leaves. The mid-ribs of all leaves in a crown generally turn
yellow, while the leaf laminas may remain green. Sometimes cavities also develop
in the nodal tissues and this makes the cane shrink and become tubular, light, and
hollow. On splitting open the canes at the early stages of infection, diffused red-
dish-brown patches are seen. Once the plants are wilted, no control measures are
available. The integrated method of control comprises use of wilt-free seed mate-
rial, crop rotation with paddy, and burning of trash and crop residues. Ratoons
should be avoided in severely wilted fields. The variety resistant to wilt in Gujarat
is a short duration cultivar Co 8338. Patil and coworkers (1995) assert that this
disease can be checked to a great extent by controlling the root borer (Emmalocera
depressella Swinhoe) by soil application of Quinalphos 5.0 G at 1.5 kg ai ha -1
(30 kg ha -1 ). Sett treatment with 0.1% Carbendazim has been recommended to
avoid further spread of the disease. It is also necessary to carefully remove and
destroy the wilt-affected plants. Agnihotri (1983) claims to have managed the
disease by water treatment accompanied by the use of fungicides (0.1%), like
benomyl, bavistin, thiram, and aretan. This author has observed that application
of Mn/B to the soil (2-5 kg ha -1 ) or soaking of healthy setts in 40 ppm of these
nutrients in solution offers a fair degree of control of wilt.

16.3.4 Pineappie disease (Ceratocystis paradoxa de Seyner)

This is an ascomycetous fungus and is widespread in Punjab, Maharashtra, Kar-

nataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, etc. The padiogen enters mainly through cut ends
and proliferates in the parenchymatous tissues of the internode. The pathogen
also makes an entry when the stalk is damaged by borers, or when the roots are

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damaged. Drought accelerates the damage. In the initial stages, the affected sett
smells like a mature pineapple. The affected tissues first develop a reddish colour
which turns to brownish-black in later stages. In most cases setts decay and cause
severe loss in germination. Even if the setts germinate, they fail to strike roots due
to the production of ethylene by the fungus (Agnihotri, 1983). This disease is
controlled by dipping setts, sickles, and sett cutting machines in organomercurial
compounds, such as agallol, areton, or emison. Presently, setts are dipped for 5-
10 min in fungicides like Phenyl Mercuric Acetate (PMA), or benomyl, or Bavistin
at 0 . 1 % concentration. Sett treatment has improved germination due to hor-
monal or synergistic effect.

16.3.5 Leaf spots

Among the leaf spots caused by fungi, eye spot (Helminthosporium sacchari) is
most serious. Under severe conditions, a drastic reduction in the yield and quality
of cane has been observed. The disease is also called Helminthosporiose. T h e
typical symptoms are round, or oval, elongated spots on the leaves; these spots
have a reddish centre and a brown border. After about a week, reddish brown
streaks or 'runners' develop toward the leaf tips along the veins. T h e badly af-
fected foliage looks reddish-brown (firing) when viewed from a distance. T h e
severity of the attack is due to the toxin Helminthosporioside, which reduces the
Fe content of the leaf and impairs chlorophyll synthesis. Cooler nights, high hu-
midity as in a rice ecosystem, low soil p H , low soil potash content, and high N
levels favour incidence of the disease . Cloudy weather accentuates the disease.
However, with rhe rise in temperature, its incidence is reduced.
This disease can be controlled by 2 or 3 sprays of 0.2% copper oxychloride at
15-20 days interval just before the winter season. Development of a resistant
variety is the final answer. Among the commercial varieties Co 62175 is more
tolerant to Helminthosporium disease than Co 419.
Other leaf spots caused by Cercospora koepkei (yellow spot) are not as serious
and can easily be controlled by a spray of 0.2% copper oxychloride. This author
has seen severe infestation of Cercospora at a late stage in the Belgaum district of
North Karnataka with no adverse effect on the yield and quality of cane.

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16.3.6 Ratoon S t u n t i n g Disease (RSD) (Clavibacter Xyli)

This coryneform bacterial disease is possibly responsible for varietal decline or

degeneration. Diseased stools are stunted, and thin with shorter internodes. The
stalks taper rapidly. The typical symptoms of RSD can be observed by longitudi-
nally splitting mature cane, where upon orange-red or yellow-orange, usually pink-
red and reddish-brown discolouration can be seen at the nodal region. It is trans-
mitted through setts taken from diseased plants or by infected cane knives and
cutting blades. The cane cutting knives should be disinfected with 1% Lysol. The
insect vector for RSD has not yet been identified (Agnihotri, 1983). The develop-
ment of tolerant varieties like H60-6909 and B4 1242 would give a lasting solu-
tion. Hot water or aerated steam therapy controls RSD.

16.3.7 Grassy S h o o t Disease (GSD)

It is a mycoplasmal disease and is spread over the cane growing areas of the coun-
try. It is particularly severe in Karnataka and Maharashtra. The external symp-
toms are profuse tillering with narrow leaves and varying degrees of chlorophyll
loss. The clump appears like a grass, hence the name grassy shoot. One or two
millable canes from the affected clump appear 'apparently healthy' but when planted
show distinct symptoms of GSD. The disease is caused by Mycoplasmal Like
Organisms (MLO). This is transmitted by insect vectors like Melanaphis sacchari,
M, indosacchari, and Aphis maidis. Ratoons manifest the disease more than the
plant crop. The albinoid leaves contain less Mn. The general GSD affected plants
contain higher amounts of amino acids, amides, and other organic acids. GSD
can be controlled by thermotherapy and strict roguing. The three-tier seed
programme described in Chapter 14 will completely eliminate the disease.

16.3.8 Mosaic

This viral disease is widely distributed in sugarcane throughout the world. It is

transmitted by setts and aphid vectors. The chlorotic yellowish stripes alternate
with normal green areas on leaves, thus giving a mosaic appearance. Mild strains
of mosaic do not cause yield loss but severe strains of mosaic result in considerable
yield loss. Chemotherapy or thermotherapy are of little success in the control of
mosaic virus. Growing of resistant varieties (cv. CP 44101) is the solution for this

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malady. S. officinarum is highly susceptible to mosaic, whilst S. spontaneum and S.

sinense are highly resistant (Blackburn, 1984) and their inclusion in the breeding
programme will control the disease. Graminaceous species such as Echinochloa
crusgalli, Phalaris brachystachis, Lolium multiflorum, Zea mays, and Sorghum sp
are likely to act as virus reservoirs. Clean cultivation and resistant varieties will
keep the mosaic at bay.

16.4

NEMATODES

Nematodes (eelworms) are thread-like animals invisible to the naked eye. They
are known to be parasitic, and about 50 nematodes species are associated with
sugarcane. There are ecto- and endoparasitic nematodes. The lesion nematodes,
Pratylenchus sp. are most widespread causing serious loss in yield and. quality of
cane. The most important species is P. Zea. Infestation seems to be more serious
in lighter soils. General chlorosis, stunting, and wilting are the above-ground
symptoms while root galls, root lesions, stubby roots, and necrotic root surface
are the below-ground symptoms. The loss in yield and quality due to nematode
infection depends upon the population and variety. An average loss in cane yield
is guesstimated at 16.5%.
The economic threshold level of P. zea for sugarcane has been estimated at one
nematode cc _1 of soil or two nematodes g - 1 of root. Among the nematocides
Vapam is more effective than Nemagon as the former can be easily drenched.
Proper crop rotations are effective against nematodes.
Sundararaj and Usha Mehta (1999) have shown that cured Press M u d (PM), if
kept to decompose for a few months, is ecofriendly and has nematicidal value.
Phenols, polyphenols, and several aldehydes produced by PM control the lesion
nematodes. Moreover, PM is rich in carbon content and nematophagous micro-
organisms feed, multiply and build up their population and control nematode
production.
In Australia, it was seen that legume/pasture alternate crops and fumigation
with methyl bromide (MB) reduced the population of lesion nematodes. D u e to
pasture rotation, gram negative bacteria Pseudomonas sp., and fungi, VAM fungi
were in large quantities. Rotation also arrested the yield decline possibly d u e to

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higher content of labile carbon (particulate matter) with increased C E C , aggre-

gate stability, and microbial biomass.
Chemical methods of nematode control in sugarcane is given by Wada (1997)
(Table 16.2).
Overall, a combination of green manuring with sunn hemp, legume break crop,
heavy application of press m u d (40 t ha - 1 ) and carbofuran application at 3.0 kg ai
ha - 1 is a good method of nematode management.

Table 1 6 . 2 Nematode control by chemical methods

Source: Wada, 1997.

287
 Transgenic sugarcane: some applications of
biotechnology

Biotechnology is defined as "any technique that uses living organisms or parts of

organisms to make or modify products to improve plants or animals or to develop
microorganisms for specific uses". One branch of biotechnology raises social and
ethical issues—genetic manipulation in agriculture and food production. This branch
also includes development and deployment of crops which have resistance to pests,
diseases, herbicide, frost, etc., and improve N2 fixation. A fear looms that the engi-
neered plants/organisms on commercial exploitation may lead to unpredictable and,
possibly, catastrophic consequences. The genetically engineered plants may develop
'invasiveness' and become weeds with developed resistance to major herbicides. In-
vasiveness or weediness is precisely defined as the rate of population increase from
one generation to other. But what traits enhance invasiveness is not clear.
According to Moore and Fitch (1990) it is desirable to have haploids in sugar-
cane breeding. The sugarcane haploids (2n = 40) were first reported in 1966 from
wide crosses between S. officinarum (2n = 80) and S. spontaneum (2n = 64, 80 &
96). Each haploid was less vigorous, shorter, thinner stalked, more fibrous, and
lower in sucrose than the maternal officinarum (ibid.). The complexity of chro-
mosome behaviour has added one more dimension to the utilization of haploids
in crop improvement.
Although 2n + n inheritance is common in S. officinarum and S. spontaneum
crosses, n + n hybrids and haploids occur at low frequency. The n haploids are
hypothesised to be apomictic, i.e. having the chromosome set of the female
officinarum. The authors however reiterate that the value of haploids in rapid
sugarcane improvement is unknown. Hence genetic transformation seems to fa-
vour rapid crop improvement.
Genetic transformation is the creation of a new genetically improved indi-
vidual without the benefit of sexual reproduction (Irvine, 1995). The engineered
plants can possess agronomically important and novel traits such as ratooning
ability, insect-disease resistance, or genes for value added products (Birch, 1996).
Some applications of sugarcane transformation are depicted in Fig. 17.1.
Yield (Y) is a function of genetic contribution (G), environmental contribu-
tion (E), and genetic x environmental interaction (GE)

Y = G + E + GE

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 17 Transgenic sugarcane: some applications of biotechnology

High/early CCS Waxes, bioplastics, novel sugars,

improved maturation digestible fibre, higher protein.
Reduced metabolic waste fermentable carbohydrate

Fig. 17.1 Engineering sugarcane to produce useful products in addition to

sucrose (Birch, 1996)

Genetic factors limiting yield, for instance, photosynthesis, sugar transport,

storage capacity, remobilization, etc. could be addressed through engineering of
plants. One distinct advantage is the reduced time scale for transgenic product
development (Dunwell, 1996) as shown in Fig. 17.2.
The first deliberate transformation was achieved more than 50 years ago by
Avery et al. (1944) who showed pneumonococcal bacteria could transfer genetic
traits from one to another. This lead to the conclusion that the DNA is the source
of genetic information, heralding the genetic revolution.
Monocots are not easily infected by agrobacterium but maize was transformed
with a special technique. The most common technique is microprojectile bom-
bardment, i.e. the forcible injection of high density microparticles coated with
plasmid DNA into the target cell. In 1987, sugarcane was genetically transformed
by Chen and his colleagues (quoted by Irvine, 1995) when they introduced CAT
(Chloram-Phenicol Acetyl Transferase) genes into protoplasts by electroporation.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

However, they failed to regenerate plants from transformed protoplasts. Birch

and Maretzki (1993) seem to have achieved transformed sugarcane.

Fig. 1 7 . 2 Transgenic product development

Genetic transformation of sugarcane has 2 goals (Irvine, 1995).

(a) T h e introduction of desirable traits into the existing variety with minimum
collateral change.
(b) Introduction of genes, foreign/native into parental varieties for use in con-
ventional breeding.
In general, three types of transformations are recognized (loc. cit.)
(a) Transformation may be transient, e.g. foreign gene is expressed in a cell
without being incorporated and eventually degraded.
(b) Transformation may be chimeric and in that only transformed cells divide
but the tissue formed is only a part of the entire organism. However, chimeral
transformation can be rescued and stabilized through vegetative propagation.
(c) Stable transformation occurs when the genetic change is formed in the en-
tire organism and the new trait is passed on to the progeny.
There are three methods to deliver D N A systems.
(a) Foreign D N A can be delivered to the target cells by electroporation
(b) Polyethylene glycol (PEG) treatment and
(c) Particle bombardment
In electroporation, sugarcane protoplasts are placed in an electric current which
makes the protoplast membrane porous and thus large D N A molecules are in-
serted. T h e same effect is created by the PEG method. Employing microprojectile
bombardment, Irvine and his co-workers (op. cit.) have introduced gus A (B-

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 17 Transgenic sugarcane: some applications of biotechnology

glucuronidase) gene into sugarcane callus tissue and demonstrated the transient
and chimeral transformation. Australian workers seem to have achieved the ge-
netic transformation of sugarcane. Bower and Birch (1992) of CSIRO, Australia,
used microprojectiles to insert N P T II (Neomycin Phospho-transferase) and gus
A genes (B-glucuronidase) into sugarcane callus. The N P T II gene confers resist-
ance to some antibiotics and geneticin is used to kill non-transformed cells. It is
reasonable to propose that particle bombardment to introduce foreign D N A is
the best method which includes antibiotic genes to kill non-transformed cells.
Reporter genes are included to provide additional evidence that the transforma-
tion has occurred. The CAT (Chloramphenicol Acetyl Transferase), gus A (B-
glucuronidase), and luc (luciferase) genes are common reporter genes used in plant
transformation. The gus A gene is the most popular reporter gene to signal trans-
formation and its assay is simple.
In transformation, the choice of plasmids for D N A transfer is important, par-
ticularly the size. Plasmids are circular D N A sequences (1—400 kb). T h e plasmids
must be large enough to carry genetic substances but not so large as to be unsta-
ble. The plasmid P Emu promises to be a powerful tool in sugarcane transforma-
tion. This plasmid Phosphorus Emu (65 Kb) contains enhancer sequences from
agrobacterium and promoter sequences from maize which make transformation
easy in monocots. Choosing a promoter is critical in sugarcane transformation.
The first report of herbicide resistant transgenic sugarcane comes from Gallo-
Meagher and Irvine (1996). They obtained herbicide resistant transgenic sugar-
cane in the commercial cultivar N C O : 310 by introducing the bar gene. Most of
the transgenics displayed resistance to the commercial herbicide ignite (glufosinate
ammonium). Non-transformed plants showed a high degree of necrosis even at
0.2% ignite. On the other hand, transformed plants showed minimal levels of
necrosis even at 2% ignite. Indications are that the bar gene can be stably incorpo-
rated into the sugarcane genome. Further, its phenotypic expression can remain
unchanged following commercial propagation practices. Further more, transformed
plants will also have an integrated desired agronomic gene, a phenomenon known
as co-transportation. They can also be tested for the expression of the desired
agronomic gene or co-expression. For practical purposes, it is desirable to have a
high frequency of co-transportation and co-expression. Sometimes the expression
of introduced genes is turned off—a process known as transgene silencing.
The clarion call is that transgenic commercial crops like sugarcane, sugar beet, and
tobacco produce drugs. No pharmaceutical has the market demand of 100 million

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tons a year that sugar enjoys (Irvine, 1995). This is in essence, molecular farming
(Hunsigi, 1998). But sugar and alcohol will remain the main products of sugarcane.
The commercial exploitation of transgenic crops requires caution. It must be
convincing to organic farmers and environmentalist groups. The industry must
demonstrate that Genetically Modified (GM crops) have no adverse ecological
impact (Masood, 1998). In other words, genetically modified plants will need
thorough field testing before commercial cultivation to convince agronomists,
environmentalists, and the end-user, i.e. farmer.

Box I

Terminator seed technology

The process involves expression of two gene systems where one is re-
sponsible for phenotypic alteration of the embryo and the other controls
the embryo.
Thus the Gene-I blocks the germination if expressed at the time of
germination. Gene II encodes for recombinase which is important for the
expression of the gene-I system. These genes are supposed to be transpos-
able elements of bacterial origin.
An important point is the expression of the gene-II system by tetracy-
cline. Therefore, application of tetracycline before marketing is an indis-
pensable step of this seed technology.
M. S. Swaminathan, leading Agricultural Scientist claims that at present,
we do not have any mechanism to stop such technologies from seeping
in. A challenge is to develop highly sophisticated molecular probes to
check the dreaded seed in the import shipment itself.
According to terminator seed technology, a variety with a terminator
gene will bear normal seeds but seeds fail to germinate in the next genera-
tion. They can encourage as many selfings as they wish and also terminate
viability of seed at any time by tetracycline treatment. But this lethal tech-
nology will not find field in the vegetatively propagated crops like sugar-
cane, potato, etc.
Source: Rani Gupta, 1998, Sujay Rakshit, 1998.

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18.1

GENERA LI A

In the early 1970s, De Witt termed model as a cumbersome method of curve

fitting. A model may be defined as a summary of a coherent body of experimental
data in a logical structure, and can be a mere hypothesis or concept. Models are
important research tools but cannot replace observation, experimentation, and
experience. According to Montieth (1996), a crop model can be defined as a
quantitative scheme for predicting growth, development, and yield in a given set
of genetic coefficients, and relevant environmental variables.
There are three types of models: empirical, mechanistic, and comprehensive.
There are teleonomic models which have set goals, sometimes called teleological,
and are goal setting and attempt to answer 'whys' and 'hows'. An empirical model
is mathematically descriptive or is curve fitting of observation data which does
not permit extrapolation. A mechanistic model is more comprehensive and takes
into account all the processes and sub-processes. Extrapolation is possible in mecha-
nistic modelling. De Witt (1970) gives an early account of concepts in modelling
and a detailed treatment is furnished by Thornley and Johnson (1990). Both
complex and simple models are needed. In reality most crop models are a mixture
of empiricism and mechanism.
Baker (1996) concluded that crop modelling is primarily heuristic (guiding in
discovery or to find out), and models cannot do all that are being promised.
Nevertheless, crop modelling is playing a valuable role and this is destined to
increase. Scientific models are mechanistic while the best engineering models are
based on robust empirical relationships between plant behavior and major envi-
ronmental variables.
Fundamentally, models simulate the growth of crops based on the response of
ecophysiological processes to the environment. De Witt and Penning devaries
(1982) distinguished 4 production situations.
I. Production situation-1. Here in this situation water and nutrients are avail-
able to crops in ample supply. Crop growth and production are determined
by radiation, temperature, and species characteristics, or say cultivars.

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II. Production situation-2. For at least a certain period, crop growth is limited
by water supply in a growing season. A water balance of the soil has to be
included in the model.
III. Production situation-3. In this system, water and nitrogen limit crop growth
for at least a certain period of the growing season. This is the situation in
many rainfed agro-ecosystems.
IV. Production situation-4. In this situation, phosphorus and other nutrients limit
crop production. This is a complex situation where no fertilizers are added.
In all the above production situations the effect of growth reducing factors—
pests, diseases, and weeds can be included.
Simulation models are being used to
(a) predict adaptation to specific environmental conditions.
(b) predict response to alternative management practices.
(c) predict the behaviour of complex cropping systems under different agro-
ecological situations.
(d) predict short-and long-term changes in soil fertility and productivity due to
management.
(e) quantify yield gaps related to weather, genetic, and management protocol.
(f) improve management or minimise risks.
(g) take policy decisions on a scientific footing.
(h) assist in management decisions, cultural practices, fertilization, irrigation,
pesticide application, etc.
(i) predict soil erosion, leaching of agrochemicals and to understand the effects
of climatic changes in 'large area yield' forecasting,
(j) use historical weather data to optimise planting date, plant density, row
spacing, choice of a cultivar, fertilizer application to different soil types,
(k) predict photosynthesis respiration and tissue synthesis to integrate and to
describe Radiation Use Efficiency (RUE).
A model in a sense is synonymous to theory, hence it needs validation or veri-
fication. Validation is equivalent to testing null hypothesis. Further, models need
to be tested on diverse environs. Also it is not necessary that models test only final
yield; intermediate processes like canopy photosynthesis, respiration, transpira-
tion, N 2 fixation, and assimilate allocation, etc. are also tested.
Two tilings stand out in the modelling approach. Firstly, when the climatic
data is fitted into the crop models, a large gap is seen between the actual and the

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simulated model. This means there is a potential to harness the additional yield.
T h e yield gap is to the tune of 30% in most of the crops. Secondly, empirical
models have shown that N concentration in leaves of most crops (petioles in
dicots) must be kept above 2.5% at grand growth phase to harvest a rich crop.

18.2

EMPIRICAL MODELS

Many empirical models are regression equations and consist of functions that are
chosen arbitrarily. They do not permit extrapolation. The most widely used ap-
proach is the rectangular hyperbola to describe the density response (Kropff and
Lotz, 1993).

where Y. = Crop yield in monoculture g m -1 ; N c = Plant density in numbers

m - 2 ; b o = Y—intercept; b c = the slope of the curve.

Many empirical models have been developed to describe the effect of weeds on
crop yield loss (Kropff and Lotz, 1993).

where Y L - Relative yield loss; a = b cw /a o describes the yield loss caused by adding
the first weed; b cw = measures intraspecific competition between crop and weed;
ao is equal to 1 /wcc, the reciprocal of the average weight per plant in a weed free
crop; Nw is the weed density.

Of the weather parameters, temperature is fundamental to plant growth and

development, and has been extensively used in simulation models to predict yield
as influenced by the temperature regime. Vincent (1989) has employed thermal
time to study the response of crop plants to temperature in the modelling approach.
Thermal time (0) is defined as

where T—daily mean temperature; T b —base temperature, 10 °C.

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According to Vincent (op. cit.) thermal time to establish canopy in most crops
varied from 381 to 510 degree days.
Nutrient modelling in sugarcane has been attempted by Hunsigi (1993a). The
response of sugarcane to applied nutrients is well predicted by quadratic, square
root, and exponential functions. Or a more direct approach to establishing the
needs of the crop is given as:

where N c = uptake of N for maximum yield; N f = fertilizer need, C f = fertiliser use

efficiency, Ni = initial quantity of mineral N; Nm = estimated mineralized N for
the crop season.
An estimate was made for sugarcane (Cv. Co 62175) grown an alfisols of
M a n d y a , where N u p t a k e N c = 204.94 kg h a - 1 , initial mineralized N,
N i = 62 kg ha - 1 . The mineralized N for the crop period N m = 84.8 kg ha - 1 . The
fertilizer use efficiency, C f was assumed at 0.5

Another empirical model which has been successfully used to predict N re-
sponse to sugarcane is

where Y max —maximum cane yield at high N value; N s —effective residual soil N;
N—applied N; K—parameter determining the initial slope.
This has been employed with a significant coefficient of determination (R 2 ).

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 18 Sugarcane simulation models

18.3

MECHANISTIC MODELS

In all this, quantified processes have a sound physical and physiological basis, and
permit extrapolation.
Jones ec al. (1989) have developed a simulation model for sugarcane grown in
Australia. This model is known as the AUSCANE model. This is a modified
version of the EPIC crop simulation model for sugarcane. A wide gap between
the theoretical and actual yield has been highlighted in a recent symposium—
'Sugar beyond 2000' in Australia. This gap could be as wide as 3 0 - 4 0 % .

Fig. 18.1 Flow chart of soil water management in cane growth model (Schematic)

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Biological limits to sugar yield and yield plateaus in cane and sugar yield are also
stressed. Yield plateaus in cane and sugar yield are due to the limits of genetics,
water, radiation, and N availability.
A flow chart of general soil-water management in a crop growth model is pre-
sented in Fig. 18.1 (Schematic).
From Fig. 18.1, knowing the daily water status, we can estimate the yield re-
duction due to stress.
A function of the type used is:

w h e r e Y = actual d r y m a t t e r yield; Y = p o t e n t i a l dry m a t t e r yield;

T = transpiration; T = potential transpiration.
The Stress Index (SI) is also computed as:

Recognising that radiation and water availability are limiting cane and sugar
output in the tropics and subtropics, the model can be constructed as shown in
Fig. 18.2. The input data include thermal time, heat units, daily radiation, water
supply, plant density, and N supply.
M. K. Wegner (pers. commn.) has concluded that a combination of simulation
modelling and economic analysis lead to risk analysis in sugarcane production. It
is observed that irrigation production was risk efficient and should be selected by
cane growers in preference to unirrigated production. Perumal (1995) has devel-
oped a computer aided foliar diagnostic model (ISFY). The ISFY model takes
inputs such as sheath moisture, soil texture, soil chemical constituents, and P 2 0 5
content of juice. Sheath moisture depends on the variety, planting/ ratooning sea-
son, irrigation and drainage, and management practices.
The modelling of crop—weed interactions is dealt in detail by Kropff and Van
Laar (1993). The model I N T E R C O M has been developed to quantify intercrop
competition. The main objective of the I N T E R C O M model is to provide a tool
to analyse complex interactions between plants that compete for sources such as
light, water, and N. A special emphasis is on crop—weed interactions and also the
different effects of varying weed species. The model is robust and designed to

298
 18 Sugarcane simulation models

account for the effects of temperature, radiation, rainfall, and analyse several com-
petitive situations in different agro-ecological environments.

Fig. 1 8 . 2 Flow of information in a sugarcane model

Taken overall, models are research tools which help in providing a deeper un-
derstanding of plants in relation to edaphic-climatic factors and other variables.
The singular contribution was to model the impact of increased atmospheric tem-
perature and CO 2 concentration (Greenhouse effect) on crop growth, develop-
ment, and yield. Modelling is destined to play a major role in the future produc-
tivity of crops despite the fact that the conclusions will be challenged.

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 Ripening, maturity and harvest

Ripening in cane can be conceived as a result of shift in photosynthate partition-

ing from growth to storage (Alexander, 1973). Clements (1980) has described
sugarcane ripening as a physiological senescence intermediate between rapid growth
phase and ultimate death of plant. In a simple way ripening is storage of excess
sucrose. Physiologically, there is a decline in acid-invertase activity which moti-
vates sucrose retention rather than utilization. The primary concern of the plant
at this stage is sugar storage rather than utilization. Arguably, Alexander (1973)
states that the ripening process is conveniently depicted as culmination or perfec-
tion of maturity. The bottom line is that ripening follows naturally upon deple-
tion of soil moisture and soil N which restricts further growth without much
restriction of photosynthesis. Thus ripening closely parallels the process of ageing
and maturation without being synonymous (loc. cit.).
As the plant experiences maturation, the growth processes tend to slacken with
a concomitant depletion of tissue moisture and tissue N. T h e sheath moisture
index drops down by about 10% (-82% to 72%) and N index falls from about
2.0% to 1.75%. Potash index (3-6 leaf sheaths) remains steady at 2 . 0 - 2 . 5 % from
6—12 months. This element converts reducing sugars to recoverable sugars and
and also increases fibre content by lowering tissue moisture (Fig. 19.1).
This also contributes to the hypothesis that sugar and fibre are not incompat-
ible. Primary Index (PI) is also suggestive of ripening. PI is defined at total sugar
level of the elongating cane sheaths (3—6 nos.) expressed as percent of dry matter.
At maturity PI is 10.0%. Lower values indicated that the growth has superseded
sucrose storage. As a matter of fact, PI defines energy potential of a local area and
indicates the limits within which efficient production can be attained.
Lingle and Irvine (1994) reiterate that ripening is indicated by a decrease in
elongation rate, increase in total sugar concentration and increase in sucrose per
cent of total sugar over successive sampling dates. During the ripening phase sugar
gets accumulated in cane internodes when they start elongating and continues
even after elongation ceases. They concluded that the activity of Sucrose
Synthase (SS) does not appear to be related to ripening. The ripening observed in
the study was evident from an increase in total sugar concentration in internodes
from the upper 3rd of the stalk. In other words, natural ripening was indicated by
an increase in sucrose to total sugar ratio in the uppermost internodes.

300
 19 Ripening, maturity and harvest

Fig. 1 9 . 1 Effect of potassium on sucrose and fibre percent cane (diagramatic)

Lingle (1997) asserts that the Enzyme Commission (EC) comprises enzymes
of sucrose metabolism, namely, invertase, Sucrose Synthase (SS) and Sucrose Phos-
phate Synthase (SPS). The activity of SS is mooted as a measure of sink strength.
Moore (1995) reported two sucrose synthase iso-enzymes, i.e. SS 1 and SS2. Total
sugar and sucrose concentration increase, while SS, acid, and neutral invertase
activity decrease during internode maturation. It is therefore, tempting to con-
clude that SS, acid and neutral invertase activities suppress sugar accumulation.
Indirect evidence comes from glyphosate application which inhibited growth and
reduced the activity of acid invertase with a consequent increase in sucrose and
total sugar concentration. Glyphosate, however, did not have any influence in SS
activity. It is, therefore, suggested that it is the acid-invertase activity and not SS
that promotes growth and suppresses sucrose accumulation.

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 arcane in agriculture and industry

Fig. 1 9 . 2 Sugarcane ripening zones in India. Based upon Survey of India map
with the permission of the Surveyor General of India.
The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nauti-
cal miles measured from the appropriate base line.
The boundary of Meghalaya shown in this map is as interpreted from the As-
sam Reorganization (Meghalaya). Meghalaya is an autonomous State within the
State of Assam.

302
 19 Ripening, maturity and harvest

Lingle (1997) observed that SS activity like invertase activity was greatest in the
youngest internodes and declined to a steady state by 200 °C d. But total sugar
concentration continued to increase (nearly linear) up to 4 0 0 - 6 0 0 °C d. The
author concluded that internodes that developed late, reached maturity in fewer
heat units than those that developed early in the growing season. Admittedly the
water content of all internodes decreased from 900 g kg - 1 to 720 g kg - 1 .
Natural ripening is induced by growth restriction caused by environmental
conditions associated with the harvest period like low soil N, low soil moisture,
and cool ambient temperature. Reduction in growth is often correlated with a
reduction in acid-invertase activity. In difficult-to-ripen areas such as the coastal
regions of India, high temperature and high humidity are conducive for growth
but not for sugar accumulation. There is no distinct ripening phase. In these areas
sugarcane internodes have intense activity of acid invertase and are characterised
by low sugar recoveries. Figure 19.2 depicts the sugarcane ripening zones of India
as presented by Srivastava et al. (1988). T h e North and Central parts of India
have good to fair natural ripening conditions. It is interesting to note that self
defoliating cultivars with a minimum of 4—6 active functional leaves had shown
natural ripening with acceptable levels of sugar recovery.

19.1

RIPENING METHODS

Alexander (1973) has presented the historical developments in the use of chemi-
cal ripeners. Attempts were made to ripen cane by use of molasses, 2, 4-D, maleic
hydrazide, TIBA (2, 4, 5 Triodobenzoic acid), Sucro (Esso 59—4), Trysben (TBA),
boron, molybdenum, monopotassium phosphate, Cycocel, GA and sodium meta-
silicate ( N 0 2 , SiO 3 9H 2 O). Silicon was effective in in vitro inhibition of both
catalysts—amylase and invertase. Calcium silicate improved cane quality as well
as tonnage. Manganese tended to restrict invertase and a combination of
Si (500 ppm) and Mn (100 ppm) had depressed the invertase levels with a major
increase in sucrose levels. Silicon sprays tended to lower the phosphatase and
ATPase levels. Suppression of acid phosphatase benefits sucrose synthesis. The
pyridine analog 6-azauracil suppressed invertase and was accompanied by sucrose
increase. Several methods ranging from cultural techniques, use of oils, growth
promoters or inhibitors to the use of nutrients, defoliants, desiccants and ripeners

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have been employed to ripen cane. But a more practical method is to withdraw
water 4 - 6 weeks prior to harvest (cut-out period) in non-monsoon climate, where
rains do not interfere in the natural ripening. Different ripening methods em-
ployed to ripen cane are presented in Table 19.1.
The ripeners of e c o n o m i c i m p o r t a n c e are Polaris (4.0 kg ha" 1 ),
Ethophon (0.5 litre ha -1 ) and Glyphosate (0.5 litre ha -1 ). Fluazifop or fusilade super
has been recognised as an effective ripener (sucrose loader/enhancer) in recent times.
Countries like South Africa, Australia, Cuba, etc. use chemical ripeners extensively.
Ripeners help to extend the crushing season by opening early and crushing
late. Irrigated sugarcane was ripened through regulating the amount of irrigation
water applied close to harvesting—a process known as 'drying off. There was
some evidence that 'drying off' may produce better cane quality than a well irrigated
crop ripened with chemicals. It is for this reason that a short drying off is advocated
when chemicals are used to ripen the crop. The chemically ripened crop has better
purity, an evidence of ripening, and results in better sugar recovery.
Donaldson (1999) reported that polado or glyphosate was used extensively as a
sugarcane ripener in South Africa. But it lost favour since the ripener had an
adverse residual effect on the sprouts of ratoons. Later on fusilade and fusilade
super (fluazifopbutyl) were tested as sugarcane ripeners. There were severe symp-
toms of leaf scorch and necrosis of stalk meristematic region. But this is also an
indication of ripening. Varietal differences were observed with regard to response
to fusilade super. According to Donaldson (op. cit.) response of N 1 2 was better
than N16 to fusilade-super. The reason was N12 tolerates stress better by leaf
rolling. Incidentally N Co 376 also responded better to ripeners. It was con-
cluded that with the onset of stress, abscisic acid levels rise, and esterase activity
decreases in the plant and both may decrease the activity of fusilade-super
(fluazifopbutyl). For some varieties a higher dosage of fusilade super (0.75 g ai ha -1 )
was tried but it resulted in a poor ratoon crop. To obtain response to a wider
varietal spectrum, a combination of ripeners was used. Ethephon spray (Ethep-
hon is the trade name for Ethrel) was followed by fusilade super to varieties like
N 19, N C O 376 and N 25 with good success. The average gain is about 0.8 t ha - 1
sucrose per year. But the gain in 3-crops was 3.2 t sucrose ha - 1 from glyphosate.
The spray equipment employed were mist-blower and overhead sprinkler. In In-
dia this author has attempted knapsack spray with telescopic attachment. Ultra
low volume spray application is recommended. A gap of 45—60 days should be
observed between the spray and harvest.

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Table 19.1 Methods used to ripen cane

Method Remarks

l. Cultural Withholding irrigation 4—6 weeks prior to harvest

(cut-out period), tying or supporting (wrapping
and propping) the cane.
2. Plant or animal Molasses, petroleum products such as sucrol (Esso
products 59 G), FS 40 (diesel oil plus penta-chlophenol plus
2, 4-D). Self defoliating cultivars
3. Growth promoters 2, 4-D, GA, 2, 3, 6-Trichlorobenzoic acid (TIBA)
4. Growth inhibitors Maleic hydrazide, Cycocel, abscisic acid (ABA)
or antiauxins
5. Plant nutrients Boron, monopotassium phosphate, molybdenum,
manganese, silicon, sodium metasilicate
6. Defoliants or desiccants Gramaxone, Reglone
7. Antibiotic or Naramycin A, Streptomycin sulphate,
antimicrobial agents magnamycin, nystatin, novobiocin
8. Chemical ripeners or Cycocel (CCC)
sucrose loaders Embark (Mefluidide)
(sucrose-enhancers) Dowpon (Delapon)
Asulox (Asulam)
Polaris
Etherel (Ethephon or Flordimex)
Glyphosate (Polado or round up or lider)
Fluazitop (fusilade) or fluazifopbutyl
ethephon + fuazitop (2 sprays each, not to mix)
ethephon + glyphosate (2 sprays each, not to mix)
gallant super (haloxyfop-R methyl ester)
Registered in S. Africa as ripener, under trial)
Source: Hunsigi, 1993a. Data modified and adapted.

Donaldson (op. cit.) concludes with optimism that chemical ripening has a dis-
tinct possibility in irrigated areas, with a long milling season and cane payment
schemes that reward better quality. There is a need to unravel the process of dry
matter partitioning that favours the accumulation of sucrose. Future improve-

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ments can be expected by creating chemical ripening schedules based on growing

degree days. Better results are also anticipated if the chemical ripening is com-
bined with a short period of water restriction (drying off). Recently gallant super
(haloxyfop-R methyl ester) has been registered as a ripener in South Africa and its
performance will be watched with interest.
Further evidence comes from Cuba where fluazifop is the most widely used
chemical ripener for sugarcane (Cutino et al., 1995). Cutino and his co-workers
(1995) observed that fluazifop and glyphosate were economically more favorable
than ethephon and fluazifop. The authors have recommended various dosages for
cane grown in Cuba (Table 19-2). Varietal differences were also marked. T h e gain
in sugar following chemical ripening ranged from 0.5 to 2 t ha -1 when the interval
between spray and harvest was 45—60 days. In Australia, an increase in CCS be-
tween 0.4 to 1.3 units was observed, when cane was treated with ethephon.

These ripeners increased pol % cane in most cultivars. Post-harvest measure-

ments like tiller count, and population at 2 - 5 months (stubble crop) did not
change following ripener treatment. The effect of fluazifop at 0.056 kg ai ha -1 on
pol % cane (Cv. M 5514) is shown in Fig. 19.3.
In India chemical ripening in commercial plantations is practically negligible.
The most probable reason is that the payment is made on tonnage basis rather
than on cane quality. Moreover special equipment is needed to spray ripeners on
tall and lodged cane. Hence this calls for mechanization of cane industry. None-
theless, 'cut-out period' or 'dry off' for 4-6 weeks is mostly observed in many
plantations.

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 19 Ripening, maturity and harvest

Fig. 1 9 . 3 Effect of fluazifop 0.056 kg ai h a - 1 on cultivar M 5514

(Cutino et al., 1995)

19.2

METHODS OF CANE PURCHASE

No universal method is available to purchase cane but some guidelines are fol-
lowed in each country where quality of cane is taken into account. It is in Austra-
lia that cane is taken on quality basis. But at the end of the season sugar recovery
becomes the basis for cane pricing. The base price is fixed at 8.5% of sugar recov-
ery and every increase in the unit sugar bagged will get a proportionately higher
cane price. Efforts are made to avoid stale cane and fresh cut canes arrive at the
mill within 18-24 h. Burnt cane is usually rejected or the supply of such cane is
heavily penalized.
Some important methods of evaluating cane include the following.
1. The Java Ratio (JR) is an arbitrary milling ratio. JR does not take into
account the different fibre content of different varieties (Meade and
Chen, 1977).
JR = Sucrose (pol) % cane / Sucrose (pol) % first expressed juice

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

2. The SJM formula proposed by Deerr postulates that for a given juice of J
purity and producing sugar of S purity with molasses of M purity, the per-
centage of total sugar (pol) in the original material to go into sugar will be:
SJM=100 S(J-M)/J ( S - M )

This formula envisages that the pol in the original material separates into
that which goes into sugar with the remainder going to molasses. It does
not take into account other losses.
3. The pol ratio (PR) is the direct measure of cane quality expressed as Tons
Cane (TC)/Tons Sugar (TS).
4. Arceneaux's universal equation is given as:

S' = Sx-By
where S' is the available sugar (%), S is the pol (sucrose) in juice, B repre-
sents the brix of primary juice and x and y are the factors connected with
the fibre content of cane and the brix and pol of juice.
5. Australia was perhaps the first country to make payment for sugar rather
than cane and the grower is rewarded according to the sugar content of the
sugarcane. The Australian Commercial Cane Sugar (CCS) formula is given
by Meade and Chen (1977) as:

CCS = 3P/2 ( 1 - [F + 5]/100) - B / 2 ( l - [F + 3]/100)

where P is the pol percentage of the first expressed juice, B is the brix per-
centage of the first expressed juice and F is the fibre percentage in the cane.
6. The Winter and Carp formula is widely accepted throughout the sugar
world but has undergone many modifications (Meade and Chen, 1977).
The formula is:
x = S(1.4-40/P)

where x is the available pol (sucrose) percentage in cane, S is the percentage

pol in juice and P denotes the purity of juice.
7. The Louisiana method used by the US Department of Agriculture envis-
ages a 'standard cane' having 12% pol with a juice purity of 7 5 % . Thus, a
premium is added or penalty deducted when the 'normal juice' (first ex-
pressed juice or laboratory mill juice) exceeds or fails to reach this quality
(Blackburn, 1984).

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 19 Ripening, maturity and harvest

8. In Spain a simplified yield of commercial sugar (Y) is computed by assum-

ing an average of 0.0779 (Barnes, 1974):
Y = 0.779 P - 3 . 0 5
where P is the pol percentage of the first expressed juice. The loss during
process is assumed to be 3.05%.
9. ERS (Estimated Recoverable Sugar).
In South Africa, ERS is used to measure the cane quality;
ERS = Sucrose - 0.485 (non-sucrose %) - 0.056 (Fibre %)
This takes into account the losses in crushing and process.
10. More recently Ahmed et al. (1998) have presented improved formulae for
evaluation of cane quality. The improved empirical formulae estimate fibre,
sugar recovery and sugar or pol % cane.
(a) Fibre % cane (f) = [(1 - F)/(L6 )]x 100
where F is the factor for maximum juice per unit cane derived from
the equation
F = E 2 /0.84
(b) E is the extracted juice per unit cane at bagasse with moisture of 0.51
per unit in bagasse. In case of moisture content being more than 0.51
per unit in the final bagasse.
(c) E = e + (m-0.51)
where e is the extracted juice per unit cane, m is the moisture per unit
bagasse, 0.84 is the constant for maximum juice recovered at 0.1 fibre
per cent cane.
(d) Sugar recovery % cane = [S- (B - S) 0.32] F
where S, B are sucrose and brix per cent juice. 0.32 is a constant de-
rived from lowest molasses purity (0.2425) and F is the factor for
maximum available juice per unit cane.
(e) Sugar or pol % cane = [1 - 1.2f] S
where ( 1 - 1 . 2 f) is the total juice per unit cane and S is the sucrose per
cent juice. The factor 1.2 represents the quality of fibre along with
mechanically nonseparable brix free water per unit of dry fibre, f is the
quantity of fibre per unit cane, estimated by the formula (a).

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11. Recoverable Cane Sugar method (RCS)

RCS method combines Australian CCS and Winter-crop formulae and is
recommended by the International Commission.
RCS = 1.05 (1.4 pol % cane - 0.4 brix % cane) where Brix % cane = Brix %
juice [1 - (F + 5)/(100)]; and pol % cane = pol % juice [1 - (F + 7)/(100)]

where F = fibre %
12. Hugot formulae
% extractable sucrose = K [(pol % juice - 0.3 brix % juice) ( 1 - 1 . 4 F)]
% extractable cane sucrose = K brix % juice [(purity ~ 30)/100] ( 1 - 1 . 4 F)
where F = fibre %. The coefficient K for clean samples taken in fields is 0.85
and for untreated samples taken at factory is 0.95.
It is opined that the empirical Australian CCS formula or Winter and Carp
formula gives a better estimation of cane quality and is user-friendly.

19.3

HARVEST STRATEGY

The harvesting includes cutting, cleaning, loading, and transport and constitutes
nearly 30—40% of the production cost. The harvest strategy includes, inter alia,
(a) ensure adequate cane supply
(b) cane quality is judged by pre-harvest maturity survey or Small Mill Test
(SMT)
(c) proper age of harvest depending on the variety
(d) harvest of flowered and ratoon cane
(e) efficient cane transport
(0 acquiring labor for efficient harvesting
(g) crushing of burnt or stale cane
(h) maintaining proper communication system and, finally
(i) computerization of cane harvesting programme.
Supply of adequate cane to the mill is essential. A 2500 T C D plant requires
120 t cane per h and there must be at least 12—15 trucks stationed in the cane
yard. First ratoon area is taken and cane supply should be from different sections/

310
 19 Ripening, maturity and harvest

regions. Varietal spectrum ensures longer crushing season and very good seasonal
sugar recovery. To avoid diversion of cane to jaggery units, when the jaggery prices
are high, cane should be drawn from the reserve area. Normally quota system is
followed. If the farmer has registered 2 ha with the factory, he should supply
about 200 ± 1 0 tons of cane to the mill.
Cane registration is done by the field staff and the date of planting/ ratooning is
recorded. It is worthwhile if plot history, varieties grown, amount of cane sup-
plied, etc. are recorded in a floppy.
O p t i m u m age of harvest should be ensured. Tendency to supply immature
cane should be avoided. Varieties with differing maturity periods are planted and
the supply is according to their peak sugar level. Bulk planting takes place in
about 2 - 3 months time; the harvest age could be 14-16 months. This late harvest
not only reduces sugar recovery but adversely affects the ratoon crop. A plant of
2500 T C D can have the following varietal spectrum.

(a) Ruling variety 50%

(b) Ratoons (1st to 3rd ratoons) 30%
(c) Early maturing 10-15%
(d) Others 5-10%
In peninsular India, the optimum crushing period is 280-300 days while in
the subtropical belt it is 180—200 days. Flowered cane tends to accumulate more
sugar as growth has practically ceased. But flowered cane has to be harvested within
2 - 3 months of flowering. If delayed, there is pith formation, side shooting, and
lowered juice extraction with consequent reduced yield and sugar recovery. Non-
flowering canes like H 2 0 4 5 , B 37172, KH 3296 help to extend the crushing
period.
T h e ideal weather conditions for harvest are rain-less period, low to moderate
humidity (45-65%), cooler nights with warm days and bright sunshine hours.
The rains interfere not only with the harvest but also with the transport of the
cane to the mill.
A distinct 'cut-out' period of 4-6 weeks has to be observed. This is abstraction
of water/controlled irrigation to ripen cane. Ripeners are not used in India on a
commercial scale but 'dry off' or 'cut-out' period is the practical method to ripen
cane. T h e different ripening methods are given in Section 19.1.

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19.3.1 Pre-harvest maturity survey

This is the m o s t essential component of a harvest strategy. A mature cane assures
good tonnage a n d sugar recovery. Varieties differ in their maturity period. The
same variety differs in maturity due to edaphic conditions like water logging, high
and late N application, saline/sodic conditions, etc. Hence a pre-harvest maturity
survey is done on standing cane. Hand refractometer (HF) is used and random
samples are drawn at least at 4 corners of the plot. Normally cutting permits are
issued if HF values range from 20-24 ° brix. In progressive sugar factories even
small mill test is done, and parameters like brix, pol and purity coefficient are
determined. T h e sheath moisture index of tissues (3, 4, 5, 6 top leaf sheaths) can
be determined. In immature cane, sheath moisture index is high, say about 8 0 -
82% while in mature cane it is 7 2 - 7 4 % Trials have indicated that harvesting
based on a pre-harvest maturity survey alone gives increased sugar of about 1.0 unit.

19.3.2 M e t h o d s of harvest

Normally m a n u a l harvesting is done and contract labour is procured from nearby-

places. In irrigated areas labour shortage is acute and adequate labour arrange-
ment has to be made. Labour costs are paid normally on tonnage basis. It is worth-
while if the factory arranges the labour for harvest and payment is made weekly in
a worksheet signed by the farmer. In North India labour is relatively cheap.
Labourers harvest the cane and the wages are in kind—they take the cane tops,
green foliage a n d grasses. This scenario is fast changing and acute labour shortage
is observed in Punjab and Haryana. Due to industrialization, migration of labour
to urban areas takes place.
Appropriate tools are also necessary for efficient harvesting. Curve sickle is an
effective implement to harvest cane and it can clean the cane by removing trash,
adhering roots, etc. A hand axe shaped like 'Parasuram axe' is equally effective.
The Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research (IISR), has developed a hand stripper,
but it is not commonly used. But the stripper is very useful when certain cane
varieties have spines. For better yield of cane and sugar, it is essential to harvest the
cane at ground level. Sundara (1998) has estimated that 5 to 10 tons cane or 0.5
to 1.0 ton sugar per ha is lost due to improper harvesting. Moreover, if the cane is
not harvested at the ground level, the ratoons may be adversely affected due to
lack or anchorage and support.

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 19 Ripening, maturity and harvest

Some varieties like Co 62175 have 5-6 immature top internodes, which con-
tain more moisture and less of recoverable sugar. The tops should be removed and
cleared from trash and other extraneous matter. The binding material and trash
can reduce juice extraction with a drop in sugar by 0.3 to 0.5 units. However, the
permissible trash and other extraneous matter under mechanised harvesting is 7%
and manual harvesting is 2 to 3 % .
An efficient transport system is essential and trucks are normally hired by the
factories. Large trucks can carry 10—14 tons of cane. But it is worthwhile to trans-
port cane by tractor trailers. In North Karnataka usually 2 trailers are hitched to a
35 HP tractor and 12-14 tons cane can be transported to the mill. The network
of village roads should be properly maintained for efficient cane haulage. In black
soil regions roads get sticky with a slight rainfall and this impairs cane haulage.
The transport distance should be within a radius of 30 km. For a shorter distance
of 10 km or less, sugarcane can be transported by bullock carts. It has been ob-
served that cane transported by bullock carts comes to the yard in a fresh condi-
tion. However at the cane yard, water facilities, fodder feeding trough (manger),
etc. should be provided. At the yard, cane has a standing period of 2 - 3 hr but the
harvested cane should be crushed within 8—10 hours.
Post-harvest deterioration can cause serious losses due to delayed crushing.
Break downs in the factory or transport problems may cause the cut cane to be
kept in the field/cane yard for over 48 hours. This leads to fast deterioration. In
tropical regions the loss in yield is in the range of 1.5 to 2 . 5 % for every 24 hours
of storage after the cane harvest. Higher losses up to 2 5 % have been reported due
to delay by a week in crushing the harvested cane. For the first 48 hours the loss in
sucrose of harvested cane is negligible but further delay would lead to a drop of
0.1 to 0.12 units for every 24 hours delay. But from 72 hr onwards, rapid deterio-
ration and fall in quality was observed. Post harvest deterioration is due to infec-
tion by Leuconostoc. If the surface area of cut ends is more, the infection of Leu-
conostoc is more serious and souring of the cane juice occurs, with high amounts
of sugar entering the molasses.
Attempts have been made by the author to control post harvest deterioration
by covering the cane by trash/straw, spraying water or even spraying 1% urea
solution. The integrated method to control post-harvest deterioration includes:
keeping harvested cane in shade, covering with trash and sprinkling water. Leu-
conostoc souring can be controlled by treating the knives, harvesters, etc. with a
suitable biocide like 'Bactrinol' (Sundara, 1998).

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Sugarcane in a g r i c u l t u r e a n d industry

19.3.3 M e c h a n i s e d harvesting
L a b o u r h a s n o t o n l y b e c o m e expensive but is not available in time. The cost of
m a n u a l l a b o u r is Rs 1 0 0 - 1 3 0 per ton and it is even Rs 150 per ton in project
a r e a s . H e n c e m e c h a n i s e d harvesting seems imminent in the near future. The chop-
p e r h a r v e s t e r s w e r e d e v e l o p e d in Australia and the Australian cane combine is the
m o s t w i d e l y u s e d s y s t e m . The combine harvester pushes the stalks, cuts them at
t h e b a s e i n t o p i e c e s or billets and an air blast removes the trash. The partially
c l e a n e d a n d c h o p p e d c a n e is then dropped into a tractor drawn bin travelling by
t h e s i d e of t h e c o m b i n e . Mechanized harvesting is carried out after burning the
c a n e . U s e of d e s i c c a n t s like gramaxone (1.5-3 1 ha -1 ) is suggested. But more re-
c e n t l y g r e e n c a n e h a r v e s t i n g has been carried out by modified combine harvest-
ers. T h e f a l l e n c a n e s a r e raised, and cut at the base by short, serrated knives.
1 he r o t a t i n g t w o b l a d e d chopper knife cuts the cane into billets and an air
blast r e m o v e s t h e d i r t a n d trash. This harvester has a 90-120 HP tractor to cut
c a n e a n d t r a n s p o r t it. F o r Indian conditions where holdings are small, tractors
have to be m o d i f i e d .
At S a k t i S u g a r s m e c h a n i s e d cultivation of cane has been successfully attempted.
M a n i c k a m ( 1 9 9 9 ) h a s detailed the mechanised cultivation of cane. It is claimed
t h a t 1 0 , 0 0 0 a c r e s w e r e brought under this new method and it will reach 16,000
a c r e s by t h e f o l l o w i n g year. In this system, all operations such as planting, weed-
i n g , f e r t i l i z a t i o n , b u n d l i n g and cutting are done mechanically. But the geometry
of t h e p l a n t i n g h a s to be changed. In the new system cane is planted in paired row
at 6 0 — 7 5 cm r o w s w i t h an area of 150 cm. The variety most suitable for this
s y s t e m is Co 8 6 0 3 2 . S h o r t intercorps are taken in the skipped area. To harvest
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 . 5 ha manually, one month is required but this combine harvester
t a k e s j u s t h a l f a d a y . It h a s been estimated that to harvest 400 tons of cane, there is
a n e e d of 5 d r i v e r s , o n e mechanic and one foreman. On the other hand, in the
t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d of c u t t i n g 400 tons, nearly 6000 labourers are required
( M a n i c k a m , 1 9 9 9 ) . O t h e r advantages of mechanisation are steady and uninter-
r u p t e d s u p p l y of c a n e to t h e mill. The factory receives the fresh cane within one
h o u r of c u t t i n g . T h i s a u t h o r is of the opinion that for totally mechanised cane
c u l t u r e , s u i t a b l e v a r i e t i e s with high tillering and less mortality are required. In the
t r o p i c s n e a r e r t h e e q u a t o r , varieties like N C O 310 and N C O 376, N12, N 1 4 ,
e t c . a r e a d a p t e d to a w i d e spacing of 150 to 180 cm. The mechanised cultivation

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as adopted by Sakti Sugars will be watched with interest since the economic vi-
ability of this industry depends on reduced cost of production.

19.3.4 Post-harvest losses

For various reasons often the harvest cane is not crushed within 12 hours, and
staling takes place at the field/cane yard. The estimated losses under Indian condi-
tions range from 50-150 tons/day if the harvested cane is supplied after 72 hours.
Besides, the loss in sucrose is to the extent of 25-30%. This author has observed
weight loss of 10-15% and sucrose loss of the same magnitude. In burnt cane, as
in South Gujarat, the sucrose loss could be to the extent of 40%. Efforts were
made by several investigators to control post-harvest losses by spraying water and
using a trash cover, spraying urea, etc. with little or no success. The losses depend
on climatic parameters, the method of harvest, and mode of transport. Hot and
dry weather increases both weight and sugar losses. Varieties are equally impor-
tant and certain varieties have better sucrose keeping quality. CoC 671, stales less
and is less inclined to inversion or dextran formation, even after 14-16 months. It
is always advisable to supply fresh cane and provide minimum kill to mill delay.
But for unforeseen reasons, the delay in crushing varies from 3—10 days in India.
If the delay in crushing is anticipated, store the cane in small heaps with mini-
mum ground contact or sprinkle with water plus potassium permanganate. The
cut ends lose moisture and bacterial growth takes place. The effective biocides
over cut cane are Bacterinol or a solution of potassium permanganate + sodium
metacilicate. Mr. V. M. Kulkarni of Pune (pers. comm.) has shown that sucroguard
is very effective in controlling the growth of microbes. The dosage for harvested
cane is 10 ml per ton of cane. In mechanized harvesting, due to the increased
surface urea of the small billets, the infection of Leuconostoc sp. is more pronounced.
The organisms associated with harvested cane are: Leuconostoc sp., Xanthomonas
sp., Flavobacter, Acetobacter sp., Actinomycetes, Streptomyces, etc.
Besides lowered sugar recovery, presence of dextran or other undesirable
polysaccharides reduces the export potential of sugar. According to Dr. S. Solo-
mon (pers. comm.) the processes of Activated Inversion and Dextran Synthesis
(or AIDS syndrome) play a very detrimental role by converting sucrose into in-
vert sugars, organic acids, ethanol, or dextran resulting in low and poor grade
sugar.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Mill sanitation is equally important. The loss of sugar due to lack of mill sani-
tation is as high as 2.5 kg per ton of cane. But 1 kg per ton of cane can be retrieved
by proper mill sanitation. Many microbes are associated with sugar processing.
They are: Xantbomonas, Aerobacter, Leuconostoc, Aspergillus, Actinomycetes, Sac-
charomyces, Bacillus, Clostridium, etc. The integrated mill sanitation approach
consists of regular a n d thorough washing and steaming (70-95 °C), disinfection
by chemicals prior to the start of crushing operations and good housekeeping.
The chemicals used for mill sanitation are chlorine, formaldehyde, H 2 0 2 , quater-
nary ammonium compounds (Quats) and thiocarbamates. The chemicals used
for mill sanitation are the biocides and they are preferably applied at the first and
last mills. T h e cheapest and most commonly used biocide is Sodium-N Methyl-
dithiocarbamate ( 3 0 % ) . A cocktail of methyl and ethyl dithiocarbamate has been
found useful the world over. Kilbact is equally effective as a biocide.
The economic benefits of applying organic sulphur based biocide kilbact in
the milling tandem resulted in a saving of 1.14 kg sugar per ton of cane, which
works out to 7 0 - 8 0 bags of extra sugar per day. The anticipated profit is around
Rs 1 crore per season.

19.4

CANE FIRES

Cane fires are of frequent occurrence and late harvested cane in hot summer is
prone to cane fire. T h e dried leaves and trash catch accidental fires from lighted
cigarettes and bidis. Control is achieved by cutting the surrounding cane to iso-
late the fire or by back-firing, i.e. by burning the affected fields from leeward side
which protect the fields further down wind (Blackburn, 1984). Fire can also be
controlled by using tractor-drawn fire engines accompanied by mobile water tanks.
In any case prevention is better dian cure. By and large insurance companies are
reluctant to give adequate cover to the cane growers for losses sustained by fire. It
is worth while to have a contingency fire fund from cess funds and cane taxation
receipts.

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317
 Jaggery manufacture and allied products

Jaggery and khandasari (brown sugar) are important sweetening agents and they
utilise about 4 5 % of the cane produced. In the rural sector, this industry provides
employment to 2.5 million people. The production of jaggery in India is 8.0 mil-
lion tons and that of khandasari is 2.0 million tons. The consumption of jaggery
is 15 kg per capita and has been stable for years. This product is supposed to be
'Health friendly since it has minerals like Ca, Fe, and P besides Reducing Sugars,
(RS). Jaggery has a cooling and diuretic effect. It serves as a cardiac tonic, (Bangali
Baboo and Solomon, 1995). An overview of the Indian sweetener industries is
presented in Table 20.1.

The jaggery made at Mandya possessed an average sucrose of 82.25%, RS 4 . 4 5 %

and ash 2.35%. The Net Rendement (NR) value is 69.54 which is classed as 'A'
grade jaggery (excellent).

Net Rendement (NR) = Sucrose % - [RS% ± (3.5 x ash %)]

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 20 Jaggery manufacture and allied products

Based on NR values, the grading of jaggery is as below.

NR values Grade Quality
>65 A1 Excellent
60-65 A2 Good
45-50 B Medium
<45 C Poor
The varieties suitable to jaggery making are given in Table 20.2.

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T h e process of jaggery manufacture involves: (a) juice extraction, (b) juice boil-
ing, (c) juice clarification, (d) evaporation and concentration, and (e) cooling and
moulding. Jaggery is made by farmers on a small scale using 3-5 rollers and open
pan evaporation. The extraction is barely 50-60% and the rest of the sugars are
burnt along with bagasse. A relatively better extraction is achieved through satu-
rated crushing by using water or dilute juice. Bangali Baboo and Solomon (1995)
asserted that a small-scale maceration process and 6-9 hydraulic crushers can be
introduced to improve extraction. At present 4-roller bullock and power crushers
have been developed in Karnataka. The extracted juice is acidic in reaction
(pH 5-2-5.5) and is neutralised to 6.4 by liming. Generally 1 kg lime is mixed in
4 litres of water and 60-75 ml milk of lime would neutralise about 100 kg juice
(op. cit.). Liming improves consistency but excess liming should be avoided.
Juice boiling is done in open shallow iron pans (210-270 cm diameter and
45 cm deep). Fuel efficiency is very poor. Hence the development of bagasse gas-
ifiers to generate producer gas (methane) to concentrate juice appears promising.
A steady but slow boiling would permit the scum to appear on the surface. The
scum consists of colloidal matter, waxes, colouring substances, etc. The scum is
removed by a perforated wooden ladle. The vegetative clarificants in use are leaves
of Bhendi (Hibiscus esculentus), Castor, Deola (Hibiscus ftculeneus), Sukhlai (Kydia
calycina), Semul (Bambax mulbaricum), Phalsa (Grewia asiatica), Tapioca (Manihot
esculentus), Ambadi (Hibiscus canabinus), Groundnut, and Soyabean. The best
clarificant is the bhendi mucilage and the quantity is 45-50 g per quintal of juice.
T h e clarification makes the juice clear and light in colour. The chemical clarificants
are used to improve crystallisation, prevent charring and increase shelf-life. The
commonly used chemical clarificants are: lime, sodium hydrosulphite (Hydros),
sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, super phosphate, alum, phosphoric acid,
citric acid, monocalcium phosphate or potassium metabisulphite.
After scum removal and clarification, the juice is boiled briskly at 105-108 °C
for about an hour. At this stage groundnut/castor/mustard oil is added at the rate
of 10—15 ml per pan (-150 litres of juice). This prevents frothing and the striking
point is achieved at 116-120 °C but the optimum seems to be 118 °C. At the
strike point the magma forms a silky thread when it is held in the air through the
wooden ladle. After the strike point, boiling is stopped and the magma is trans-

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ferred to a cooling trough. The semisolid syrup is poured into moulds of various
sizes and shapes. The better moulds are the brick shaped ones weighing 125, 150,
or 500 g. Jaggery is hygroscopic due to the presence of fructose and glucose and
Na content adversely affects it. It is better to store jaggery in gunny bags placed at
an elevated position. Jaggery storage in polythene lined gunny bags seems to be
the best at 5 0 - 6 5 % R H . In recent studies, it was found by IISR that a gur drying
and storage bin of a quintal capacity is suitable for jaggery storage in humid con-
ditions. Polyethylene bags are equally effective in storing jaggery. Regarding the
mold size, small buckets of 1 and 2 kg are superior in keeping quality. Brick
shaped jaggery molds of 1 or 2 kg have better storability than round shaped (Golas)
ones (Plate 20.1). The standard requirements of good jaggery are presented in
Table 20.3.

Cream jaggery is made by adding 1% activated carbon after the initial scum
removal. The juice is heated for some time and then passed through a bed of
activated carbon and sand. T h e juice is further boiled with a small quantity of
milk and chemical clarificants. Cream jaggery is light golden yellow in colour
with excellent consistency and has good export potential.
Some technological, social, economic factors of jaggery vs sugar are presented
in Table 20.4. By any standard, jaggery is preferred for health reasons over sugar.

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20.1

ALLIED PRODUCTS

20.1.1 Khandasari

Khandasari or brown sugar is obtained from sugarcane juice by the open pan
process. It is mostly in coarse powder form and is chiefly used in making sweetmeats.

20.1.2 Liquid jaggery [Kaakavi /Kakumbi/ Golnupa)

Liquid jaggery is an intermediate product obtained during jaggery making. This

contains water, sugars, and non-sugars (Wandre and Hasabnis, 1995). Fructose
and glucose are in equal proportions, with proteins, organic acids, and minerals.
The well-mature canes of Co 740, Co 419, Co 7219, Co 8014, C o C 671, and
Co 775 are well-suited for making liquid jaggery. After the juice is extracted, po-
tassium alum crystals are dipped in it for half an hour. This facilitates sedimenta-
tion of solid particles. The liquid is the decanted to the storage tank. The clear
juice is poured into a boiling pan. About 50 g of lime is added to bring the pH to
6.0. Bhendi mucilage is added and the first scum is removed when the tempera-
ture is 85 °C. Chemical clarificants include phosphoric acid and super phosphate.
Boiling is continued and the second scum is removed at 98 °C. The strike point is
106 °C and at this stage the pan is removed and 0.04% of citric acid is added.
Liquid jaggery is sweeter than cane sugar and jaggery. After complete settling,
liquid jaggery is filled in clean and sterilized bottles. This can be stored for
1-1½º years. It is necessary to add 0 . 1 % citric acid and 0 . 1 % sodium metabisulphite
for better preservation.

20.1.3 Rab

This is a semi-liquid form of jaggery obtained by concentrating juice to lower

brix. It is stored in earthen pitchers. On storage crystals will develop. These crys-
tals are used in rural areas as sweeteners.

20.1.4 Bura

It is produced by recrystallisation of any kind of sugar or khandasari sugar and

then made into a fine, free-flowing product. It is a sweetening agent.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

20.1.5 Misri
This is a product made by recrystallisation of sugar. In fact it is a conglomeration
of sugar crystals of irregular size and shape. It is chiefly used as 'Prasada'.

20.1.6 Shakkar

This is brownish in colour and is a powdered 'Gur' after concentrating sugarcane

juice to higher brix. It is a sweetening agent and is easy to dry with easy packaging,
handling, and transport.

20.2

PRESERVATION OF SUGARCANE JUICE

Attempts were made since early times to preserve sugarcane juice in a readily
available form in bottles. But it gets sour due to microbial attack. The extracted
juice is pasteurized for 10 min at 80 °C. To improve the taste, juice is blended
with 0.3% lemon and ginger (0.1%). Pasteurization and processing arrest the
growth of Leuconosta sp. A preservative like potassium metaphosphate is added at
70 ppm. The clear juice is bottled and sterilized for 30 min. This can be stored for
about 6 months.

20.3

HIGH FRUCTOSE SYRUP (HFS)

HFS contains 70 to 90% fructose with a Sweetener Index (SI) 1.8 times sweeter
than cane sugar. Besides being sweeter, it has a pleasant flavour, is less hygro-
scopic, and has fewer calories. Initially it was made from corn starch, and was
known as High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS). Starch from potato/tapioca can
also be used to make high fructose syrup. Basically, HFCS is used extensively in
the soft drink and food industries. Its alarming increased usage in the soft drink
industry has replaced more than 10% of the sugar market. By 1997, 100 million
tons of HFCS had been used in the soft drink industry. Recently attempts have
been made to produce High Fructose Syrup (HFS) from cane molasses using the
enzyme glucose isomerase isolated from Bacillus steriothermophilus. The latest tech-
nology includes ultra filtration to obtain ultra high fructose glucose syrup.

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 20 Jaggery manufacture and allied products

20.4

NUTRIENT SWEETENERS FROM CANE SUGAR

Artificial sweeteners like saccharin, aspartame, and acesulfam-K have already been
alluded to in the previous chapters. Different sweeteners have been developed to
meet the requirements of sophistication and changes in lifestyles. A broad catego-
rization of different sugars is presented by a flow diagram (Fig. 20.1).
A m o n g the special sweeteners, sucralose is marketed along with 'Splenda' as its
brand name. Sucralose is superior to Nutrasweet, due to longer shelf-life and is
thermostable during cooking. It contains no calories. Palatinit is developed by a
special process of converting sucrose and is used in chocolate bars, chewing gums,
etc. Isomaltulose is a stable reducing disaccharide with half the sweetener index
(0.5) of sucrose. It is also known as palatinose. This is produced from sucrose by
employing the immobilised enzyme of Protaminobacter rubrum. Palatinose finds
extensive usage in the confectionery industry. Neosugar is produced by microbial
conversion of sucrose and its sweetener index is 0.2. It is a noncarcinogenic and a
noncalorific sugar, and is hence suitable for diabetics.
Alditol sweeteners are sugar alcohols. Xylitol (Xalitol) is a white crystalline
powder found in fruits and vegetables. Sugarcane bagasse is rich in Xylan which is
isolated and hydrolised to xylose. Hydrogenation of xylose gives Xylitol. It is non-
carcinogenic and does not cause dental caries. Lactitol is obtained from milk sugar
a n d its SI is 0.33. It does not affect teeth and its calorific value is 2.4 Kcal g - 1 .
Different types of alcohol sugars are used in beverages, canned fruits, and bakery
products.
Protein sweeteners are not considered safe for human consumption. Miraculin
is a glycoprotein with high molecular weight. However, Thaumatin is included in
t h e chewing gum.
A m o n g the artificial sweeteners, saccharin is the oldest but it leaves a bitter
aftertaste. It is carcinogenic in nature and its consumption is not encouraged.
Acesulfame-K has replaced saccharin. Aspartame can be made from fumaric acid
using the strains of E.coli with high aspartase activity. Due to its synergistic effect
with fruit flavours, it is commonly used in desserts.

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Steviosides or Steviron are the noncalorific sugars obtained from the leaves of
Stevia rebaudiana. This is a native of Paraguay and these sweeteners are extensively
used in Japan. The leaves of Stevia contain 12% sugar by weight and steviosides
are diterpene glycosides. High yielding varieties of Stevia are cultivated in Japan.
At the Agricultural University, GKVK, Bangalore, efforts made to establish Stevia
plants have met with partial success.
HFS is of great commercial value and is generally prepared from corn. In re­
cent times, attempts have been made to produce HFS from sugacane molasses
using the enzyme glucose isomerase isolated from Bacillus steriothermophilus. HFS
is mostly used in the soft drink industry and its usage is increasing.

Box I

Liquid Jaggery
• Liquid jaggery (Kaakavi or Kakumbi) is an intermediate product
in jaggery manufacture and is collected in semi-liquid form from
the boiling pan and packed in suitable containers,
• The striking temperature is 106 °C.
• Use of 0.04% citric acid is found beneficial in minimising crystal­
lization and for improving the colour.
• Use of 0.1% potassium metabisulphite or 0.5% benzoic acid im­
proves keeping quality as it acts as a preservative.
• The suitable varieties are CoC 671, Co 8014, Co 7219 and
CoM 88121.
• The following is the typical chemical composition of liquid jaggery.
Water 30-35%
Sucrose 40-60%
Invert sugar 15—25%
(mainly dextrose and levulose)
Calcium 0.3%
Iron 8.5-11.0 mg 100 g - 1
Phosphorus 3.0 mg 100 g-1
Protein 0.10 mg 100 g-1
Vitamin B 14.0 μg 100 g-1

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Figure 20.2 gives the flowchart for the manufacture of liquid jaggery.

Fig. 2 0 . 2 Process flowchart for manufacturing liquid jaggery

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20 Jaggery manufacture and allied products

329
 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

Sugarcane has come a long way from being a closely managed garden crop in the
Vedic times to becoming an important commercial crop of the tropics and subtropics.
But it has had a roller-coaster ride and has witnessed the best of times and the worst
of times (Alexander, 1993). No other plant can convert so much radiant energy into
calorific energy on behalf of so many people. It is unmatched in the plant kingdom
for its twilight photosynthesis (pre-sunrise and pre-sunset). It is a complete
physiological system, a sugar system, an energy system and an environmental system.
Verily it is a renewable, natural, agricultural resource (Hunsigi and Singlachar, 1994).

21.1

ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM

It is ecofriendly, alters the microclimate, reduces atmospheric CO2 and pollutants

and enhances O2. Perhaps sugarcane is one field crop which under high density
plantation possibly reduces the greenhouse effect.

21.2

PRODUCTION SYSTEM

It has excellent anatomical and physiological features with a Kranz syndrome.

Besides the C4 pathway, high photosynthetic rates are due to greater leaf thick-
ness, width, porosity, specific leaf weight, LAD and LAI. The photosynthetic
mobiiity is high in the long internodes which serve as powerful Vehicles' for sugar
storage. With no product repression, the theoretical maximum yield is 129 g m - 2 d-1
or 470 t ha -3 yr -l , The dry matter yield is approximately 80-100 t ha -1 in the
tropics, which is unmatched by any agricultural crop. For the record, India pro-
duced 16.5 million tons of crystal sugar, 8 million tons of jaggery and 2 million
tons of khandasari during 1996—97.

21.3

ECONOMIC SYSTEM

It is regarded as the sixth largest crop commodity in the world: Wheat > Corn >
Rice > Barley > Soyabean > Sugarcane > Oats > other food crops. Every calorie

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 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

invested in sugarcane production results in regeneration of 6 - 1 2 calories. Globally

it is valued at US$ 143 billion. In India, it is worth Rs.500 crores. Sugar complexes
employ over 4 lakh technically skilled people and there are 30—40 lakh growers in
the rural sector. It is a source of livelihood for nearly 7% of the country's population.
This plant has been so far regarded as a monolithic crop (sugar crop). But it
deserves a niche as a multi-product commodity providing food, fuel, fibre and
fertilizer. T h e crop is a source of at least 38 by-products and co-products having a
net value of US$ 8000 per ton of raw material (Paturau, 1986). A schematic
diagram of major by-products of the sugar industry is shown in Fig 21.1. As a first
approximation, 100 tons of cane crushed will yield the following (Table 21.1).
T h e by-product availability in India and the world is given in Table 21.2.

Table 21.1 Products formed from 100 tons cane crushed

— 10 tons sugar
— 4 tons molasses
— 3 tons filter m u d
— 0.3 tons furnace ash .
120 tons flue gases (180 °C)
— 30 tons bagasse (26 tons captive fuel, 4 tons surplus)
— 150 kwh surplus electricity

Table 21.2 By-pi•oduct availability in India and the world (1997-98)

By-products Availability in the Availability in
world (million tons) India (million tons)

Bagasse 150 52
Press mud 16 5
Molasses 18 6.9
Cane tops 130 75
Refined wax 380 kg per 1000 tons —
of cane crushed
Source: Zende, 1995.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Press mud

Fertiliser,
Animal feed, Cane wax

Lignin

Ligno sulphate

Flue gases

Trash

Cane tops/
leaves
Fodder,
Leaf protein

Furnace ash

Glass industry

Allied products

Jaggery, Khandasa i,
Liquid jaggery

1 Distillery
effluents
Fertiliser, Biogas,
Potash

Fig. 2 1 . 1 Major by-products of the sugar industry

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 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

21.4

FIBRE CANE SYSTEM

T h e physiology of cane is such that it produces a high biomass and compares with
many fast growing trees. Nearly 3 0 % of the biomass in sugarcane constitutes
bagasse or megasse which comes as a residue of sugarcane after it is crushed in the
mills. T h e mill wet bagasse has nearly 5 0 % moisture with 4 6 - 5 2 % fibre. Fibre
means all insoluble solids—fibrous or not (Meade and Chen, 1977). T h e conser-
vation of bagasse is of great importance. It can be used as house boiler fuel and in
other co-products. T h e bone-dry bagasse has the following composition.

Cellulose 45.0%
Pentosans 28.0%
Lignin 20.0%
Ash 2.0%
Sugar 5.0%
T h e cellulose content of bagasse is used in fibre-based industries. The rind
portion yields high quality cellulose. T h e inner portion of bagasse is pith which is
non-fibrous in nature but has a calorific value similar to that of bagasse. Pith is a
source of fuel and/or fertilizer. T h e pentosan content of bagasse is used in the
manufacture of furfural. T h e lignin content can be used for the manufacture of
chemicals such as sucrolin.
T h e global p r o d u c t i o n of bagasse is 150 million t o n s ; in India it is
52 million tons. W i t h a modest 10% saving of bagasse, 15 million tons and
5.2 million tons of bagasse will be available in the world and India respectively
for making bagasse-based products. Nearly 7 tons of mill wet bagasse makes 1 ton
of bleached pulp. Based on the above 10% saving of bagasse, 2.14 and 0.74 mil-
lion tons of quality bleached bagasse pulp will be available in the world and India
respectively.

21.4.1 Factors affecting fibre in cane

Fibre accumulation in cane starts from 3 months and continues to increase as age
advances. On an average, commercial hybrids contain fibre content in the range

333
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of 13.5 to 16.0%. The late harvested crop is more fibrous. Ratoons tend to have
more fibre than the virgin crop. Drought conditions lead to increased fibre but
there is a higher content of non-fibrous pith. Narrower spacing of 0.5 m nearly
doubles the fibre content as compared to wider spacing of 1.5 m. Lodged cane has
less fibre. Other factors which influence fibre in cane are nutrition, cultural and
irrigation practices. Late and heavy N application coupled with excessive irrigation
reduces both fibre and pol. These conditions favour 'pithiness' or 'piping'. It is
reasonable to suggest that a balanced carbohydrate—N relation is essential to
accumulate both sugar and fibre in cane. Both minor and secondary elements
have no significant influence on fibre accumulation. However, the role of silicon
(Si +4 ), a beneficial element, is intriguing. Experiments with ripeners like sodium
metasilicate (as source of Si) have amply demonstrated an improvement in pol
with no significant effect on fibre. Potassium has a strong influence in flushing
out both tissue moisture and nitrogen. In fact tissue moisture has to be reduced to
improve both fibre content and sugar. Alexander (1973) states that K addition
improves fibre content by reducing tissue moisture and increases pol per cent of
cane by converting reducing sugars to recoverable sugars. Humbert (1975)
suggested late and heavy K application for maximum production of sugars and
cellulose and recommended an N P K ratio of 2 : 1 : 4 to achieve higher sugar and
fibre production.
A direct relation exists between sugar, fibre, and moisture and maximum sugar
accumulation should not be at the expense of fibre build-up. Further, tissue mois-
ture is more closely related to fibre than to sugar. A negative relation exists be-
tween moisture and fibre, and moisture and sugar. Clements (1980) provides
evidence that sheath moisture, (3-6 leaf sheaths) an index of tissue moisture and
physiological activity of plants, can be kept as low as 6 8 - 6 9 % . The recent tech-
nique of ripening involves continued build-up of dry matter (half of which is
sucrose and the other half fibre) and the biological pathway should be chosen so
as to increase sucrose and lignocellulose at the expense of tissue moisture but
without killing the plant.

21.4.2 Role of varieties

Fibre in cane is of structural importance. Among the Saccharum spp. spontaneums

and robustums contain more fibre than the offlcinarums. The allied genera Mis-

334
 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

canthus has the highest fibre content of over 5 1 % . Varietal differences also exist
with regard to fibre content. The popular cultivars such as Co 4 2 1 , Co 413, Co
426, Co 7219 and Co 6806 have more fibre than Co 419 and Co 740. N C O 376
has more fibre than N C O 310. It is interesting to note that early rich canes such
as C o C 6 7 1 , Co 997, Co A 7 7 0 1 , Q 49 and B 37172 possess high fibre and sugar
contents. This confirms the contention that sugar and fibre are not incompatible.
Recently released varieties such as Co 7804, Co 8021, Co 8371 and Co 86032 are
endowed with high sugar and fibre contents. Flowered cane has more fibre than
the non-flowered ones. Higher the fibre and silicon contents, less is the infesta-
tion of borers.
Concerted efforts were made at the Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore
(SBI) to develop varieties which contain high fibre and sugar. Indo-American
varieties or IA clones were best suited for this purpose. The IA clones are the first
or second nobilization products developed at the Sugarcane Breeding Institute,
Coimbatore involving wild robustums and Puerto Rican/Hawaiian varieties (Naidu,
1986). High sugared and fibred varieties developed at SBI, Coimbatore are pre-
sented in Table 21.3.

Table 2 1 . 3 Indo-American clones with high fibre and sugar contents

Clone No. Fibre % Sucrose %

Co 7314 18.02 19.17

G340 18.06 19.08
G335 18.45 19.80
G375 18.90 19.95
G504 19.41 20.46
G415 19.62 21.86
G330 20.16 20.30
G338 20.00 19.59
G354 20.42 18.06
Source: Naidu, 1986.

Among the IA clones tested, the most promising ones are G 354 and G 330
with high fibre and sugar contents.

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21.4.3 Bagasse storage

Due to the seasonal nature of cane cultivation, storage is essential for pulping.
Handling and storage costs are high as loose bagasse is porous and bulky. The
bulk density ranges from 120—180 kg m -3 and mill wet bagasse has 5 0 % moisture
with 2 - 3 % residual sugar. While in storage, a combination of high temperature
and acidity results in hydrolysis of cellulose with reduced pentosans, hemicellu-
lose and a consequent lowered pulp yield. Atchison (1986) stressed that the eco-
nomic feasibility of utilizing bagasse rests on proper storage and effective depithing
(pith removal). Pith constitutes about 2 5 - 3 0 % of dry bagasse. It is non-fibrous
and has 9 3 % of the calorific value of whole bagasse. A rough estimate show that
2 t moist pith is equivalent to 1 t coal as fuel. Thus pith can be conveniently used
in boilers and special furnaces. Rydholm (1965) has stressed the importance of
depithing for it gives higher pulp yield, brightness, tensile strength, and burst and
tear factors with reduced kappa number. (Kappa no. (K) is a measure of chemical
consumption in making paper.)
There are 3 types of depithing (i) dry depithing (ii) moist depithing (iii) wet
depithing. Dry depithing is ruled out as it causes serious dust pollution and wear
and tear of the mills. Hence two stage depithing is advocated. This is moist
depithing at the sugar mill and wet depithing at the paper mills.
Bagasse storage is better achieved by stacking it in bales of 125 kg each with
50% moisture. The bales are stacked in a pyramidal shape with enough space
between them for aeration. The stacked bagasse is treated with bactericides such
as S 0 2 , formaldehyde, N a 2 C 0 3 , etc. Efficient bagasse storage is possible by re-
tarding the activity of cellulolytic microbes. This is achieved by creating an acidic
(pH 4), aerobic environment with proliferation of Lactobacilli. A biological liq-
uor consisting of seed Lactobacilli is employed to impregnate the stored bagasse.
Thus the general principle to conserve stored bagasse is to create an acidic, aero-
bic environment with proliferation of Lactobacilli.
Lignin protects the cellulose strands. But lignin in pulp gives undesirable col-
our to the paper besides increasing the consumption of chemicals. Delignification
is achieved by employing a particular strain of fungus which attacks only the pith
and lignin while protecting the cellulose. Guetierrez et al. (1986) in Cuba demon-
strated that white rot fungus {Phanerocheate chrysporium, K3) selectively delignifies
bagasse and the strain 85118-6 was the most efficient delignifier. A suggestion is

336
 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

mooted that a 'microbial consortium' may achieve the desired delignification of

bagasse.

21.4.4 Biodegradation of bagasse

T h e biodegradation of bagasse has been thoroughly studied. Bagasse has residual
sugar content (- 2.5%) and a high moisture content which accelerate the fermen-
tation process. The darkening of bagasse occurs because of fungus growth. Fur-
thermore, a combination of high temperatures and acidity results in hydrolysis of
cellulose with a consequent reduction in pulp yield. An exposed larger surface
area, heterogeneity of fibres in bagasse and tropical conditions favour microbial
growth and colonization. Rotten bagasse has a microbial population of 5 x 10 8 g - 1 .
T h e sequence of processes involved in bagasse biodegradation is shown in
Fig. 21.2. Biodegradation of bagasse results in a reduction in pentosan and hemi-
cellulose contents and a loss of fibre properties .

Fresh bagasse organisms and by-products

Fig. 2 1 . 2 Biodegradation of bagasse

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Sugarcane in agriculcure and industry

21.4.5 Development of wet-pile technology

This is essentially the Ritter process, developed by E. A. Ritter, and involves the
impregnation of moist or wet, depithed bagasse with a biological liquor. T h e seed
Lactobacilli culture is employed and the organisms are encouraged to multiply by
the addition of nutrient media and molasses.
It was observed that fibre preservation was more effective in depithed bagasse
than in whole bagasse since the former has less sugar.
Thus, bagasse stored in a bioliquor has a higher pulp yield and lower consump-
tion of chemicals (i.e. a lower kappa number) and also has better colour and fibre
properties.
The storage of bagasse, as advocated by Dr. Cusi, is a simple system where
baled bagasse is stored in ventilated stacks with sufficient air space. The pith cells
present in the whole bagasse protect the cellulose and the moisture content drops
from 50% to 3 0 - 3 5 % in about 50 days. However, there are certain limitations to
this method under tropical conditions due to the higher ambient temperatures.

21.4.6 Bagasse for paper making

The production of paper from bagasse dates back to 1838 but significant devel-
opments were made around 1910 in countries like Brazil, Cuba, West Indies and
Hawaii (Singh and Solomon, 1995). It was only in 1950 that the technology of
bagasse pulping was perfected and all grades of paper such as tissue, toweling,
cultural paper, etc. were made from bagasse. The global production of bagasse
pulp is estimated at 2.5 m tons.
The heterogenous character of bagasse fibres needs to be reckoned with and
they are difficult to pulp mechanically. They are comparable to hard woods like
Eucalyptus. The fibre length (1) varies from 0.56 to 2.87 mm with a diameter (d)
of 0.012 to 0.050 m m . The average 1/d ratio is 52.2 (Table 21.4). The pulp yield
is relatively less than in hard woods but the high pentosans and low lignin content
offer better strength properties. Obviously they provide higher burst and tear
factors and breaking length.

21.4.7 Bagasse newsprint (BNP)

Bagasse newsprint has come of age and more than 140 years of research has gone
in since the early attempts in 1856 by Henry Low of Baltimore, USA.

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 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

T a b l e 2 1 . 4 Proximate analysis, fibre properties and pulp yield of sugarcane

bagasse and Eucalyptus hybrid

Newsprint is a low grade and low priced sheet but should withstand the re-
quirements of high speed printing presses besides having high opacity and oil
absorbency. FAO specifications for newsprint are:

339
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Tear factor 46
Opacity (%) 86
Brightness (% MgO) 50
Grammage (g m -2 ) 48.8
The per capita consumption of newsprint in India is 0.5 kg as against the
world average of 5.6 kg. Conventionally, newsprint is manufactured with 8 5 - 9 0 %
soft wood mechanical pulp and 5-15% soft wood chemical pulp. There is no
rigid definition for BNP but it should contain over 6 0 % bagasse p u l p .
Atchison (1986) has suggested three cardinal points for BNP.
(i) Moist and wet depithing to remove maximum pith.
(ii) Good storage to prevent excessive loss in fibre properties.
(iii) A high proportion of mechanical pulp in fibrous furnish.
This author has demonstrated that 80% bagasse pulp can be blended with
20% long fibre Kenaf/Mesta (Hibiscus sabdariffa or H. cannabinus) to produce an
acceptable grade of newsprint. The future newsprint furnish aims to totally dis-
pense with long-fibred chemical pulp and additives.
There are about 300 paper and paper board mills in India as sugar paper com-
plexes. The installed capacity is 30 lakh tons paper per annum but the production
is only 20 lakh tons. The newsprint production is only 3 lakh tons but the de-
mand is 6 lakh tons—a yawning gap of 3 lakh tons per year.
To wrap up, sugarcane bagasse is the future fibre of the tropics and subtropics
for pulp and paper making. Cane cultivars need to be developed to maximize
both sugar and fibre content. Agro-techniques like irrigation, manuring and plant
density need to be adjusted to ensure low tissue moisture but high sugar and fibre
content.

21.4.8 Agglomerated products of bagasse

I he agglomerated products of sugarcane bagasse include particle boards, fibre

boards, insulation boards and moulded products. Particle board is a sheet mate-
rial manufactured from small pieces of lignocellulose materials, agglomerated by
use of an organic binder with one or more of the following agents: heat, pressure,
humidity and catalyst (Somani and Grewal, 1995). About 3 tons of mill wet ba-
gasse is required to produce 1 ton of particle board. Synthetic resins such as phe-

340
 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

nol-formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde are required as binding agents. Particle

boards can be classified as low density (insulating type), medium density and high
density (hard board type). The physical properties of boards made from bagasse
are: thickness 16 mm, density 639 kg cm - 3 , bending strength 199 kg cm - 3 , inter-
nal bond 8.2 kg c m - 2 and swelling (after 24 hr) 5.8%. Particle boards are used for
making partitions/panels, furniture, false ceiling, table top, etc. Essentially the
particle boards, fibre boards, etc. from sugarcane bagasse would replace natural
wood resources which are used for making plywood.
Hbre boards are sheet materials of varying densities manufactured from re-
fined or partially refined wood fibres or other vegetable fibres (op. cit.). These are
interlaced fibres of lignocellulose materials with great strength and resistance to
moisture, fire or decay. Fibre boards are of three kinds—low, medium and high
density boards used as insulation boards or panel boards or for construction pur-
poses. Bagasse cement boards are high density boards (1250 ± 50 kg m -3 ) and are
used extensively in the construction industry: T h e molded products from bagasse
are the articles made with thin ligno-cellulosic material with hot press organic
binders in moulds of different shapes. The moulded particle boards are used in
cabinets for radios, televisions, kitchen furniture, table tops, suit cases, ceilings,
plank boxes, coffins, etc.

21.4.9 Other products of bagasse

Bagasse briquettes or bagasse logs are used as fuel in brick kilns or as domestic fuel
for cooking. The production of bagasse charcoal is more promising. T h e prepara-
tion of charcoal briquettes from bagasse involves carbonization, mixing of molas-
ses and final carbonization of briquettes. Producer gas from bagasse consists of
C O 2 , C O , C H 3 , and N 2 . The calorific value is 5000 KJ/kg but it has many disad-
vantages.
Bagasse ash is produced at 0 . 3 % per ton of cane crushed. If a factory crushes 3
lakh tons in a season, it has to handle about 1000 tons of fly ash. Ash is normally
spread in the field since it is rich in SiO 2 , Fe, P, K, and lime. This author has
shown that ash can be mixed (1/10 to 1/20 by wt basis) in press m u d plus rock
phosphate along with microbes. The product is called 'phospho-green' and is an
excellent source of fertilizer for many field and horticultural crops. In Mauritius
and Egypt, ash is used in the manufacture of glass.

341
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Zende (1995) has reported that bagasse can be used as poultry litter, m u l c h
and soil conditioner. In Australia, Mauritius, and Hawaii bagasse at the rate of
12.5 r ha - 1 has been used as a soil conditioner to resist soil erosion and improve
soil properties. In North America, dehydrated fresh bagasse was used as soil m u l c h
to reduce erosion and increase soil moisture retention. It is however incongruous
to use bagasse as a soil conditioner since many value added products can be o b -
tained from it.
Cultivation of edible mushrooms on bagasse is a profitable proposition. Ba-
gasse is rich in cellulose, and hemi-celluloses and it serves as an excellent substrate
for edible mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatiis, P. sajor-caju, P. citrino-pileatus). C o m -
mercial cultivation of mushrooms on bagasse gives rich proteins in rural areas. It
has been observed that mushrooms grow better on bagasse than other materials
such as paddy/wheat straw.
Green tops and bagasse are a good source of fodder and feed. India has a large
livestock population of over 500 million heads. During years of drought in m a n y
parts of India bagasse serves as a buffer feed. Due to the lignin content of bagasse,
it needs pre-hydrelysis treatment. Predigested bagasse is mixed with millets, corn,
oil cakes and urea to improve its digestibility and nutritive value. Predigestion is
done at a high temperature and pressure, and molasses is added. Such a feed is
known as bago-molasses. Nearly 4 5 % bagasse is mixed with 2 5 % final molasses
to obain an acceptable grade of cattle feed. These feeds are popular in Latin
America. Cane separation technology has opened new vistas where the rind p o r -
tion is used for fibre making and the pith with mixed additives is used to m a k e
'Camfith'—a cattle feed. Many sugarcane based feeds such as Solicana (sundried
crushed cane) and Saccharine (treated crushed cane) are popular in Cuba a n d
many Caribbean countries (Singh and Solomon, 1995). Hydrolysed pith is ob-
tained by treating the pith with steam and used as animal feed together with
supplements. It is also a good poultry feed. Cuba produces nearly 15 types of
cattle feed after steam treatment, which serves as roughage.
Sugarcane trash is an important biomass, a co-product of the sugar industry. In
situ conservation of trash is an essential prerequisite of organic sugarcane. A n d
trash burning should be totally dispensed with. Raking and aligning of trash in
cane rows is effective in controlling weeds and soil moisture conservation. Z e n d e
(1995) advocated that burying trash in soil improves C and N status, overcomes

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 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

the ill effects of soil compaction and allows optimal air and moisture relationship
in the rhizosphere.
Approximately 8-10 t ha - 1 of trash is left over in the field. Besides, 8-9 tons of
stubbles and 4 - 6 tons of roots per ha are produced. A rough estimate shows that
nearly 40 million tons of trash is produced annually which can be gainfully em-
ployed in cane cultivation. The chemical composition of sugarcane trash is pre-
sented in Table 21.5. The water insoluble fraction of trash comprises cellulose,
hemicellulose and lignin. Hence decomposition of trash takes a longer time. Cer-
tain fungi/bacteria and actinomycetes are known to enhance trash decomposi-
tion. Even the addition of FYM, press mud, poultry or sheep manure hastens the
decomposition of trash.

Table 2 1 . 5 Chemical composition of sugarcane trash

Source: Mohan Singh, 1995.

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Box I

Cane Tops and Leaves (CTL)

CTL serve as the best green fodder, particularly in summer months.
This can also be ensiled with molasses (5-10%) and ammonia (0.2%).
Acetic acid is produced during fermentation which improves the keeping
quality of the ensilaged material. CTL can also be mixed with urea,
cornmeal bagasse pith, oil cakes, etc. to improve their nutritive value. T h e
global production of CTL is estimated at 300 million tons annually and
it is an important biomass to produce value added products such as Leaf
Protein (LP), Single Cell Protein (SCP) and Dehydrated Sugarcane Top
Production (DSCT). Ethanol and energy generation is possible through
CTL.

Ethanol production from cellulosic materials such as bagasse and C T L

is exciting and is succinctly described by Hunsigi (1993a). Hydrolysis of
cellulose can be accomplished by the enzyme cellulase. The mutant strains
ot Clostridium sp. are efficient converters of cellulose/hemicellulose to
ethanol. Enzymes secreted by Trichoderma reesei are equally effective in
the conversion of cellulose to ethanol. High costs are involved in making
biofuels from cellulosic material and hence such biofuels are not competi-
tive with the ones produced from fermentable solids.
Source: Singh and Solomon, 1995.

Our experiments have shown that spreading cowdung slurry is ideal in hasten-
ing trash decomposition. Polyphenols and lignin not only hinder decomposition
but also leave allelochemicals which substantially reduce stubble sprouting and
possibly reduce the yield of ratoon cane. The microbes involved in the decompo-
sition or trash are furnished in Table. 21.6.

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 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

Table 2 1 . 6 Microbes involved in the decomposition of trash

Source: Zende, 1995.

Among the microbes, Aspergillus flavipus took 3 months to decompose the

trash, which was followed by a mixture of culture and Trichoderma viridae. It is
now well recognised that a consortium of cellulolytic bacteria and diazotrophs
would increase trash decomposition and also cause higher N 2 fixation. Other
genera involved in trash decomposition are Helminthosporium, Fusarium and
Cladosporium. Several diazotrophs are also involved in the decomposition of trash.
But Azospirillum brasilense plays a prominent role in the N 2 fixation during trash
decomposition. High nitrogenase activity in trash was observed at high O 2 con-
centration and low moisture content in trash. It is supposed that microaerophilic
conditions must have been created around Azospirillum brasilense, thus providing
a conducive environment for N2 fixation.
Cane yields have almost invariably improved following trash management. The
ideal management protocol is that trash at 5 tons h a - 1 may be buried in the soil
and 5 tons ha - 1 placed on the surface along with the cultures of Trichoderma
viridae and Azospirillum. This will enhance both decomposition and N 2 fixation.
The beneficial effect of trash management was observed in first and second ratoons.
Value added chemicals from bagasse include furfural, furfuryl alcohol,
alfacellulose, Xylitol and Sucrolin. Furfural is a highly valued chemical used as a
solvent in many industries. It is a colourless, inflammable, volatile, aromatic, red-
dish liquid. It can be manufactured from rice husk, groundnut shells, corn cobs,
etc. but bagasse is a cheap source to manufacture furfural. India produces about

345
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3500 tons of furfural per annum. It is used as a selective solvent for refining
lubricating oils, vegetable oils, paints and varnishes. It is also used for making
synthetic resins, nylon 6-6 and butadiene. Furfuryl alcohol is produced by the
catalytic hydrogenation of furfural. It is mainly used in the production of furan
resins, utilized as a binder in the casting industry.
Highly purified cellulose (85% cellulose) is known as alfacellulose a n d used in
the manufacture of rayon, cellophane, explosives, photographic films and extremely
fine paper. Alfacellulose is also called dissolving pulp.
Xylitol is obtained by the high pressure hydrogenation of xylose a n d bagasse
containing pentosans mainly composed of xylan and araban. Xylitol is used in
chewing gums and bakery products.
Sacrolin is obtained when bagasse is auto-hydrolysed to furfural. This is a solu-
ble lignite and is employed as a release agent in casting foundries.
Activated carbon is produced when bagasse is pyrolized for 20 hours at 4 5 0 °C
devoid of atmospheric air. It is a decolouring agent and is used to refine sugar,
oils, fats, beverages and spirits. Activated carbon is used for making cream jaggery
which has a high export value.
Hydrolysed pith is obtained by treating pith with steam. This improves digest-
ibility of the feeds and serves as excellent roughage for ruminants, poultry and
geese. Bagasse pith can be used directly for animal feeding after blending with
urea and molasses solution. Pith can also be utilized for microbial protein pro-
duction. It has been possible to produce protein by the action of Trichoderma
reesei Qm 9414 on pith.

21.5

ENERGY CANE SYSTEM

T h e energy cane is neither a botanical concept nor a cultivar. It is a management

concept where anatomical, physiological and agronomic features are tailored to-
wards growth. The agronomy of energy cane includes closer spacing (0.3 to 0.45 m ) ,
high rate of N fertilization (450-500 kg ha - 1 ), and late application of N ( 8 - 9
months stage). The distinct feature of energy cane is its 'invasiveness' or 'weedi-
ness'. Other features are early canopy closure, expansive leaf canopy, tillering pro-
pensity, active crown leaves, extended root proliferation of surface and subsurface
root system, sustained ratoonability and high tonnage. Other advantages of en-

346
 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

ergy cane are biological weed control through luxuriant green foliage, greater leaf
area duration and protection from erosion and soil compaction. It is suggested
that in energy cane, high rates of inversion and loss of 2 - 3 units in NR is more
than compensated by the gain in biomass. An ideotype of energy cane is presented
in Fig. 21.3.

Fig. 2 1 . 3 An ideotype of energy cane (Alexander, 1985)

The promising energy cane cultivats are N C O 310, PR 8 0 - 8 - 2 , PR 980,

CP 65-357, CO 62175, B 37172 and B 7 0 - 7 0 1 . T h e most promising one is

347
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

US 67-22—2 of S. spontaneum. These cultigens like CP 6 5 - 3 5 / and US 6 7 - 2 2 - 2

have given as much as 10,000 litres ethanol ha - 1 . But we have obtained 6 0 0 0 -
8000 litres ha" 1 ethanol (Cv. CO 627175) as against sweet sorghum which has
given 2000 litres ha - 1 . Performance of some energy canes is presented in Table 21.7.
Among them EP 18 and EP 30 seem to be promising, having yielded 5.0 t ha-1
of ethyl alcohol.

Table 21.7 Performance of energy cane

Source: SBI, Coimbatore.

21.5.1 Efficiency of phytomass production in energy cane

It is a common truism that sugarcane is one of the most efficient plants for con-
verting solar energy to stored energy (sucrose). Only the giant sequoia tree (Se-
quoia gigantea) surpasses sugarcane in phytomass production (Humbert, 1975).
On an average, sugarcane produces 35-90 t ha - 1 dry matter. This author has
harvested 60 t ha -1 of dry biomass for cane grown in red, sandy loam soils. How-
ever, the energy cane produces a much higher amount of biomass than some grasses
and trees like Eucalyptus (Table 21.8).

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 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

Table 2 1 . 8 Biomass yield of some grasses and trees

The extended growing season and higher rate of leaf area production linked to
specialized carbon synthesis (C4 of malic and aspartic acids) are responsible for
the high phytomass production in sugarcane as compared with other C3 plants.
However, differences in dry matter production, including the fibre of Saccharum
spp., are mainly due to differences in leaf area rather than due to differences in
photosynthetic rates (Alexander, 1973).
A breakthrough in biomass production seems to be in the offing (Anon. 1990),
if large quantities of the chloroplast enzyme, ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase
oxygenase (Rubisco) are produced. This is a key enzyme in CO 2 fixation, ac-
counts for 5 0 % of the p r o t e i n in the green leaf a n d is b u r n e d d u r i n g
photorespiration.

21.5.2 Food vs fuel farming

Globally, the potential land area available for cultivation is 3419 million ha and
no additional land can be made available for biomass production. It was feared
that energy farming would possibly compete with food crops for scarce resources
like land, water and chemical fertilizers. But this theory has been discounted since
biomass is 'man's friend' and a companion for all seasons. In fact, Tudge (1988)

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warns that biomass production is a sine qua non, not only for the survival of
mankind but also for the survival of 'fellow species'. To obviate the spectre of a
serious competition between food and fuel crops, Lipinsky (1978) suggested the
integration of fuel production with the food, material and residue systems. Agro-
nomic packages such as close spacing, coppicing, ratooning and multiple crop-
ping are available to increase yields and reduce the unit biomass cost.

21.5.3 Ethanol from fermentable solids

By far the most ambitious programme for the production of alcohol from sugar-
cane and other energy crops was launched in Brazil under the National Alcohol
Programme (PNA or proAlcol). During 1997-98, Brazil produced over 12.5 bil-
lion litres of alcohol, and up to 2 2 - 2 5 % of this alcohol can be blended with
petrol. A flow diagram showing the production of fuel alcohol from either pri-
mary juice or High Test Molasses (HTM) or Black Strap Molasses (BSM) is pre-
sented in Fig. 21.4.
Lipinsky (1978) even suggested controlled production of crystalline sugar and if
the sugar prices are low, substantial quantities of ethanol may be produced from the
primary juice. It can be seen that H T M is distincdy superior to BSM and about 18
litres H T M are equal to 22.5 litres BSM. In fact, H T M is as good as the syrup or
meladura (term used in Latin America). (Syrup or meladura is the liquid at the end
of the last vacuum-boiling cells or bodies and has 6 5 % solids and 3 5 % water.)
Yeast cells or their extracts are used to ferment molasses and alcohol is distilled.
Recent research suggests that the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae or S. uvarum can
be replaced by the bacterium Zymomonas mobilis for higher ethanol production
from molasses. The Biostil process seems to have the edge over other processes in
ethanol production (Paturau, 1986). This process was developed by Alfa-Laval of
Sweden. Here, the fermentation environment is not limited by the final ethanol
concentration but by the total osmotic pressure due to the accumulation of solu-
ble non-fermentables in the fermenter. With this process only 60% of the conven-
tional amount of processing water is required. Other advantages include minimal
energy consumption and maintenance of a high and stable yeast population
(Paturau, 1986).
The stillage or slops from the distillery poses environmental problems. T h e
volume of stillage produced is about 13 times that of the alcohol produced and its
B O D (Biological Oxygen Demand) exceeds 25,000 ppm. Stillage disposal is

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 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

achieved through fertilization, irrigation and biogas production. Vinasse, a dis-

tillery waste from fermentation is used as a soil amendment and fertilizer. Its
application to latosols has improved soil aggregation and increased the pH, or-
ganic carbon, base saturation and CEC. It is a good source of K fertilizer and also
supplies other minor elements like Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu.

Fig. 2 1 . 4 Flow diagram to show the production of ethanol from energy cane

21.5.4 Ethanol from celiulosic materials

Ethanol production from fermentable solids has overshadowed the potential of its
production from celiulosic biomass. Hydrolysis of cellulose can be accomplished

351
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

with acids or the enzyme cellulase; the latter is cheaper and more cost effective.
Lynd et al. (1991) have described the steps involved in ethanol production from
cellulosic biomass through an enzymatic process. The energy output-input ratio
of this system is 5 and the value is likely to increase when more efficient fermentative
microbes have been identified.
In the fermentation process the quality of the biomass is i m p o r t a n t ;
hemiceliuloses or lignins are not easily degraded. It is seen that sugarcane bagasse
has a higher cellulose content than corn and Pruett (1981) has shown that m u t a n t
strains of Clostridium sp. are efficient converters of cellulose or hemicellulose to
ethanol. More recendy, Landisch and Svarezkopf (1991) stressed that the ability
to ferment pentoses (xylose) is a key challenge and microbes like Candida tropicalis
and Pichia stipitis are efficient in this area.
Lynd et al. (1991) have cautioned that the high costs involved in producing
ethanol from cellulose are a major impediment to utilizing this technique. T h e
production of ethanol from cellulosic biomass is a developing technology, and
significant improvements are possible in the areas of pretreatment, enzyme activ-
ity, production, recycling and developing energy-rich crops.

21.5.5 Fuel alcohols

Biofuels like methanol and ethanol are the fuels of the future. Methanol has more
problems of pollution than ethanol. The latter has a higher calorific value than
the former. If the sugar prices are low, ethyl alcohol can be directly manufactured
from the primary juice or High Test Molasses (HTM) or Black Strap Molasses.
(BTM) Brazil holds the world record of producing over 12.5 billion litres of alco-
hol (ethanol) per year which is blended up to 2 2 - 2 5 % with petrol. This is known
as gasohol. For the record more than 90% of alcohol can be used as m o t o r fuel.
Biostil process or one step continuation process is employed. However t h e con-
tinuous fermentation or cascade fermentation process is favoured as it gives good
ethanol yield and yeast recovery (Zerpelon and Andrietti, 1995). But ethanol is
costly due to additional processes. On the other hand, industrial alcohol is cheaper
and can be blended with petrol in equal proportion (50 : 50). Industrial alcohol
has 5% water, hence such petrol is called 'Aqua petrohol'.
The new blend has an octane number of 98 with high efficiency. T h e techno-
economic feasibility of blending ethanol with petrol is succincdy described by Goel

352
 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

and Sharma (1996). Anhydrous ethanol blends up to 10% with petrol are optimum
giving greater power output with 60% lowered CO emission. Ethanol is an useful
oxygenate and blending acts as an octane booster. In times of surplus cane, a provision
should be made to produce ethanol direcdy from cane juice. The alcohol recovery is
expected to be 70-75 litres per ton of cane, depending on the cane quality. These
biofuels give lean burn with less emission of gases like CO, CO2 and NO x . Hence they
are less polluting and ecofriendly. Despite the advantages of biofuels, economic pa-
rameters suggest that these would be economical only if the crude oil price is US$ 60
per barrel. Nonetheless, the importance of fuel alcohol is recognised as it reduces our
import bills and the Government of India would permit a 10% blend in petrol. By the
turn of the century, the alcohol requirement of India is projected at 4717 million litres
per annum, which is used in organic chemicals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals and for
industrial and potable purposes.

21.5.6 Molasses

Apart from bagasse, molasses is an important by-product of the sugar industry. It

is another liquor left over after crystallization of sucrose from which further quan-
tities of sucrose cannot be recovered economically (Singh and Solomon, 1995).
The yield of molasses is 2.2 to 3.7% per ton of cane crushed. During 1997, there
were 459 sugar factories with a total production of about 7.0 million tons of
molasses per annum. Nearly 90% goes to produce industrial and potable alcohol
and about 7—8% is utilised for animal feed. Valuable products such as pyridines
and picolines are used for synthesis of drugs and pharmaceuticals. Certain mi-
crobes use molasses to produce oils and fats. Strains of eukaryotic microorgan-
isms feed on molasses to produce oils of C—16 and C—18 fatty acid chains. A
conversion of carbon into 20% lipid is possible. Microbial lipids include
phospholipids, sterols, fatty acids and triglycerides.
There has been a steep rise in the price of molasses. After decontrol it is sold at
Rs. 1000 per ton.
During 1997-98, there were 295 distillery units in India, producing over 1200
million litres of ethanol per annum. The traditional method of fermentation is through
yeast cells (Saccharomyces sp.). New strains of Saccharomyces would gready improve the
yield of ethanol. However, in recent times the Vacuferm and 'flash ferm' processes
replace yeasts with the bacterium Zymomonas mobilis. The biostil technology (con-
tinuous process) developed by Alfa-Laval of Sweden has tremendously increased the

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ethanol yield from cane molasses. The strain referenced 493 has better fermentative
activity than the commercial bakers yeast. Supplementation to the media of sterols
extracted from press mud at the laboratory stage has enhanced ethanol production.
The important co-products via ethanol are shown below.

Organic acids and other value added products from mo/asses

From ethanol, various organic acids are produced through fermentation. These
are: lactic acid, acetic acid, tartaric acid, maleic acid, and fumaric acid. Lactic acid
is widely used in jams, jellies, dairy products, soft drinks, pickles and canned
vegetables and fish products. It is possible to produce technical and plastic grade
lactic acid from cane molasses. Diluted molasses are fermented by the bacteria
Lactobacillus dudbruckii or L. bulgaricus. The fermentation is complete in 2—3 days
and neutralised by calcium. Lactic acid is recovered from calcium lactate. Acetic
acid and acetone are other alcohol based chemicals. Citric acid is manufactured
from, molasses by fermentation with Aspergillus niger. This organic acid is very
versatile and is used in pharmaceuticals, textiles, food and leather industries. Other
products of value are glycerol, acetone, butanol and dextran. Lysine is an essential
amino acid for nutrition, particularly of animals. T h e m u t a n t strains of.
Corynobacterium (C glutamicus-ATCC-13022) ferment the molasses to produce
L-Lysme. Acomtic acid and itaconic acids are extensively used in the preparation
of plasticzers, wetting agents and also used as flavouring agents. Itaconic acid is
produced from molasses by using strains of Aspergillus terreus at pH 1.8. This acid
is used in resins, plasticizers and lubricating oils, and additives.

354
 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

The biocide from cane molasses inhibits the activity of Leuconostoc bacteria.
With this sugar factories can prevent post-harvest losses. A new explosive known
as Nitromiel has been developed from cane molasses and ammonium nitrate. An
important drug, Ephedrine hydrochloride which is extensively used in cough syrup
is made from molasses . India produces about 30 tons of ephedrine per annum.
Monosodium glutamate (MSG) and baker's yeast are the other value-added
products obtained from cane molasses. MSG is used as a flavouring material in
meat preparations. It is produced in large quantities in Japan and is known as
Ajinomoto. Molasses are fermented using Micrococcus glutamicus and the result-
ant glutamic acid is retrieved as sodium salt to obtain MSG. India can manufac-
ture MSG on a large scale through 'buy-back' arrangements.
Molasses is the main raw material for the production of different types of yeasts,
including baker's yeast by fermentation. The yeast generally consists of selected
cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The baker's yeast is generally used in the manu-
facture of bread but it is also used to ferment molasses into ethanol. Torula yeast
known as Single Cell Protein (SCP) is produced by a special fermentation proc-
ess. SCP is gainfully used in milch cattle to improve milk yield. SCP is valued due
to its high multiplication rate, rich protein content (30—80% dry weight basis)
and simple, energy efficient system. This has high export potential.
It is to be noted that mutant strains of Trichoderma reesei can produce cellulase
from bagasse and SCP from molasses.

Animal feeds from molasses

Molasses is the cheapest source of energy for animals and its feeding value was
recognised as early as the 19th century. The composition of molasses is given in
Table 21.9.
Due to sulphitation process, the sulphur content is also high in molasses
produced in India. The total digestibility is around 60%. It is used to improve
palatability or as binding material for pelletized diets or as a medium for adding
certain nutrients.
It is a poor source of protein and anything more than 10% with roughages may
lead to 'molasses toxicity' (animals show excessive salivation). Edible molasses
have been developed by de-ionization of sugarcane juice with ion exchange resins.
The protein molasses are a blend of carbohydrates and proteins with the final
product containing 15-16% protein and 30—40% dry matter.

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Table 21.9 Composition of molasses

In Cuba, a technology has been developed to mix molasses with liquid Torula
yeast. Yeast is an important ingredient of many commercial products and Saccha-
romyces cerevisiae is the standard yeast for the manufacture of ethanol, bread and
bakery products. But the ideal yeast for food and feed from molasses is Torulopsis
utilis due to its high content of proteins and Vitamin B complex group. Another
feed known as 'yeast sludge' is obtained as an organic residue at the e n d of the
fermentation process. After condensation to 6 5 - 7 5 % dry matter, it is called con-
densed molasses solubles (Yeast sludge). This product is a rich source of microbial
protein and is a useful ingredient of animal feeds. In Australia, molasses are fed to
beef catde as 'cattle licks', stock blocks (solidified molasses and salt blocks), home
brew licks (mixture of grains, molasses, urea, meat or bone meal) and fortified
molasses (mixture of molasses and urea). The National Diary Development Board
(NDDB), Gujarat, India has developed urea-molasses licks (animal chocolates)
for animals. A similar product known as 'uromol' has been developed by the Pun-

356
 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

jab Agricultural University, Ludhiana by heating urea and molasses in the ratio
1 : 9 at 110 °C.

21.5.7 Press mud or filter cake

The production of press mud in India ranges from 3.3 to 3.6 million tons annu-
ally as against the global production of 17 million tons. While manufacturing
cane sugar, the impurities in the juice settle down and are removed as filter mud
or Press Mud (PM). PM is a soft, spongy, amorphous dark-brown material con-
taining sugars, fibre, wax, etc. besides inorganic constituents like N, P, K, Ca, Mg,
Fe, and Mn. In a sulphitation process a good amount of sulphur is found in PM.
The typical composition of PM is given in Table 21.10 (Singh and Solomon, 1995).

Table 2 1 . 1 0 Typical composition of Press Mud (PM)

Press mud is increasingly being used as a fertilizer. It is a rich source of C, P and

Ca. In more recent times it is enriched to ensure better fertilizer use efficiency. In
Cuba press mud, bagasse and trash are recycled by the vermicomposting process
and the enriched PM is called 'Begefert'. Some sugar factories in India produce
enriched PM by treating it with spent wash and stirring the mixture well. After 4-
6 weeks N-fixing bacteria like Azospirillum is added to obtain a balanced fertilizer
known as 'Bioearth' or 'Green plus'. We have made 'Phosphogreen' by mixing

357
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Rock phosphate/North Carolina phosphate/Tunisian phosphate (Gafsa) at the

rate of 1/20 or l/25th of press mud (w/w). Cowdung slurry was sprinkled and
thoroughly mixed with a rotovator. This was allowed to decompose for 4 - 6 weeks.
There is an exothermic reaction with the evolution of heat and C O 2 . W h e n press
mud is stabilised in 4-6 weeks, diazotrophs such as AzotobacterlAzosprillum were
added at the rate of 1-2 kg per ton of the product. To hasten decomposition
Trichoderma viridae or Pleurotus sp. are added. Cowdung slurry is sprinkled which
acts as a starter material. Usually one kg of these microbes, 5 kg urea and 50 kg
cowdung are added The final product is a darkish brown powdery material and
can be used safely for plantation/horticultural crops or in floriculture or in nurs-
eries. The phosphogreen contains 9-10% P 2 O 5 besides other major, secondary
and micronutrients. This is known to circumvent the imbalance in NPK fertiliza-
tion of field crops by providing adequate P and K to plants.
Waxes are pliable material and are the esters of higher fatty acids. In sugarcane
waxes are found in leaves but mostly on the rind portion of stems. Waxes are
composed of lipids which are 0.18% of cane. There are distinct wax bands or
rings on sugarcane stems. They form a waterproof protective coating. Varieties
with high wax content are Co 290, B 37161, Co 997, etc. Waxes on stems resist
biotic and abiotic stresses. It was seen that Co 997 with a high wax coating can
resist drought better than POJ 2978 (low wax). Wax coating is also associated
with a natural resistance to many insect pests and diseases.

Source: Shrivastava, 1995.

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 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

Waxes are solvent extracted from press mud (Shrivastava, 1995). Maximum
cane wax is extracted with toluene at a temperature of 75 °C, solvent ratio 1 : 4, in
4 hours time and the PM particle size was 900 microns. The yield of crude wax
ranges from 10.5 to 14.5%. The crude wax is further refined through solvent
extraction to obtain refined wax. A flow diagram of cane wax extraction is shown
in the previous page.
Waxes are used in pharmaceuticals, shoe polishes, varnishes, printing ink, car-
bon paper, etc.

21.5.8 Distillery effluents

After the recovery of ethyl alcohol from molasses, the residue contains slops/stil-
lage/vinasse and yeast sludge. Carbon dioxide is also produced during fermenta-
tion. Yeast sludge is a rich source of vitamins. It is mixed with animal feed to
improve its nutritional quality. Annually India produces 1000 million litres of
alcohol and 15000 million litres of spent wash, which cause serious environmen-
tal problems. T h e distillery effluents are known as stillage (Vinhoto), Vinasse,
slops, still residue, spent wash, etc. Spent wash is acidic (pH 4-5) containing 9 0 -
9 3 % water. This is rich in Ca, K, Mg, P, S, N, Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn. The disposal
options include dehydration, extraction, fermentation, and incineration. After
lagooning in the ponds, it can be used as ferti-irrigation. Sprinkler irrigation with
Vinasse is more efficient than soil application. Spent wash can also serve as a
liquid fertilizer when properly blended with NPK. Many experiments on sugar-
cane have demonstrated a 30—40% increase in sugarcane yield (both 1st and 2nd
ratoons) following its application at the rate of 15,000 to 20,000 gallons/ha. Vasant
Dada Sugar Institute (VSI), Pune has developed a method to prepare an organic
manure. T h e slop is limed to pH 10.5—12.5 and concentrated to 70—80 brix. The
concentrate is mixed with dried filtered m u d or begacillo and sold to farmers as
manure. T h e other alternative is that the limed spent wash is mixed with press
mud and phosphoric acid and sold as Vinasse cake.
T h e most important method of composting is 'bioearth' preparation. Herein,
press m u d is arranged in wind rows, 2 m high and 1 5 m wide at the base. Boiler
ash and bagasse are also mixed. Spraying of effluent is done to maintain optimum
moisture levels with frequent stirring with rotovators. Microbial starter 'Fabearth
micro 110' is employed to enrich the compost. Godavari Sugar Mills, Sameerwadi

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

produces an organic manure 'Bhumi Labh' by treating press mud with spent wash
and bioagents. 'Bhumi Labh' is useful for many field crops, plantations, vegetable
and horticultural crops. Using 'Bhumi Labh' results in an enormous saving of
chemical fertilizers.
Application of Vinasse per se has reclaimed saline/sodic soils. Its application
improves pH and CEC with a consequent increase in cane height, girth and yield.
The application rate ranges from 30-70 m 3 /ha depending on the soil type. This
can save chemical fertilizer up to 30% in 3-4 years. These findings need confir-
mation.
Vinasse can also be used for production of biogas (methane) and desalting to
obtain potassic fertilizer. Due to its high silicon content, Vinasse can also be used
as a building material.
21.6

POWER CANE SYSTEM

As we enter the new millennium, sugarcane would be commercially metamor-

phosed to power cane as cogeneration of power assumes a pre-eminent position in
the national economy. Almost all the states in India suffer serious power short-
ages.
Sugar factories are self-sufficient in fuel and power. But with efficient utiliza-
tion of surplus bagasse, power can be generated. The concept of cogeneration was
started in Hawaii and most factories in developed countries are providing surplus
power to the national grid or run ancillary industries. The cogeneration of power
is viable due to the improvements in technology. These include use of higher
efficiency boilers, use of higher steam pressures and temperatures, heat conserva-
tion in factory operations, installation of bagasse dryers and energy saving devices
and equipment. It is logical to conclude that a mill of 2500 T C D (Tons Cane per
Day) can generate excess power to the extent of 5-6 MW which can be fed to
national/state grid. This power can gainfully be employed to run other subsidiary
industries. India has more than 500 sugar factories of varying capacities ( 8 0 0 -
10,000 TCD) that can generate surplus power to the extent of 3800 M W . T h e
assumption is that average mills can generate additional power in the range of 6 0 -
80 KWH/ton of cane crushed. Thus a 2500 T C D plant can earn additional rev-
enues of over 3 crores (power tariff Rs. 0.80 to Rs. 1.25 per unit) in a season.

360
 21 By-products of the sugar industry: recent trends

Further, trash can be used as off-seasonal fuel. It is baled as round big bales or
small square bales. The Net Calorific Value (NCV) is around 12,600 J kg - 1 which
is much higher than that of bagasse. T h e latter has more moisture content, and
hence less NCV. Production costs per heat energy unit are comparable to conven-
tional fuel sources (Jakeway, 1995).

Box III

Bio-feeds from sugar industry at a glance

Sugarcane agro-industry by-products have played a decisive role in
animal production in the tropics. At present this industry provides, in
addition to yeasts, six different products intended for animal feed. They
include: molasses-urea mix, molasses-urea-pith mix, pre-digested pith, de-
hydrated fdter cake, high protein molasses and crop residues (leaves and
tops).
Several heads of cattle were fed with only dry-cleaning station residues.
This line of production has a higher potential and with simple techno-
logical solutions could also improve the efficiency in the use of cane top
residues.
Source: Almazan, 1994.

361
 araauaaaaa

Pollution problems and control measures

Effluents from sugar and other allied industries with lot of organic material are
discharged into rivers, streams, canals, and lakes. These effluents are allowed
to settle in open fields and ponds. Fermentation sets in causing the emission of
foul odour. T h e effluents can find their way into seepage water and pollute t h e
ground water. Besides liquid wastes, there are solid wastes, i.e. bagasse, press
mud and fly ash. T h e gaseous wastes consist of CO and S O 2 . T h e bagacillo
and fly ash floating particles cause air pollution. With well-designed fly ash
separators, fly ash can be tripped as a land fill. It is to be noted that a 2500 T C D
plant uses about 0.75 tons of sulphur that escapes as SO 2 in the range of 6—8
kg/day in the sulphitation process. The effluents can be treated with biologi-
cal agents to produce biogas, biofertilisers, antibiotics, enzymes and other value-
added products. Thus, the bioprocessing of distillery and other wastes of t h e
sugar industry leads to wealth from wastes (Mala et a!., 1998).
T h e major wastes come from mill, boiler and centrifugal houses, lime
house, etc. besides lab and floor washings. Oil, grease and surplus molasses are
discharged with a consequent high pollution load. T h e main effluent volume
is 4500 to 5000 1 ha - 1 with acidic reaction. The Chemical Oxygen D e m a n d
(COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) are 2 0 0 0 - 3 0 0 0 and 8 0 0 - 1 5 0 0
respectively. Some precautionary measures to reduce the pollution loads in-
clude:
(a) Avoidance of leakage of juice, syrups, sugars and molasses from pipes,
valves, etc.
(b) Avoidance of oil and grease leakage on the floor or into drains or their
mix up with effluents.
It is preferable to provide grease taps to arrest leakage of grease/oil into the
mill house drains. T h e State and Central pollution boards have set the stand-
ard B O D discharge limits. The limits are 30 mg 1 -1 and 100 mg 1 - 1 , if t h e
effluents are discharged into rivers/streams and land masses respectively.

22.1

EFFLUENT TREATMENT METHODS FOR THE SUGAR INDUSTRY

T h e effluent treatment methods are categorised into three types, namely, physi-
cal, chemical, and biological methods (Shukla, 1995).

362
 22 Pollution problems and control measures

22.1.1 Physical treatment methods

These treatment methods include use of coarse and fine screens made of boul-
ders, sand, etc. sedimentation techniques, and oil and grease removal. Other
methods employed are dilution with water to reduce pollution loads, sun dry-
ing, and incineration. This constitutes essentially a primary treatment to partly
reduce the B O D .

22.1.2 Chemical treatment methods

A change in effluent quality is brought about by treatment with chemicals

such as lime, alum, chlorine, and potassium permanganate/dichromate. How-
ever, these are expensive and not economical in a sugar factory.

22.1.3 Biological treatment methods

This is a natural process of purification and is, hence, economical. These are
grouped into three categories: (a) anaerobic system (b) anaerobic system fol-
lowed by aerobic system (semi-aerobic) and (c) totally aerobic system.
For high pollution loads as in the distillery, paper and pulp industries, the
anaerobic system is more efficient. But for low pollution loads as in sugar
factories aerobic treatment is suited where B O D loads can be brought down
to 30 mg l -1 or even less.

(a) Anaerobic system: In this system, lagoons or deep ponds (2—6 m) are
made where organic material of the effluent is partly decomposed to
methane at the bottom layers. At the surface layers bacterial oxidation
takes place as the wastes enter the lagoons. The suspended organic mat-
ter, bioflocculants, and colloidal matter settle down at the pond bottom.
T h e settled sludge undergoes anaerobic fermentation with the liberation
of methane. At the top layers aerobic bacteria promote oxidation of or-
ganic wastes. T h u s the symbiosis of anaerobic and aerobic bacteria is
responsible for B O D reduction. T h e 'kaccha' lagoons may lead to foul
odour and the seepage of effluents pollutes the groundwater. Hence 'pukka'
lagoons which are made of bricks and cement are suggested. Removal of
B O D is to the extent of 7 0 % in about 4 weeks. The treated effluent can

363
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

be used for irrigation with 1 : 2 dilution. The bacteria associated with

anaerobic decomposition are: Clostridium, Megaspore, Methanococcus,
Methanomonas, Sarcina and Streptococcus sp., etc.

In the first stage of anaerobic effluent treatment, large molecules are

hydrolysed by extracellular bacterial enzymes to produce sugars, fatty
acids and amino acids. In the second stage, sugars are converted to or-
ganic acids such as acetic acid, butyric acid, formic acid, etc. through the
acid forming bacteria. In the third stage, methanogenesis takes place by
methane forming bacteria to produce methane, C O 2 , H 2 S, N H 3 , etc.
Ultimately aerobic conditions need to be created for complete stabilisation
and removal of bad odour. Water hyacinth is also grown in the ponds
but large biomass disposal is a serious problem. Anaerobic contact filters
followed by aerated lagoons are a better option.

(b) Anaerobic cum aerobic process: The main effluent is passed through screens,
and oil and grease removal tanks. The effluent then enters an anaerobic
tank through an equalization tank. The effluent from the anaerobic tank
is passed through a battery of aerobic pits or shallow ponds (1 m deep).
T h e latter are fitted with agitators. The oxidation process is catalysed by
algae, chlorella, etc. Considerable reduction in B O D is achieved with
the evolution of C O 2 , water, and heat. A sketch of the Effluent Treat-
ment Plant (ETP) is shown in Fig. 22.1. The cost of ETP is likely to be
high due to 'pukka' tank and aerators. It has been observed that anaero-
bic filters followed by aerated lagoons are a better option.

(c) In the activated sludge process (Fig. 22.2), the effluent after the primary
treatment is carried through an equalization tank where pH and nutri-
ents are adjusted and mixed with 2 - 5 % sewage (Shukla, 1995). It is
then taken to an aeration tank where aerobic decomposition takes place
with the help of aerobic bacteria. Sludge or biomass is recycled from the
aeration tank to the equalization tank. T h e excess sludge is led to drying
beds. Flocculation in a gelatinous mass is an important property of acti-
vated sludge and achieves 8 5 - 9 5 % B O D reduction. Colloidal action
also results in flocculation. Flocculation is chiefly carried out by mi-
crobes such as Zoogles remigera and some protozoa.

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 22 Pollution problems and control measures

Aerobic oxidation tank

Fig. 2 2 . 1 Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) of sugar factory using an anaero-

bic cum aerobic process (Source: Shukla, 1995)
A combination of activated sludge system and biofilter can work better
and give the needed B O D limits of the waste. Biofilters (Fig. 22.3) are
'pukka' cylindrical tanks 1 0 - 1 5 m in diameter and 2 - 3 m in height.
T h e bottom of the tank is perforated for trickling of the liquid and is
well ventilated through side walls.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Fig. 2 2 . 2 Activated sludge process to treat effluent

Fig. 2 2 . 3 Biofiltration process

366
 22 Pollution problems and control measures

T h e tank is seeded with bacteria, nutrients in the form of urea, phos-

phate, and sewage. The bacterial film is formed over the tank surface and
greatly aids in the decomposition of organic material. It is to be noted
that bacterial sludge decomposes all types of wastes under aerobic condi-
tions. Sludge is a heterogenous mass (biomass) and B O D is reduced
with the release of C O 2 , water and biomass. T h e microbes implicated in
the reaction are: Zooglea remigera, Nocardia, Actinospora, Bacillus, pseu-
domonas, Sarcina, Escherichia, Flavobacterium protozoa, etc. Hydrogenases
and dehydrogenases are the active enzyme systems to decompose organic
matter.

22.1.4 Air pollution

T h e air pollution from the sugar industry consists of SO 2 , CO 2 and Suspended

P a r t i c u l a t e M a t t e r (SPM) in the form of fly ash. E q u i p m e n t such as
multicyclones, water scrubbers, fly ash arresters, bag filters and electrostatic
precipitators are employed to check air pollution. Different pollution control
boards in India have recommended SPM in the range of 250—800 mg/N m 3
for different types of bagasse fired boilers.

22.2

EFFLUENT TREATMENT FOR DISTILLERY UNITS

T h e important by-products of the distillery units are: C O 2 , yeast sludge, and

spent wash. Yeast sludge is a rich source of vitamins and can be mixed with
fodder and fed to cattle. The distillery wash is named as slops, dunder, efflu-
ent, stillage, and vinasse. T h e volume of spent wash is 12—15 times that of
alcohol produced. A normal plant of 30,000 litres per day (LPD) capacity
generates 4,50,000 litres of spent wash per day.
T h e spent wash is highly acidic in nature and contains many organic and
inorganic substances. The average composition of spent wash is given in Table 22.1.
Because of its high B O D and C O D , spent wash when allowed to decom-
pose in open ponds gives bad odour. It is more hazardous when discharged
into nalas, rivers, lakes, streams, etc. T h e disposal of spent wash is a serious
environmental problem.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Table 2 2 . 1 Average composition of spent wash (g 1-1)

Spent wash has the highest BOD and C O D values as compared to other
agro-based industries (Table 22.2).

Table 2 2 . 2 Values of BOD and C O D of some agro-based industries

Source: Gehlawat, 1995.

Many physical, chemical and biological methods are suggested to treat the
spent wash. Biological methods are more suited due to their low handling and
maintenance costs. It involves a general process, an anaerobic process and an
aerobic process.

22.2.1 General process

T h e effluent is diluted several times and used as irrigation water, specially in
the lighter soils. T h e waste can also be concentrated after neutralization with
lime in multiple effect evaporators and then dried in rotary drums to convert
it into cattle and poultry feed. Spent wash contains 0.6-1.5% K. Hence it can
be neutralised and concentrated to form a cake. This cake can be used in boil-
ers and the ash is a good potassic fertilizer ( 3 7 % K 2 O).

22.2.2 Anaerobic digestion and methane production

T h e anaerobic process comprises three stages. In the first stage degradation of
organic matter to organic acid takes place by the action of saprophytic bacte-

368
•-*>wrS"--">

22 Pollution problems and control measures

ria. T h e second stage involves acetogenesis with the formation of acetic acid
and dehydrogenation. At this stage, acid forming bacteria participate. T h e
third stage is methanogenesis, mediated by methane forming bacteria, with
formation of methane (Fig. 22.4).

Fig. 2 2 . 4 Anaerobic digestion and methane production

The general reaction is:

In fact methane producing bacteria convert organic acids to methane. Four

genera are: Methano bacterium, Methano bacillus, Methano coccus and Methano
sarcina.
T h e anaerobic digestion is simple with a closed reactor (digester) and a
provision for gas collection. The retention time in the digester is 30—60 days.
B O D reduction is of the order 8 5 - 9 0 % , while C O D reduction is 6 5 - 7 0 % .
Methane content of biogas ranges between 6 0 - 7 0 % .

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

At the National Sugar Institute (NSI), Kanpur, an ammonifying bacterial

process has been developed for the first stage treatment of spent wash. Reduc-
tion in B O D is 9 0 - 9 3 % . In this process, an ammonifying bacterial culture is
developed in the laboratory and then at distillery sites in drums. T h e full
plant consists of a mixing tank, 3 settling tanks, 4 culture tanks, and 5 treat-
ment tanks. T h e retention time is only 4—5 days.
In a normal distillery plant, biogas production is ~2800 m 3 /d assuming a
C O D reduction of 70%.
The Vasant Dada Sugar Institute (VSI), Pune, has developed a modified
incineration method of effluent disposal known as DIEG—VSI process. It in-
volves (i) concentration of spent wash to 5 0 - 6 0 % solids (ii) drying the con-
centrated wash in a solid form fit for burning (iii) burning of dried solids in
fluidised bed combustion boiler (iv) utilisation of steam for DIEG process and
running the distillery unit (Gunjal and Hapase, 1995).
Yet another method of effluent treatment is anaerobic lagooning, which is
cheap and economical. But methane recovery is not possible. This is also a
biological method where waste material is treated in lagoons or deep ponds,
2—6 m deep. After the lagoons are formed with earth material, they are seeded
with cowdung and then loaded with spent wash. If needed, they are limed.
Sometimes multiple lagoons ranging from 1 to 4 are used for waste treatment.
After the waste treatment, the water can be used for irrigation purposes.

22.2.3 Aerobic process

T h e distillery effluents serve as raw material for the cultivation of torula yeast,
which can be used as cattle feed. The yeast is developed under vigorous aerat-
ing conditions and B O D reduction is by 50%.
In the activated sludge process, biological growth takes place under aerobic
conditions. T h e wastes are continually fed, so that flocculant suspensions ag-
gregate and settle. T h e process comprises sedimentation, aeration, and sec-
ondary sedimentation. T h e mixed microbial population includes algae and
bacteria such as Zooglea, Pseudomonas, Nocardia, Actinophora, Sarcina,
Achromobacter, Flavobacterium, etc. This process is more suited to effluents of
low pollution loads (sugar factories) and second stage treatment of distillery
spent wash.

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 22 Pollution problems and control measures

In the aerated lagoons, algal and bacterial cultures are grown to treat the
spent wash and B O D reduction is to the extent of 7 0 - 8 0 % .

22.3

BIOCOMPOSTING

There are aerobic and anaerobic processes of biocomposting of the wastes. The
biofertilisers are made by using press mud, spent wash and other micro cul-
tures. These biofertilisers improve physical and chemical properties of soil be-
sides supplying major and minor nutrients to plants.
T h e bioprocessing of distillery wastes leads to 'wealth' from 'waste'
(Mala et al., 1998). Biocompost has been produced by using press mud, efflu-
ents, bioinoculum, and earthworms.
T h e bioinoculum consists of Trichoderma reesei, Aspergillus niger, A. flavus
and Bacillus sp. T h e treated water can be used for irrigation and serves as
'liquid manure'.
Bioearth composting is an aerobic process. Press m u d is arranged in windrows,
2 m high and 4 m wide at the base. Boiler ash and bagasse may be mixed with
it. Windrows are allowed to dry to some predetermined moisture. Effluent
and a special microbial starter, Fabearth microllo are sprayed on the heaps. T h e
spraying is carried out at regular intervals. The aerotiller agitates and aerates
the mixture well. This also ensures uniform mixing of the microbial starter.
T h e composting period is 8—11 weeks.
In the first method of aerobic composting, press m u d and spent wash are
mixed in the ratio of 1 : 2.5. T h e water content of the mix is 60—70%. Ini-
tially cowdung is used as starter material. Compost is ready in 20 days. The
composition of this compost is:

PH 6.5-7.5
N% 0.4-0.6

P2O5% 0.7-1.3

K2O% 2.3-3.0

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 Cane farmers and sugar policy

The cane farmer, big or small, is a key person and cane development activity
centres around him. He is the supplier of raw material to the mill and deserves all
our respect and regard. Cane development involves specialised public relations
where all efforts are made to improve yield, sugar recovery and the financial status
of the grower and the economic viability of the factory.
Various extension methods are adapted to disseminate new technologies. The
success of extension methods depends on (a) identification of a problem (b) dem-
onstration of a suitable technology and (c) inducing the farmer to adopt the tech-
nology on a large scale. Blackburn (1984) sums up that cane development is de-
velopment of the grower who plants and cultivates quality cane and provides it to
the factory. Hence there is need for mutual understanding, respect and trust be-
tween the farmer and the manufacturer. For maximum sugar output the cane
should be crushed within 24 hours and the binding material should not be more
than 3 % . In India land holdings are small, ranging from less than 0.4 ha to more
than 4.0 ha and mechanization is not easy. Manual harvesting is done and care
should be taken to harvest the cane at the ground level.
Technology transfer is both an art and science. There must be a direct link
between the researcher, extension worker and the farmer so that there is proper
and timely feedback. Arulraj (1995) observed that due to lack of transfer of tech-
nology, a large gap exists between the potential and the actual yields obtained in
India. He has suggested Integrated Technology Transfer (ITT) which entails three
components.

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 23 Cane farmers and sugar policy

T h e following tasks of the Cane Department assume primacy.

(a) Systematic survey of the reserve area in respect of soil problems, drought,
waterlogging, pests-disease menace, and other biotic and abiotic stresses.
They should identify the thrust areas to augment quality cane production.
(b) Detailed varietal scheduling.
(c) Model farms not less than 0.4 ha are to be maintained in the grower's
fields to demonstrate the latest technology.
(d) Intensive educational programmes in the villages through group discus-
sions, exhibitions, slide and video shows, and distribution of leaflets.
(e) Constitution of Salaha Samitis for awareness among the farmers about
recent technologies and their impact.
(f) Supply of critical inputs like seed, fertilizers, herbicides, etc. through ar-
rangements with banks and other financing institutions.
T h e import of technology transfer was studied by Arulraj (op. cit.) who found
that the adoption of knowledge like new varieties, optimum sett rate, geometry of
planting, sett treatment, trash mulching, earthing, ratoon management, etc. was
only 25—34% with registered growers as against 14.05% in nonregistered grow-
ers. Cane development staff should update themselves about technological devel-
opments; they must be permitted to attend seminars, symposia, workshops and
visit important research stations.

23.1

SUGAR POLICY

In the early 1930s, the British Government felt that the sugar industry had to be
protected and developed in the country. To cushion the industry from imports, the
Sugar Industry (Protection) Act of 1932 was passed by the Indian legislature. This
industry was protected for 14 years up to March 1, 1946. Various laws were made
and after independence these were subsequently modified by the Bhargava Com-
mission. These laws served the purpose at that point of time but needed to be re-
vised thoroughly to modernise and introduce the latest technology. This will not
only increase sugar production but also make sugar available at a much cheaper rate.
In 1936-37 there were only 140 vacuum pan factories with 9 refineries. The
production of sugar was 1.13 million tons. T h e industry has shown remarkable
improvement in productivity, both in the field and the factory. As on 28-2-1998,

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there were 460 mills—66 Government owned, 140 private sector and 254 coop-
erative sector. The crushing period improved from 101 days in 1950-51 to 128 days
in 1996-97. The area under cane stands at around 4.0 million ha, which works
out to 2.2% of the gross cropped area. The cane yield has risen from 46.32 t ha - 1
in 1966-67 to 71 t ha- 1 in 1996-97. The sugar recovery in 1950-51 was 9 . 9 1 %
and rose to 10.03% in 1995-96. The highest recovery was in Maharashtra (11.07%
in the period 1991-95 ) followed by Karnataka (10.44%) during the same pe-
riod. Maharashtra has also more modern mills.
Today, India is the largest producer of sugar but is not the most efficient one.
On an average a 14 month crop yields 71 t ha - 1 as against 250 t ha - 1 in Hawaii for
a 24 month crop. The combined productivity level in the country is 1.0 t ha - 1
sugar per month. If the average sugar yield is taken for a 14 month period, it
works out to 0.5 ha - 1 mo - 1 . For comparison, sugar yields in different countries
are shown in Table 23.1.

Table 23.1 Sugar yield (t ha-1) in different countries

Source: STA1, 1998, 1999.

Modernisation of sugar factories is the prime need. There are 165 factories in
India which are more than 35 years old. The minimum economic capacity of a
mill is 2500 T C D with expandable capacity to 3500 T C D . Most modern mills
have continuous sulphitation and liming, and only a few old mills have the car-
bonation process. Efforts are being made to get refined sugar through raw melt
phosphotation and ion exchange routes. These results are awaited.
Efficiency norms are given by Bhargava formulae (Bhargava Commission, 1974)
and the total losses are plugged at 2.3 to 2.7%. The break-up of losses is as below:
(a) Sugar loss in Bagasse (mill loss) 0.9-1.1%
(b) Sugar loss in press matter 0.1%
(c) Sugar loss in molasses (process loss) 1.2-1.4%
(d) Unknown loss 0.1%
Total 2.3 to 2.7%
Sucrose extraction is much lower in India as compared to other countries
(Table 23-2).

374
 23 Cane farmers and sugar policy

Table 23.2 Sugar extraction percentage in different countries

Source: STAI, 1998, 1999. The above data is taken for the period from 1989-90 to 1993-94.

The future belongs to by-product utilization. The major by-products are all types
of paper, and particle boards. Cogeneration of power is a major step in the diversi-
fication of sugar industry. In Hawaii, sugar factories supply 10% of the power to the
national grid. Sugar factories in Mauritius meet 26.3% of the national power re-
quirement and the country plans to supply 75% power from sugar factories.
23.2

ENACTMENTS
The Essential Commodity Act 1955 (EC Act) defines sugar that includes Khan-
dasari sugar/bura sugar or crushed sugar or any sugar in crystalline or powder
form. Under the Essential Commodity Act 1955, the Central Government would
enforce levy sugar. The concept of levy sugar came into being from the 1967—68
sugar season onwards. The Act introduced dual pricing mechanisms (partial con-
trol). The policy of partial control continued except for brief spells of decontrol
from 25 May 1971 to 30 June 1972 and from 16 August lof sugar978 to 16
December 1979. The levy sugar price was fixed by the Central Government.
The Sugar Control Order 1966 provides power to the Government to regulate
the production of sugar, restrict sales, etc. of sugar by producers, issue directions
to producers or dealers, and regulate movement of sugar and the quality of sugar.
The Sugar Control Order 1966 provides guidelines regarding the fixation of the
Statutory Minimum Price (SMP) for sugarcane purchased by sugar mills during
each sugar season.
Invariably the State advised price is more than the Central advised price by
Rs 5-10 per q . Sugarcane payment has to be made within 14 days of the delivery
at the factory gate and any delay would warrant payment of interest at 15% per
annum. The Sugar Control Order enforces payment of additional cane price to
growers, regulates the distribution and movement of sugarcane, licensing of power
crushers, khandasari units, and issues directions to producers of Khandasari sugar.
It has power to call for information, search and seizure of the types of sugar. It also
fixes the reservation of area to the factory.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

The Sugar Control Order 1966 as amended on 9 September 1983 provides for
payment of sugarcane price at the rate of SMP notified by the Central Govern-
ment or at the agreed prices between the miller and the cane grower.
The Bhargava formulae are meant to enable the farmer to get a remunerative
price for cane supplied after 1 October 1974 by sharing of the profits arising out
of excess realization with the producer sugar factory. It is no longer mandatory
according to the Sugar Control Order 1966 that all sugar manufacturers should
export sugar. Exports can voluntary. The Sugar Control Order empowers the
Central Government to issue directions to sugar producers or recognized dealers
from time to time regarding production, maintenance of stock, storage, sale, trade,
grading, weighment, disposal, etc.
The Sugar Cess Act 1982 was enacted to provide for the imposition of cess on
sugar for the development of the sugar industry and matters connected with it.
This Act empowers the Central Government to levy the cess by way of excise duty
which would help modernise and rehabilitate the sugar factories.
The Sugar Development Fund (SDF) was enacted under the Sugar Develop-
ment Act. The object of the SDF act was to render financial assistance through
loans for rehabilitation and modernisation of sugar factories. SDF is also meant
to improve cane development such as early rich canes, heat treated sugarcane seed
and other R & D activities.
23.3

HIGH POWERED COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS

This committee was constituted on 14 March 1997. This was headed by
Sri B. B. Mahajan and comprised technical experts, representatives of cane grow-
ers, Central and State Governments. The committee was required to go through
all aspects, review the rules and regulations to modernise the sugar industry and
augment the production of cane and sugar. Some important terms of reference
were to study the working of the industry in other sugar producing countries, and
induce efficiency through modernisation so that sugar is available to the general
public at reasonable prices. A fair and remunerative price should also be ensured
to cane growers. Some of the recommendations are given below:
(i) There must be complete decontrol of sugar phased over a period of two
years beginning with a reduction in levy sugar to 2 0 % followed by com-
plete decontrol in the following season.

376
 23 Cane farmers and sugar policy

(ii) Even after complete decontrol of prices, control on releases should be

operated by a committee comprising a senior official of the Department
of Sugar along with a representative each from the association and coop-
erative federation,
(iii) Supply of sugar through the Public Distribution System (PDS) should be
discontinued. In case the Government wishes to continue sugar under
P D S , they may purchase sugar from the industry or trade at a fixed price,
(iv) There must be a Sugar Pricing Board (SPB). Pending decontrol levy sugar
prices should be based on the actual cane price paid by the sugar factories
in the zone as determined by the SPB. T h e SPB will comprise an economist
of repute as the Chairman, and officers not below the rank of Joint Secretary
from the Department of Sugar, Civil Supplies, and Ministry of Agriculture,
Economic advisor in the Ministry of Finance, one representative each of
the association, cooperative federation, and two representatives of the cane
growers—one from the tropics, another from the subtropics.
(v) Statutory Minimum Price (SMP) needs to be continued even after decon-
trol which guarantees a minimum price to the grower. SMP is computed
only with reference to cost of cultivation and returns from alternate crops
without relating to the sugar price. Cane prices will be fixed separately for
different zones. In future, SMP should be linked to sugar recovery and
the sugar content of cane. A premium may be paid for varieties which
have high sugar content,
(vi) Khandasari units may also be required to pay the same SMP during the
normal crushing season,
(vii) The final cane price payable to sugarcane farmers should be linked to the
price of sugar. T h e final cane price may be fixed separately for different
zones, but within a zone all mills should be required to pay the same
price. T h e formulae for determination of cane price is:
Cane price per ton = Average price of sugar per quintal in zone during
the year x grower percentage share x average re-
covery in the zone during year/All India Average
sugar recovery during the year
(viii) The mills are required to pay statutorily a minimum of 8 0 % of the advance
price determined by SPB or SMP, whichever is higher within 15 days of
cane supply to the mill by the growers. T h e remaining amount out of the

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

advance price shall be paid by the mill before the end of the sugar season.
T h e difference between the advance price and the final price shall be paid
by the mills within 15 days of the announcement of the final price.
(ix) T h e maximum binding material may be fixed to 3 kg q _1 (3%) of sugarcane.
(x) Demarcation of the cane area has to be done for each factory so that a
compact area is available to the mill for a normal working season at optimum
capacity. It is preferred to demarcate the reserve area on a permanent basis.
(xi) T h e radial distance from an existing mill for location of a new mill may
be kept at 25 km.
(xii) A regular annual export quota of one million ton of sugar should be per-
mitted. In the event of complete decontrol, normal releases may be al-
lowed over and above the quantity exported by the mill,
(xiii) Cane has to be registered with the factory and the bonded cane receives
the price as determined by SPB even beyond the normal crushing season,
(xiv) Buffer stocks should be built out of surplus domestic production in good
years and not out of imports,
(xv) Khandasari units may be permitted at a distance of 25 km from the mill site,
(xvi) Mills may opt for cogeneration of power or manufacture of paper and
particle board from bagasse. Use of alcohol for mixing with petrol needs
to be permitted,
(xvii) R & D should emphasise on the improvement of cane varieties, management
of pests, diseases, weeds and abiotic stresses like drought, water logging,
salinity. Tissue culture may be used mainly for the production of foundation
seed and 40 ha land is allocated to a factory of 2500 T C D . For release of
new cultivars 11.5% sucrose may be the benchmark at maturity,
(xviii) T h e existing policy of licensing for new mills may continue but it is nec-
essary to ensure that the new mill is not installed very close to the existing
factory or factories.

(xix) In order to provide a level playing yield to domestic producers it has

recommended an import duty at 4 0 % of average difference between ex-
factory price of free sale and levy sugar during the past 5 years. This amounts
to Rs 150 q _1 . In addition, Rs 85 q _1 is levied to cover excise duty and cess
on sugar and Rs. 50 q _1 to cover incidence of taxes on purchase of sugarcane
levied by the coastal states.
These recommendations are yet to be accepted by the Government.

378
 Economics of cane cultivation

Among the commercial field crops—sugarcane, cotton, potato and tobacco—

sugarcane is the most preferred for cultivation due to the following reasons.
(i) Price is fixed well in advance.
(ii) Market is assured.
(iii) In most areas, harvest and transport are done by the factories.
(iv) Good profits are ensured.
In some years, cane supply far exceeds the demand due to excessive planting
(more than the crushing capacity of the mill) and/or the mechanical failures of
the mill. To realise the maximum profits, all inputs should be provided in time,
mostly in the first 100 days. Sugarcane, being a grass has fewer problems of pests
and diseases and tolerate many biotic and abiotic stress conditions. Above all, it
responds to management.
It has some disadvantages. It is a long duration crop extending from 10 to 18
months, and is labour intensive. Due to paucity of labour and high wages, the
cost of cultivation is increasing year by year with consequent reduced profits. The
input costs like that of fertilizers are also on the increase. To achieve maximum
profits and returns the following measures need to be taken,
(i) Optimum utilization of inputs,
(ii) Timely application of fertilizers, herbicides, etc.
(iii) Regular irrigation schedules to meet the crop demand but no over-irrigation,
(iv) Procurement of healthy, preferably heat treated setts or seed pieces.
Several studies have shown there is a considerable yield gap between the poten-
tial and actual yields and this gap can be reduced.
The scientific economic analysis of plant and ratoon cane grown in tropics was
done and is presented in Tables 24.1 and 24.2. The Variable Cost (VC) include
fertilisers, seeds, etc. The fixed cost include land rent, interest on the capital, etc.
Ten per cent of the Variable Cost (VC) is assumed as fixed cost.
T h e plant crop requires about 300 mandays per ha excluding the labour re-
quired for harvest and wrapping and propping operations. On the other hand,
ratoon requires about 230 mandays per ha excluding the labour required for har-
vest and wrapping and propping. For harvesting contract labour is taken but
herein calculations are shown based on casual men or women labourers. The op-
erational wise break-up of the variable cost of cultivation for the plant crop is
given in Table 24.3.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

380
24 Economics of cane cultivation

381
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

382
24 Economics of cane cultivation

383
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

384
 24 Economics of cane cultivation

Table 24.3 Operational wise break-up of cost of cultivation for plant crop

It is gleaned from Table 24.3 that the maximum expenditure is on harvest and
transport (28.06%) followed by manures and manuring (24.87%) and seeds and
sowing (22.75%). About 30—35 irrigations are given in tropical India, the ex-
penditure comes to about 5% of the variable cost. The variable cost per ton is Rs
317. The benefit cost ratio (B : C) is around 2 : 1 .
The total cost is calculated as under:
Total cost includes variable cost + fixed cost.
VC Rs 49,150
Fixed cost
(a) 10% of the VC 4,915
(b) Rental 1,000
(c) 14% interest on VC 6,881
Total 61,946
B:Cratio 1.58:1
It is seen that the total cost (variable cost + fixed cost) comes to Rs 61,946 per
ha with a benefit cost ratio of 1.58. To be economically viable, B : C ratio should

385
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

be at least 2.0 and above. To improve profits, there must be conscious efforts to
improve the yield to at least 175—200 t ha - 1 to justify such high expenditure on
cultivation. It is, therefore, surmised that the target yield is necessary and accord-
ingly the cultivation costs have to be incurred.
Sundara (1998) has given the input-wise break-up of cultivation costs and it is
presented in Fig. 24.1. Nearly 5 0 % of the cultivation cost goes to manual labour
followed by seeds and manures. To improve the profits, input cost has to be re-
duced without sacrificing the yield and quality. It is postulated that a high input
cost is justified when the yield level is about 175-200 t ha - 1 . Mechanization is
also thought of as a measure to reduce the input costs. Agronomic and other
measures have to be adopted to improve the efficiency of fertilizers and irrigation
water. In tropical India very little is spent on pesticides but a need-based approach
is highly desirable.
Ratoons are more profitable than plant crop. To raise a ratoon crop only 230
mandays are required as against 300 mandays for plant crop. There is a saving in
seed. T h e variable cost (VC) is Rs 37,215 while the total cost (VC + fixed cost) is
Rs 47,146. Based on variable cost, B : C ratio is 2.57. The cost of producing one
ton of ratoon cane is Rs 266. T h e break-up of inputs in respect of various opera-
tions in ratoon is given in Table 24.4. T h e maximum expenditure is on manures
and manuring followed by harvest and transport. The profitability of a ratoon
crop is possible by proper gap filling by polythene raised 6-week-old-seedlings.
Fertilizer use efficiency is improved by point placement of urea super granules,
press mud application and trash mulching.
Input-wise break-up of cultivation cost for ratoon cane is presented by Sundara
(1998) and is depicted in Fig. 24.2. As in the plant crop, maximum expenditure is
towards labour input (57%) followed by manures and fertilizers. Here again mecha-
nization of stubble shaving, intercultivation and shoulder breaking increase the
profitability of ratoon cane. Sundara (1998) has shown that for plant crop the
return per rupee invested on labour is Rs 2.72 and on fertilizer is Rs 9.74. In
ratoon cane the return per rupee invested on labour is Rs 2.76 and on fertilizer
is Rs 9.11.
In conclusion, most inputs are required within 3—4 months. The factory has to
arrange for credit through commercial or cooperative banks. If cane supply is ex-
field, the factory arranges for harvest and transport. But if the cane supply is ex-
factory, the mill has to make advance payment for meeting the harvest and trans-

386
 24 Economics of cane cultivation

port charges. For the cane cultivation to be profitable, timely input and timely
operations are to be carried out. The mill should issue the cutting permits within
12-14 months so that maximum sugar and cane yields are realised with high
profits. It is worth noting that the cost of producing one ton of plant crop is Rs
317 while that of ratoon crop is Rs 266.

Table 2 4 . 4 Operation-wise break-up of cost of cultivation for ratoon crop

387
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Fig. 24.1 Input-wise break-up of cost of cultivation of plant crop (Sundara, 1998)

Fig. 2 4 . 2 Input-wise break-up of cost of cultivation of ratoon crop (Sundara, 1998)

388
 Tissue culture

Tissue culture is a vegetative method for multiplying plants. It is also called plantlet
culture or micropropagation/cloning. When plants are multiplied vegetatively all
offsprings from a single plant can be classified as a 'clone'. Tissue culture simply
directs and assists the natural potential within the plant to put forth new growth.
Interestingly the history of tissue culture involves the entire history of botany, the
origin of which is lost in antiquity. But P. R. White is acknowledged as the father
of the tissue culture in USA. In 1939 he had cultured tomato and potato (Kyte
and Kleyn 1996). Commercial tissue culture was first reported in the orchid in-
dustry in the 1950s. However it became clear that any plant would respond to
tissue culture as long as the right formulae and right processes were adopted. It is
also a good tool for specialists who hybridise plants by either sexual or asexual
means. Often tissue culture is the most practical way to produce large numbers of
plants required. It knows no seasons and plant propagation can be done through-
out the year. Culturing plants needs no elaborate laboratory but requires a clean
environment without contamination. It requires less space, less labour and less
cost as compared to the other methods of propagation. Moreover most tissue
culture plants are true to type, more vigorous and disease-free.
Test tube culture involves 4 steps: 1st stage—explant establishment or initia-
tion, Ilnd stage—multiplication, Illrd stage—rooting, and IVth stage—acclima-
tisation or hardening. When new plant material is started in the culture it is grown
in vitro (in glass). An explant is one piece of stem, leaf bud, root or seed meristem,
or even one cell which can produce infinite number of plants.
Embryo culture, cell culture or callus culture fall under the broad term of tis-
sue culture. Embryo culture can mean the 'rescue' of an embryo from a seed and
fostering its plantlet development and multiplication in a culture. In other words,
it is possible to culture embryos extracted from seeds (embryo rescue) or stimulate
spontaneous production of embryos from undifferentiated cells; the process is
called embryogenesis. In somatic embryogenesis embryos are induced to form
somatic cells (vegetative or asexual). Cell culture is the cultivation of cells in solid
gel medium or in a liquid medium; the latter is commonly known as cell suspen-
sion culture.
Callus culture is the multiplication of callus (a mass of disorganised, mostly
undifferentiated or undeveloped cells) preferably on a solid medium. But Duncan
(1997) states that the juvenile meristematic tissues are generally more efficient for

389
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

plant regeneration. But regenerated plant variability is higher among polyploid

and higher chromosome number explant sources such as sugarcane (Heinz and
Mee, 1969). Embryos may multiply and/or induced to form plantlets and the
process is morphogenesis.
T h e de-differentiated cells can also produce callus. Callus in tissue culture is in
fact a response to wounding. T h e callus mass can contain embryoids (embryo like
structures capable of developing into whole plants) or it can contain shoot or root
primordia. Callus can also develop cells with abnormal number of chromosomes.
Excision of explants stimulates the wound response 'in vivo' which can be en-
hanced by growth regulators like 2, 4-D and 6-Benzylamino purine that have
been implicated in tissue culture induced variability (George, 1996a, 1996b).
Tissue culture competence may be due to the genes involved in hormone metabo-
lism. Genes controling phytohormonal signals are directly involved in plant re-
generation. Some cultivars may have genes that control tissue culture regenera-
tion. T h u s , the regeneration process includes reprogramming gene expression,
controlling differentiation of induced cells into embryos and maintenance of em-
bryogenic capacity. The ability to regenerate plants through long successive sub-
culturing is gene-controlled (loc. cit.).
Haploid culture is of practical significance. This is triggered by tissue culturing
of anthers or pollens to obtain haploids (cells with half the normal number of
chromosomes of vegetative cells). Haploid (n) plants are sterile but the chromo-
somes duplicate and the plants will be diploids (2n). More so their progeny will
be true to form.
For the record, tissue culture offers a convenient method of handling mutants
(plants induced with mutant induced agents like radiation, UV light/carcino-
genic chemicals). Following treatment, cultures are incubated and then tested for
certain characteristics, namely, resistance to toxins, salts, herbicides, antibiotics or
diseases, and tolerance to heat, cold, and other abiotic stresses. Of practical sig-
nificance is their ability to synthesise secondary products/metabolites. T h e sec-
ondary products potentially available from cell cultures include flavourings, pig-
ments, medicinals, gums, resins, antibiotics, insecticides, fungicides, alkaloids,
enzymes, and oils.
Virus-free plants have been obtained in sugarcane from meristem culture and
the plants regenerated direcdy from explants or indirectly from callus may also be
virus-free (George, 1996b). T h e apical meristem is the new undifferentiated tissue

390
 25 Tissue culture

at the microscopic tip of a shoot. It is virus-free even in diseased plants. It also

grows faster than the viruses. The cells from the apical meristem are removed
from the plant and placed in a culture they can grow in and produce healthy,
disease-free plants. This technique is known as meristem culture and often denoted
as tissue culture/micropropagation. It is worth noting that new growth is initiated
in meristem tissue which are undifferentiated cells that have not yet been
programmed for their ultimate development. Meristematic cells are located at the
tip of stem, roots in leaf axils, in stem as cambium, on leaf margins, and in callus
tissue. According to George (1996b), in sugarcane callus could be initiated from
the bases of leaves 1, 2, 3, and 4, preferably 1 and 2. This is expressly useful to
select new sugarcane varieties with disease resistance, yield associated characters,
sugar content and potential economic value. The medium commonly employed
is Murashige and Skoog (MS medium) medium with minor modifications. The
MS medium is supplemented with extra organic compounds, myo-inositol
(100 mg H ) , thiamine—HC1 (1 g l - 1 ), and casein -hydrolysate (400 mg l -1 ) for
better shoot formation. Further confirmation comes from the work of Hendre
and associates (1983) who demonstrated that sugarcane clones developed from
meristem culture are very similar both pheno- and genotypically to the mother
plant.

25.1

BASIC STEPS IN MICROPROPAGATION

The steps involved in micropropagation are depicted in Fig. 25.1. Essentially

plant propagation by tissue culture is devoted entirely to the laboratory method
of propagation. Plant material is taken from normal growing (in vivo) situation
and culture 'in vitro' (in glass or clear plastic vessels). When plant material comes
out of culture it is moved into ex vitro or extravitrum (outside glass) environment
and must once again become adapted to normal in vivo growth. Thus tissue cul-
ture is a much more rapid method of vegetative multiplication.

25.2

MAJOR ADVANTAGES OF TISSUE CULTURE

1. In vitro techniques are valuable for storage and exchange of germplasm.

391
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Fig. 2 5 . 1 T h e basic steps in micropropagation

2. Mass multiplication: Once multiplication gets under way it could be expo-

nential. O n e should expect the plants more than double each time they are
transferred. A single explant would give 1024 plants after 10 months and
2048 plants after 11 months. The multiplication rate in sugarcane is given
in Table 25.1 (Hendre et al., 1983).

Table 25.1 Multiplication rate in vitro culture

Source: Hendre et al., 1983.

392
 25 Tissue culture

The authors conclude that in about 4 months, 200,000 rooted plants are
obtained with 80% survival. T h e space required for producing 200,000
plants per year is 165 m 2 .
3. Utilization of minimum plant material: Cultures are started with very small
pieces of plants (explants) and thereafter small shoots or embryos are propa-
gated. This is important in sugarcane when 7—8 t ha - 1 seed material is used
for plants which can otherwise be used for milling.
4. Elimination of pathogens: Propagation is ideally carried out in aseptic condi-
tions free from pathogens. Plantlets finally produced should be free from
bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms. Certified virus-free plants can be
produced in large numbers.
5. Rapid production of plant material: The rate of propagation is much greater
than in macropropagation. This is ideally suited for newly released varieties
in sugarcane where plant to seed ratio is 1 : 10 or 1 : 12.
6. Multiplying plants that are difficult to propagate vegetatively: It would be pos-
sible to produce clones of some kinds of plants that otherwise are slow and
difficult (even impossible) to propagate vegetatively.
7. Clonal multiplication and uniformity: T h e clones can be multiplied without
any difficulty. The developed plantlets would be completely uniform.
8. Somatic hybridization: Hybrid plants can be developed by fusing protoplasts.
9. Tissue culture. Methods facilitate genetic engineering of plants. T h e tissues
like single cells, callus or any other plant material can be treated by
transformants and later they can be subjected to tests for evaluating genes
incorporated in vitro.
10. Natural alkaloids: Many secondary metabolites are of research value or
commercial importance such as pharmaceuticals, medicines, dyes, food
additives, natural flavours, fragrances, gums, and pesticides. T h e products are
conventionally extracted from a whole plant or parts of plants. Traditionally
the plants are field grown or they are collected in the wild where they are often
in short supply, limited by season and weather. T h e yield is unpredictable and
of questionable quality. The collection and removal can lead to extinction.
The application of plant tissue culture to growing cells, callus or plantlets for
the purpose of extracting secondary products is gaining importance.
11. Cryopreservation: Growing and maintenance of 'field gene banks' is an up-
hill task. In vitro conservation of plants or cryopreservation is an alternative

393
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

solution for the long time storage of cultures without changing the genetic
constitution.

25.3

RAPID M U L T I P U C A T I O N OF SUGARCANE BY TISSUE CULTURE

The formation of callus tissue in Saccharum without differentiation of plants was

first reported from Hawaii (Heinz and Mee, 1969). Roots and other organ -like
structures were formed only when dolopon was added to the medium in which
the callus was growing. T h e most rapid formation of callus tissue occurred on the
basal medium containing 3 ppm 2, 4-D and coconut water. Heinz and Mee (1969)
reported that the apices of shoots leaves and inflorescences formed callus within
2-4 weeks of explantation. Further the callus from H 37 —1993 cultivar developed
both roots and shoots on the medium whereas callus from H 5 Q -7209 developed
shoots with nominal roots. According to them differentiated plants were trans-
ferred to water culture for further development of roots and then potted in
vermiculite for subsequent growth.
Hendre et al. (1983) have reported that 8-month-old canes of Cv Co 740 were
selected and shoot apices were brought to the laboratory. Stem segments (15—20 mm)
containing meristem were excised and first rinsed with water containing a detergent,
and then treated with 3 0 % of a saturated chlorine water solution for 20 minutes. At
each step the explants were washed thoroughly with sterile water. Dissection of the
individual segments was then carried out in a sterile cabinet. The shoot tip (2-3
mm) containing the meristem dome and 2—4 leaf primordia were inoculated into
the tubes containing 20 ml of liquid basal media. Two main media were used, one
for shoot elongation and the other for shoot multiplication.
George (1996b) confirms that callus cultures are readily obtained from explants
excised from young expanding leaves, immature inflorescences, young roots, and
sections of stem near the growing point. T h e commonly employed medium is
Murashige and Skoog medium (MS medium) with minor modifications. For callus
initiation myo-inositol (100 mg 1_1) and thiamine—HCl (1 g H) are added. For
shoot regeneration, casein hydrolysate (400 mg I -1 ) is added to the medium. It is
safely recommended to supplement MS medium widi extra organic compounds.
Hendre et al. (op. cit.) asserted that the MS medium (MS-I) must contain
mineral salts, vitamins, coconut water (5%), gibberellic acid (0.1 mg 1-1)> and

394
 25 Tissue culture

indole-3 butyric acid (0.01 mg 1_1) for effective shoot elongation. The medium
for shoot multiplication (MS-II) also contains all mineral salts and vitamins, but
is supplemented with 0.1 mg l - 1 Kinetin (K), 0.2 mg l -1 benzyl aminopurine
(BAP) and 10% coconut water. The rooting medium contains salts and vitamins
and is supplemented with 0.2 mg l""1 of sodium molybdate and copper chloride.
All media are sterilized by autoclaving at 15 psi pressure for 20 minutes and steamed
for 30 minutes the next day.

T a b l e 2 5 . 2 Field data on clonally propagated sugarcane plants

Parameters

Plot size (m) 11x11

Spacing (m) lxl
No. of plants sown 83
Height of millable canes (m) 2.64
Number of canes per clump 18
Number of internodes per cane 30
Weight of individual canes (kg) 1.24
Number of canes per plot 1494
Source: Hendre et al., 1983.

Shoot tips (2—3 mm) after dissection were inoculated into tubes containing
20 ml of liquid MS-I medium. It has been reported by many that virus-free plants
can be obtained from meristem culture and plants regenerated directly from
explants or indirectly from callus may also be virus-free. Thus cultures were incu-
bated in a growth chamber at 20 °C with a 12-hour photoperiod of light intensity
800-1000 lux. After 15-20 days individual elongated shoot tips were transferred
to conical flasks containing 20 ml liquid MS—II medium. After another 15 days,
the shoot tips elongated and attained a height of 4 5 - 5 0 mm. Thus multiple shoots
were formed in the flask but did not develop roots. They were healthy. For root
initiation the shoots were separated individually and inoculated into the tubes
containing 20 ml rooting medium and supported on a filter paper platform. Within
15 days, a healthy root system with root hairs was formed. A few plants also
developed tillers. The rooted plants were washed with water, the adhering me-

395
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

dium was removed and the plants were then transferred to pots containing 1 : 1
mixture of sterile soil and vermiculite. Individual plants were covered with beak-
ers to maintain humidity and were kept for hardening at 25 °C under a light
intensity of 800—1000 lux for two weeks. They were then transferred to a glass
house. When they attained a height of 7—10 cm, they were transferred to the field
where their survival rate was 8 0 % (Hendre et al., 1983). The authors claim that
about 200,000 plants can be obtained in 6 months which is sufficient for planting
10 ha at a population density of 20,000 plants per ha. Field data showed that
clonally propagated plants were uniform with respect to height, number of
internodes, millable cane population, and weight per cane (Table 25.2).
It is inferred that this method could be highly valuable in sugarcane breeding
programmes for rapid multiplication of newly released varieties.

Box I

Tyndallization
T h e process of sterilization is called Tyndallization (after John Tyndall).
It is a tool useful for tissue culture in that it helps to determine the best
method of sterilizing media for growth of certain cultures. Through
tyndallization one can determine if it is preferable to use the boiled me-
d i u m or a m e d i u m more conventionally sterilized in an autoclave.
Autoclaving can cause problems because certain chemicals will degrade or
change under heat or pressure. Tyndall also constructed a chamber, die
first recorded forerunner of present day tissue culture hoods. These are
boxes or chambers in which cultures are transferred aseptically.

25.4-

SOME TERMINOLOGIES
(Source: Kyte and Kleyn, 1996)

1. Anther culture: In vitro cultures of anthers to obtain haploid plants.

2. Artificial seed: A somatic embryo that has been coated or encapsulated and
grown as true seed.

396
 25 Tissue culture

3. Bridge: A piece of filter paper or other device placed within a test tube of
liquid medium to hold the culture out of the liquid. Also known as rafts or
floats.
4. Callus: A proliferating mass of disorganised, mostly undifferentiated or un-
developed cells.
5. Callus culture: The multiplication of callus cells in sterile culture.
6. Cell culture: The multiplication in vitro of single cells or clumps of cells not
organized as tissues, often included in the broad term 'tissue culture'.
7. Cell suspension culture: The culture of single cells or clumps of cells sus-
pended in a liquid medium.
8. Embryo culture: In vitro culture of embryos excised from seeds or embryos
induced to form from somatic cells.
9. Meristem: Denotes microscopic shoot tip, usually under 1.5 mm and con-
taining one or two leaf primordia, used as explant.
10. Meristem culture: In vitro culture of meristematic tissue; also misused more
broadly to denote micropropagation.
11. Micropropagation: Propagation on a very small scale. Vegetative multipli-
cation in vitro. It is used interchangeably with the terms 'tissue culture' or in
vitro culture.
12. Mycorrhiza: A fungus that associates usually symbiotically with plant roots.
13. Organogenesis: The formation of organs such as leaves, shoots, or roots
from cells or tissues.
14. Secondary product: A product of plant metabolism that is not primarily
related to growth and reproduction, such as medicinals, flavourings, dyes,
pesticides, etc.
15. Somatic embryogenesis: The formation of embryos from somatic cells.
16. Sport: A plant or plant part that has undergone mutation.
17. Stages of culture: Stage — establishment, Stage II—multiplication, Stage
III—rooting, Stage IV—acclimatization.
18. Tissue culture: Literally, the culture of individual tissues but usually used
more broadly to indicate micropropagation or in vitro propagation.
19. Totipotence: The capability of a cell to develop into a whole plant.
20. Transfer chamber or hood: A protected, enclosed area with a sterile atmos-
phere in which cultures are started, divided, trimmed, and then transferred
using sterile technique.

397
1
What ails the sugar industry?

Two or three years of surplus sugar are followed by an year of acute shortage of
sugar in the country. In fact it is a surplus-shortage merry-go-round. The industry
is in a state of flux and needs a pragmatic approach to come out of the snafu.
Some fire-fighting approaches are made but no long-term measures are in sight.
T h e author admits that it is not possible to reduce the complex issues of the sugar
industry into 'one-liners'. T h e major causes which make the industry sick are:
i) Full capacity utilization is not made. T h e industry should run for a minimum
period of 180 days in subtropical India and 240 days in the tropical belt,
ii) High initial capital cost for machinery and spares,
iii) High sugar conversion cost due to high cost of chemicals,
iv) High cost of raw material. The price of sugarcane is much higher than the state
advised price. There is an urgent need to reduce unit cost of production by
vertical yield expansion, i.e. yield per hectare needs to be doubled. A 12/13-
month crop is more profitable than the adsali crop (18 months). Leguminous
intercrops not only provide additional revenue but also help in sustainable high
production. Biomass diversification includes planting of trees such as Casuarina,
Sesbania, and Acacia, as border rows. This is a vital part of agro-forestry. These
trees have 'open canopy' and do not adversely affect the yield and quality of the
cane. They also provide fodder and fuel besides reducing the lodging of cane.
Cordage crop like Mesta {Hibiscus cannabinus) and Roselle (H. subdarijfa) of
the Malvaceae family can also be grown as strip crop/intercrop to provide excel-
lent fibre. It is a total substitute for bamboo and mesta/Kenafpulp can be blended
at 2 5 % to manufacture newsprint and other special papers.
v) Exorbitant project costs for expansion and new installations, the imposition of
duties and government control on sales makes the industry financially nonviable,
vi) T h e production cost of sugar in India is very high and hence our sugar indus-
try cannot compete in the international market.
Diversification of sugarcane to produce value-added products such as paper,
biofuels, cogeneration of power, etc. (valued at US$ 8000 per ton of raw material)
would make the industry economically viable and sustainable.
So sugar-paper-alcohol-power complexes can be established to produce myriad
products of commercial value. Manufacturing life-saving drugs like human insu-
lin (to name just one) from sugarcane would be first in the list of priorities. Sugar-
paper-alcohol-power complexes would also serve as a nucleus in rural areas for
rapid socio-economic change.

398
 Processing of sugarcane into white sugar
B. S. Gurumurthy, Sugar Technologist, Bangalore

A major portion of the sugar in the world is produced from sugarcane although
sugar beet is also used as raw material for the manufacture of sugar in certain parts
of the world. The use of sugarcane for the manufacture of sugar is said to have
been known to mankind even in the Vedic days.
Sugarcane is generally about 7 0 % water, 1 5 % fibrous material and the balance
is dissolved solids. While the detailed analysis of the constituents of cane does not
come under the scope of this chapter, the approximate analysis is given below.

Sugarcane 100%
Water 70 to 7 3 %
Fibre 12 to 1 5 %
Sugar 12 to 14%
Dissolved non-sugar solids 2 to 3%
In extreme cases there would be even wider variations, depending upon the age
and varieties of cane and also the climatic factors like temperatures, humidity, etc.
T h e processing of sugarcane obviously should incorporate efficient steps to
extract the sugar while eliminating the water, fibre and the non-sugar solids. It is
again obvious that at each stage of the process while the other constituents are
eliminated, they carry a certain amount of sugar also. Hence the process has to be
designed to keep at a minimum the sugar losses occurring through the exit of
water, fibre and the non-sugar solids.
As mentioned earlier, sugarcane has about 7 0 % water; the entire quantity of
water has to be evaporated expending a huge quantity of steam. This process
needs to take into consideration the various steps to be incorporated for achieving
maximum economy in the use of steam. Modern sugar factories have updated
their technology not only to produce better quality sugar, but also to improve the
efficiency to extract more sugar from the available sugar in the cane. Modern
sugar mills also adopt energy efficient technologies and systems to generate sur-
plus power and sell the same using the same available fuel, namely, bagasse. Equip-
ment designs have also improved for achieving the above.

399
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

T h e water evaporated during the process of sugar manufacture is condensed

back and collected at different stages and recycled beneficially, thereby reducing
the intake of freshwater and also minimising the generation of liquid effluents.
Following are the main unit operations involved in manufacturing sugar from
sugarcane:
1. Extracting of juice from sugarcane
2. Clarification of cane juice
3. Evaporation of water
4. Crystallisation in vacuum pans
5. Crystallisation in motion
6. Centrifuging
7. Sugar drying, grading and packing and storing

27.1

EXTRACTION OF JUICE FROM SUGARCANE

The sugar (sucrose) in cane is in the dissolved state and hence in the form of juice.
The juice containing in it both sugar and non-sugar solids is held tight inside
millions of tiny cells spread across the cross-section of the sugarcane.
For extraction of the juice from cane it would be necessary to rupture or break
these cells. Heavy duty preparatory devices, consisting of a number of rotating
knives with hardened edges are used to prepare the cane. Generally two or three
such sets of knives are used. These knives not only cut and disintegrate the cane
into smaller and thinner pieces, but also rupture and open the cells holding the
juices to facilitate easy and better extraction of juice.

27.1.1 Milling

The cane prepared as above is passed through a series of mills for extraction of
juice. T h e mills generally consist of three rollers with grooves, two rollers being
placed below and the third roller on the top of the two bottom rollers. T h e pre-
pared cane is passed through these rollers. A heavy hydraulic load is applied on
the top roller and the prepared cane is pressed while passing through twice be-
tween the top and the two bottom rollers. T h e juice extracted flows down the two
bottom rollers through the grooves and is collected in the gutter placed below the

400
 27 Processing of sugarcane into white sugar

mills. It is a normal practice now to install one more roller called underfeed roller
which facilitates uniform and good feeding of prepared cane into the mill.
Generally there would be 4 to 6 such mills in the milling tandem depending
upon the desired capacity and size of the mill rollers. The prepared cane is passed
through all the mills one by one in succession to complete the extraction process.
T h e size of the mill is generally expressed by the roller length and diameter, and
decided depending upon the desired installed capacity. For example, a milling
tandem designed to crush about 100-120 tons cane/day would have rollers of size
900 mm dia and 1800 mm length and four mills, each of three regular rollers and
one underfeed roller. The crushing capacity can be increased by 5 0 % by adding
two more similar mills to the tandem. Beyond six mills in the tandem is not
found useful and hence any further increase in capacity should be considered only
with increase in size of the mill rollers.

27.1.2 Imbibition
W h e n the prepared cane is crushed in the mill, the juice so extracted flows down
through the roller grooves and the residue which is called 'bagasse' comes out of
the discharge roller which is guided to the next mill for successive extraction. The
bagasse coming out of the mill would have been substantially exhausted of the
juice and would be partially dry. This bagasse is made wet by adding dilute juice
or water before subjecting it to successive crushing in the next mill. This process
is called imbibition.
To avoid the use of too much of water (which will have to be evaporated in
processing subsequently), the addition of water is restricted to only before last
mill. T h e dilute juice from the last mill is used for imbibition before the penulti-
mate mill and so on. Hence the dilute juices are recycled in the counter current
direction. T h e concentrated juice from the Mill-I is called primary juice and the
juice coming out of the Mill-II is called secondary juice. Both these juices are
mixed together (mixed juice or raw juice) and sent for further processing.
Often, hot water at a temperature of 60 °C to 70 °C is used for imbibition to
improve the extraction. Higher temperatures than the above have shown better
results in terms of extraction, but pose problems like polishing up rollers and
causing slippage. Very high temperatures are said to have caused higher wax ex-
traction resulting in problems in clarification of juice. About 60 °C is generally
found to be optimum.

401
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

The quantity of water added is normally decided as a compromise between the

extraction of sugar and the cost of evaporating the added water. Higher the water
addition, higher is the recycling of dilute juices for imbibition in the penultimate
mills and higher is the extraction of sugar in all the mills after the Mill-I in the
tandem. T h e extraction in the Mill-I is directly proportional to the degree of
preparation of cane (the degree of opening of cells).
The incremental extraction due to imbibition depends not only on the quan-
tum and the temperature of water, but also on the method of application of the
water on the 'bagasse mat' coming out of the mill. Different engineers use differ-
ent application methods depending upon the conditions to achieve good results.
However, whatever method is used, the objective is to achieve a good admixture
of water into the bagasse and preferably to allow some time after the addition of
water, before subjecting it to crushing in the next mill. Uniformity in application
in proportion to the bagasse flowing is also an important factor. Generally it is
believed that more water is needed to be added in case of cane with higher fibre
content. Hence internationally the practice is to measure the added water in terms
of "added water percent fibre". T h e author is of the opinion that the added water
must also be in proportion to the sugar content in the prepared cane or in the
bagasse. Higher sugar or higher concentrated cane juice entering the mill needs
more water to be diluted to maintain a uniform residual sugar level in the bagasse.
The added water quantity is linked with the fibre content probably with the as-
sumption that the fibre-juice ratio is maintained constant in the mill after extrac-
tion. But the factor of concentration of the residual juice is ignored. A higher
concentration of juice needs higher added water for dilution.
In practice, all over the world the added water is generally fixed on cane and/or
fibre. T h e modern practice is to add water to the extent of 300% fibre, which is
generally accepted as a balance between extraction and the cost of evaporation of
added water.
Addition of imbibition water is often determined by the concentration (brix)
of the last expressed juice (the juice that is coming out of the discharge roller of
the last mill.) Depending upon the operating conditions, evaporation capabili-
ties, and the primary juice concentration, the mill engineer fixes his own standard
for the brix of the last expressed juice. Whatever the parameters that are followed,
the ultimate objective is to achieve as low a sugar content as possible in the final
bagasse.

402
 27 Processing of sugarcane into white sugar

Besides good preparation of cane and optimum imbibition water, certain other
factors also affect the efficiency of the operation of the milling tandem (Milling
operation). These are briefly mentioned below.

Mill feeding
T h e feeding of the prepared cane into the mills should be uniform and to the full
capacity of the mills. To facilitate optimum and uniform feeding, the individual
mills are equipped with additional facilities like Doneilly Chutes (a positive feed-
ing device) and also pressure feeders. While the Doneilly chute offers a positive
head, the pressure feeders help forced feeding into the mill. Doneilly chute also
helps to maintain uniform feeding across the roller width.
T h e pressure feeder is nothing but an additional roller either grooved or teethed.
The diameter of this roller varies from 6 0 % to 100% of the diameter of the mill
rollers. T h e pressure feed rollers are generally called underfeed rollers. T h e under-
feed roller together with the Doneilly chute will facilitate a uniform and opti-
m u m feeding rate.

Roller arching
During the course of continuous working, the roller surface gets polished causing
slippage and reduced 'grip' of the rollers on the bagasse mat. To counter this
effect, the tips of the roller grooves are roughened at frequent intervals by 'arch-
ing' of the tips of the roller grooves. Special welding rods are available for this
purpose. Arching will improve the grip. T h e frequency of the arching depends
upon the roller polishing which depends upon the temperature of imbibition
water, wax content in the cane, crushing rate, etc. All the rollers are arched while
installing and also during shutdowns, etc. The underfeed rollers, top rollers and
often discharge rollers are arched even while running, if necessary.

Hydraulic load
T h e top roller on each mill is provided with a floating arrangement and a hydrau-
lic system which applies pressure on the top roller uniformly on both ends. The
arrangement has a facility to increase or decrease the hydraulic load on each mill.
T h e hydraulic load helps in improving the mill extraction. T h e load factor is

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decided by the mill engineer taking into consideration the desired rate of crush-
ing, extraction, and applicable load on each mill. Normally the load applied on
the top roller is about 200 ton/metre of roller length.

Mill grooves
The rollers are grooved to achieve a good grip on the cane or bagasse mat. Groov-
ing also helps in better squeezing because of the differential surface speed across
the surface of the grooves. Further the grooving helps drainage of the extracted
juice. All the above factors will together help maintaining optimum crushing rate
and extraction level.
The size and type of grooving are an individual engineer's choice. A number of
options are available with regard to depth and angle of the grooves. Often differ-
ential angle groovings (different angles for top and bottom rollers) are also used.
The selection of the grooving size and angle is a compromise between the crush-
ing rate and the efficiency. Generally deeper and wider groovings are preferred for
achieving higher rate of crushing. Also the grooving size is required to be bigger
(deeper and wider) in the primary mill; it reduces towards the last mill. The grooving
size also increases with the increase in diameter of the rollers.

Mill settings
The gap between the rollers which is set by the engineer, and can also be adjusted
as desired, plays a significant role in achieving the crushing capacity and effi-
ciency. The power consumption by each mill also varies with the settings. Differ-
ent settings are set between the top and feed rollers, the top and discharge rollers
and the top and trash plate (a specially designed plate fitted between the feed and
discharge rollers for conveying the prepared cane or bagasse forward from the feed
roller to the discharge roller). The settings also vary from Mill-I to the last Mill.
Wider settings are necessary for the first mill and would have to be narrowed
down towards the last mill gradually. Similarly feed roller gaps are set wider than
discharge roller gaps and the trash plate gap is even wider. All the openings (set-
tings) between the rollers and trash plate are to be set with some proportions and
ratios to be decided by the mill engineers.
There are certain mill designs, where the ratios between the openings are main-
tained constant (constant ratio mills)

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 27 Processing of sugarcane into white sugar

Mill speeds
The speed of the mill is judiciously fixed often as a compromise between the rate
of crushing and efficiency. Higher speed permits higher rate of crushing whereas
lower speed facilitates more contact time, better squeezing and better drainage of
juice, and thereby helps improving the efficiency. At the same time increasing the
speed beyond a certain limit will increase the slippage and it becomes counter-
productive. Generally the roller speed is fixed at 4 to 6 rpm depending upon the
roller size, groovings, crushing, rate, number of mills in the tandem, etc. Often
the speed is also measured in terms of the peripheral speed of the rollers and about
12 to 15 m/minute is maintained.

Mill performance
The milling tandem has two performance parameters—crushing rate and effi-
ciency. In addition to these, the power consumption is also significant. Hence the
overall performance of the milling tandem is judged by the rate of crushing and
also the efficiency in terms of juice extraction percentage at optimum power con-
sumption. As the crushing rate has to match the capacities of the sugar processing
house, each milling tandem is designed to handle a certain rate of crushing that is
fixed as optimum capacity.
Generally operations are to be directed to achieve maximum efficiency of the
mill in terms of juice extraction or in terms of keeping the sugar loss in bagasse as
low as possible.
If the operating parameters like preparation of cane, uniform and optimum
feeding, hydraulic load on rollers, mill speed, imbibition rate, and admixture are
at an optimum level, the sugar content in the final bagasse would be minimum.
This will ensure maximum efficiency in terms of extraction.
The mill extraction is expressed as the sugar extraction in mixed juice percent
sugar in cane.

Mill extraction = (sugar in mixed juice % cane /sugar percent cane) x 100

T h e operating conditions being uniform the mill extraction varies with vary-
ing fibre content. Hence for comparison between the performance of different
mills, the actual mill extraction is reduced to a standard figure calculated on the
basis of a standard assumed figure of 12.5% fibre. This is called reduced mill
extraction.

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Similarly it is also found that the operating conditions being the same, the mill
extraction varies with the sugar content in the cane. Hence a similar standard for
sugar content in cane is also set at 12.5% and the actual mill extraction is reduced
to standard mill extraction on the basis of 12.5% sugar in cane.
During normal operations the milling efficiency is measured only by the sugar
(pol) percent in bagasse. T h e moisture in bagasse is also another factor affecting
the efficiency. Higher moisture in bagasse indicates higher juice going out in ba-
gasse and higher sugar. T h e bagasse is analysed for sugar and moisture content
every four hours during operation, whereas the mill extraction is calculated only
once at the end of the day.
For more frequent monitoring the brix of the last expressed juice is analysed
every hour as this is a simpler and less time-consuming analysis.
For a more detailed study, particularly when the desired results are not achieved,
a study is made of the performance of individual mills and also of the individual
rollers (feed and discharge) by plotting brix curves. A critical study of the brix
curves will indicate which of the mills in the tandem is inefficient and further
study will reveal which of the rollers, whether feed or discharge is inefficient.
Generally a slight adjustment in the settings will remove the defects.
Similarly the brix analysis of the juices from individual rollers and the com-
bined juice of any particular mill will help in working out the proportion of juice
extraction from each roller and assessing the imbibition efficiency-—the degree of
admixture of imbibition water or juice with the bagasse mat. Normally, the ex-
traction in the feed and discharge rollers is in the ratio of 3 : 1. A ratio of 0.8
between the brixes of feed roller juice and the combined juice, and a ratio of 1.2
between discharge roller juice and the combined juice indicate good performance
of any particular mill.
T h e poor performance of any particular mill if indicated on both the feed and
discharge sides would generally be attributable to inadequate or improper hy-
draulic load (unless all the settings are open more).
A good milling performance needs good cane preparation followed by primary
extraction. The preparation of cane is measured by the preparatory index which
indicates the percentage of broken cells in the prepared cane. With modern heavy
duty preparatory devices, a preparatory index of 80 and above is achieved.
The primary extraction is calculated by analysing the primary bagasse for sugar
and moisture contents. T h e primary extraction is also calculated by analysis of the

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brixes of primary juice, secondary juice, and mixed juice. The primary extraction
indicates the sugar extracted in primary juice percent sugar in cane. A good primary
mill with good preparatory index will yield a primary extraction of about 8 0 % .

Mill drives

T h e earlier practice was to run the mills with steam turbines through a reduction
gear system. This is followed by most sugar mills even today, they being earlier
installations. To save initial investment and also the maintenance cost, normally
one turbine would run two mills with appropriate gearing arrangements. Of course,
in bigger size mills individual turbines are installed. But being smaller in size, the
turbines are essentially single stage turbines and less efficient as compared to multi
stage turbines.
T h e modern practice is to generate electricity using thermal efficient multistage
turbines in a central power house and adopt electrical drives for all other applica-
tions. This system improves the overall thermal efficiency, thereby making avail-
able surplus thermal energy which is gainfully employed for generation of surplus
power as a by-product.
But still, the turbine as mill drive has been very popular because of its advan-
tages like trouble-free running, simplicity of operation, ease of speed control,
capacity to absorb impact loads, flexibility to handle variable loads, h i g h starting
torque, etc.
Nowadays, with the idea of generation of surplus power catching up, more
emphasis is laid on energy efficient equipment and technologies. Mill drives be-
ing the major power consuming units, attracted the special attention of the engi-
neers for application of more efficient drives for mills.
Development of electronic technology for conversion of AC power to DC power
gave rise to the use of DC motors to run the mill as mill drives which facilit?ted
variation of speed as easily as in turbines. Further in case of DC motors the speed
reduction stages are less and instrumentation is easier. Use of DC motors for mill
drives facilitated installation of large size multi-stage efficient turbines in the power
house and running of all other drives on electrical power, thereby introducing a
high level of efficiency and enabling generation of substantial quantity of surplus
power.
Lately, DC motors are being replaced by hydraulic motors. T h e hydraulic drive
system primarily consists of a power pack with very high pressures of 20O-300 bar.

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T h e pressure is transmitted through oil to the hydraulic motors mounted directly

on the mill rollers. T h e system makes redundant the entire gear system thereby
avoiding the power loss due to transmission. This system saves place, and makes
maintenance simple and cheaper. Even the tail bar can be avoided. Opinions of
engineers differ with regard to power saving as compared to DC motors. Power
consumption per ton of fibre has not shown any significant saving in certain
installations of hydraulic drive; however, there is no second opinion regarding the
saving in place, civil cost, and simplicity in maintenance.

Low pressure mill

Basically the mill consisted of only three rollers—top, feed, and discharge rollers,
with two pressings. Subsequently, underfeed rollers were added to improve feed-
ing although this increased power consumption. There are examples of two un-
derfeed rollers with extraction also. There are a few examples of three rollers prior
to the original mill. Here there is one inverted mill over the mill. Each mill con-
sists of six rollers. While such arrangements may help the expansion of existing
units, the system becomes very complicated posing serious maintenance prob-
lems. T h e power consumption also increases in this system as there would be
substantial power loss in the movement of the bagasse mat between the rollers.
A new system called 'low pressure milling' is under experimentation. Instead of
multiplication of rollers in a single mill, there are only two rollers in each mill
without any trash plate; and there are a series of such mills in a tandem. In this
system, imbibition plays a more significant role, and the pressure plays a com-
paratively lesser role, thereby making the extraction process more refined. Only in
the last mill there are three rollers for dewatering or reducing the moisture.
T h e two-roller-milling system has a number of advantages like energy saving,
absence of trash plates, saving in power, and simplicity in maintenance.

Mill sanitation
From the time the cane is harvested, it is exposed to the attack of the microorgan-
isms. M a n y types of microorganisms are found to be present in the cut cane. It is
desirable to crush the harvested cane with least loss of time. The microorganisms
cause inversion of sugar and thus deteriorate the cane. The rate of deterioration
increases with time.

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In the milling station these organisms multiply and cause loss of sugar. Further
the inversion of sugar brings down the pH of the juice, thereby promoting chemi-
cal inversion. If unchecked, the losses would be enormous. The attack and growth
of microorganisms in the milling stations are arrested by treatment with biocides.
Different biocides are used for this purpose. Often chemicals like sulphur dioxide
and ammonium bifluorides are found effective and inexpensive. Many branded
chemicals and biocides are available which are very effective but expensive. These
chemicals are added in the form of a dilute solution, continuously, preferably at
two points—at last mill juice gutter and secondary juice gutter. The microorgan-
isms get killed in the process when the juice is subjected to high temperatures.
However there is no substitute for good housekeeping in the mill station. The
entire mill house is to be washed at least once in 4 hours either with steam or hot
water—preferably with a jet of hot water. The bagasse and bagacilo accumulation
in nooks and corners in the mill house would become an ideal home for the
growth of microorganisms. Hence a good wash with a jet of hot water will mini-
mise the growth. The leaks of juice and the stagnation of sugar bearing materials
in the entire factory should be avoided, to avoid the growth of microorganisms.
Proper housekeeping and mill sanitation are very important and significant
and if neglected may lead to substantial sugar loss in addition to creating serious
process problems.

27.1.3 Juice weighing

The weighing of juice has a significance, in the sense, that it helps to know how
much sugar has been extracted into juice from the given quantity of cane (from
the given quantity of sugar in the cane). This enables the working out of the actual
mill extraction every day or in any given time.
Further it also enables working out of the process efficiency. The mixed juice
becomes the input into the process. The sugar produced out of the sugar present
in the given quantity of mixed juice indicates the efficiency of the boiling house.

27.2

CLARIFICATION PROCESS

The cane juice as extracted from the mill contains about 85% water. It may be a
little less or a little more depending upon the quantity of added water used in the

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mill. It contains about 1 1 % to 13% sugar and about 2 to 3% of dissolved non-

sugar solids. Besides it contains suspended impurities to the extent of 0.3 to 0.4%.
It will be in the form of a turbid greenish liquid with a pH about 5-5.
T h e objective of clarification is qualitative rather than quantitative. T h e clari-
fication should result in a juice which is neutral (pH 7.0), clear and transparent,
with a light colour. During the process, all the suspended impurities are elimi-
nated, most of the colouring matter is removed, some of the non-sugar solids are
precipitated out and removed by settling, while the sugar (sucrose) and the reduc-
ing sugars (glucose and fructose) are kept intact. Hence the functions are many. A
number of physical and chemical reactions are involved in the clarification proc-
ess. A detailed discussions on the reactions involved is beyond the scope of this
book.
An attempt is made only to present a brief description.
T h e process followed depends upon the quality of the final product. Generally
two types of sugar are manufactured in a sugar factory: (1) raw sugar (2) white
sugar (direct consumption white sugar).

27.2.1 Clarification process for manufacturing raw sugar

T h e raw sugar is manufactured as an intermediate stage for producing refined
sugar. T h e refined sugar is a finer quality sugar with lesser impurities, slightly
brighter in colour when compared to white sugar. The raw sugar is sent to refiner-
ies where it is subjected to a refining process to produce refined sugar. Thus raw
sugar is not as pure as white sugar. It contains a thin film of molasses embedded in
the crystals. T h e clarification of juice for producing raw sugar also differs from
that followed for white sugar manufacture. The raw sugar is slightly brownish in
colour not only due to the molasses content but also due to the fact that the juice
clarification does not involve sulphur dioxide gas a bleaching agent.

Defecation process
This process is used especially for the production of raw sugar. It is very simple;
the juice is heated to about 70 °C, and calcium hydroxide in the form of milk of
lime is added to the heated juice to raise the pH of the juice from about 5-5 to
7.6—7.8. After a few minutes retention period, the treated juice is again heated to
100 °C+ and p u m p e d into a continuous clarifier. A retention time of about 21/2 to

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 27 Processing of sugarcane into white sugar

3 hours is given in the clarifier during which time the precipitated flocks settle
down. The clear transparent juice is decanted for further processing. The sedi-
ment from the bottom is pumped through a rotary vacuum filter. The filtrates are
re-circulated back into the process and the filtered mud is thrown out. The filter
mud is used as organic manure in the fields. The filtrates are generally re-circu-
lated by mixing them either with mixed juice or treated juice. The clear juice goes
to evaporators for concentration.
During heating and addition of calcium hydroxide, and again heating, a number
of calcium salts are precipitated, the predominant salt being calcium phosphate.
If the cane juice is deficit in phosphate content, that is made up by additions of
phosphate, either in the form of phosphoric acid or super phosphate solution.
Phosphate in the mixed juice ensures formation of calcium phosphate flocs which
absorb and adsorb colloidal particles and small precipitates, resulting in better
and faster sedimentation and clearer juice.
Certain polymeric compounds are used in small doses as settling aids—being
added to the juice just before it enters the clarifier. These chemicals aid quicker
settling and also help in sedimentation of the colloidal particles.

27.2.2 Clarification process for manufacturing white sugar

White sugar demands a better degree of clarification. More impurities, particu-

larly colouring matter, need to be eliminated in the clarification process. Besides,
the juice needs to be treated with some bleaching agents which remove colour
partially, making the resultant clarified juice light coloured and transparent.
The agents used for clarification are heat, milk of lime (calcium hydroxide),
sulphur dioxide gas, phosphoric acid, etc. Use of carbon dioxide gas is also in
vogue in some old sugar mills as bleaching agent in place of or in addition to
sulphur dioxide gas. However most, factories which are using carbon dioxide are
slowly abandoning the process and changing over to sulphur dioxide. Hence the
use of carbon dioxide is not dealt with here.

Double sulphitation process

This is the standard process followed in all most all sugar factories manufacturing
direct consumption white sugar. Recently there has been some opposition to this
process with claims that there would be remnants of sulphur in the final product

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—direct consumption white sugar. However, it is found that with proper care
taken during the process, it is possible to maintain the sulphur content in the final
product within the permissible limit.
This process is one of the cheapest and simplest and is ideally suited for devel-
oping countries. The improvement achieved in terms of purity by the refining
process over the direct consumption white sugar is very marginal, but the refining
process is very expensive and the high cost is not justified except where higher
purity sugar is preferred like in pharmaceuticals, soft drink industry, etc.
T h e double sulphitation process is followed in different permutations and com-
binations, like cold liming, hot liming, pre-liming, pre-sulphitation, etc. Only
the most common practice is explained below.
The juice after weighing is heated to about 70 °C in juice heaters and then
subjected to simultaneous liming and sulphitation in a treatment tank. Normally
the juice enters the tank through a scrubber placed above the tank so that the juice
scrubs off the excessive S 0 2 gas escaping from the tank. Then the juice is guided
to the bottom of the tank through a fairly large diameter pipe during which the
milk of lime is added. At the bottom of the tank there is a network of pipes
through which S 0 2 gas is bubbled. T h u s the juice is first limed and immediately
after, it is sulphited. Some technologists prefer to add milk of lime and S O . gas
simultaneously at the bottom of the tank. T h e exact point of addition of milk of
lime is the choice of individual technologists. However the most preferred prac-
tice is to increase the pH first to about 8.0 and then sulphite to about 7.2 p H ,
leaving a time gap of a few seconds between liming and sulphitation. In the case
of refractory juices, the liming is done even beyond 8.0 pH to achieve good clari-
fication. In such cases the consumption of lime and sulphur increases. Thus the
quantity of lime and sulphur used depends on the initial pH to which the juice is
raised from its original p H , which again depends upon the quality of juice, and
sometimes upon the decision of the technologist. Very high p H , often, results in
darker coloured juice though of good clarity, and also in harder scale formation in
die evaporator vessels in subsequent boiling.
It is a general practice to control the pH of the juice—after liming and sulphi-
tation—by automatic pH control systems. Instrumentation and control systems
are available for controlling both lime addition and S 0 2 .
T h e milk of lime is prepared by slaking C a O (burnt lime) with water in a lime
slaker. T h e grit is removed and thrown out and the lime water—called the milk of

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lime is stored in a tank after passing it through a classifier. The milk of lime is
stirred continuously. The concentration is maintained constant at about 15° brix.
The sulphur dioxide gas is continuously produced in specially made sulphur
burners. The sulphur burner consists of a melter in which the sulphur is pre-
loaded and kept in molten condition. The molten sulphur is fed into the burner,
either continuously or batch by batch. Compressed air is blown into the burner.
The sulphur is converted into sulphur dioxide gas which is carried through a
scrubber and bubbled through the limed juice in the juice treatment tank. T h e
temperature of S 0 2 gas is controlled at the burner itself and subsequently it is also
cooled by passing it through water jacketed pipes to avoid sublimation and for-
mation of sulphur trioxide. The sulphur dioxide becomes sulphurous acid w i t h
moisture in the juice and the sulphurous acid forms calcium sulphite, after react-
ing with calcium hydroxide in the juice liming-sulphitation tank. The calcium
sulphite precipitate settles down easily in the clarifier.
The treated juice after treatment with milk of lime and sulphur dioxide gas, is
heated again up to 100 °C+, and sent to specially designed clarifiers where a reten-
tion period of about 2V2 h is allowed. In the clarifier, the precipitates that are
formed during liming, sulphitation and heating are allowed to settle down a n d
the sediment is collected at the bottom of each tray of the multi-tray clarifier. T h e
clarifier is designed to work continuously with proper arrangements for entry of
juice at the centre and multiple withdrawal at the periphery. Short circuiting a n d
formation of dead packets are kept at a minimum.
Cane juice contains a certain amount of phosphate in it. It is generally in t h e
order of 200 to 300 ppm. The phosphate in the form of phosphoric acid reacts
with calcium hydroxide to form a heavy calcium phosphate precipitate. T h e cal-
cium phosphate absorbs colloidal particles and forms thick floes and facilitates
quick sedimentation in the clarifier and improves the clarity of the decanted clear
juice. If the phosphate in the mixed juice is found to be wanting (less than 3 0 0
ppm), it is generally made up by the addition of phosphoric acid into the mixed
juice in a measured dose.
Besides, certain high molecular weight polymeric compounds are also used as
settling aids. A number of polymeric chemicals with brand names are available in
the market. Some of them are more effective in acidic medium and some of t h e m
in alkaline medium. But most of them are moderately effective around neutral
pH. The settling aids are generally used in small doses, in the order of 1 to 2 p p m .
In the case of refractory juices slightly higher doses are added.

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T h e clarifier consists of a flocculating chamber and generally four chambers.

T h e juice enters into each chamber and is withdrawn from each chamber. The
sediments settled down at the bottom cone of each chamber are also withdrawn
severally. The outside surface of the clarifier is well insulated to avoid loss of
temperature of juice inside the clarifier.
Specially designed single tray clarifiers are also working with good results. The
retention time in such clarifiers is claimed to be about one hour. However their
use in white sugar manufacture is uncommon.

27.2.3 Filtration of sediments

The sediment settled in each compartment is generally called 'mud' or muddy

juice. The muddy juice is withdrawn on a continuous basis, (some prefer to draw
it in batches) and filtered through rotary vacuum filters. Before taking it to the
filter, it is mixed with the fine powder of bagasse called bagacillro which acts as a
filter medium. Bagacillro is collected by screening the bagasse while the bagasse is
moving to the boiler station from the mill, and blown through a blower into a
mixer where it is mixed with the muddy juice. T h e muddy juice from the mixer is
allowed to flow into the trough of the filter.
The drum filter is installed above the trough, with the bottom position of the
drum being immersed in the muddy juice in the trough. As the vacuum filter
drum rotates, the filtrate is sucked through a network of pipelines and the mud
adheres as a thick layer on the screen of the drum. The layer is washed with a spray
of water to reduce the traces of sugar in the m u d and the washed liquor is also
recycled back for processing. The mud layer is scraped continuously and removed.
This mud is generally used as a fertiliser after composting for about 60 to 90 days.
Recently, technologies have been developed to convert the m u d into a
biofertiliser—a value-added product along with the distillery effluents. Attempts
are also being made to produce biogas out of filter mud.

27.3

EVAPORATION OF WATER

The clear decanted juice from the clarifier which is generally called as clarified
juice would be having about 13 to 1 5 % solids; the balance is water. The entire

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 27 Processing of sugarcane into white sugar

water is to be evaporated before the sugar is crystallised out. T h e evaporation is

done in two stages. In the first stage, the evaporation is carried out until t h e s o l i d
content is about 60 to 6 5 % . In the second stage, further evaporation is carried o u t
in a controlled manner when crystallisation takes place.
The first stage of evaporation is done in a multiple-effect evaporator s y s t e m .
The multiple evaporator system offers two great advantages. It results in g r e a t
steam economy. T h e steam economy increases with the increase in the effects in
the system. In a triple effect, the steam consumption is roughly one third a n d in a
quadruple effect it is one fourth and so on, when compared to the steam c o n -
sumption in a single effect evaporator.
Another advantage of using multiple effect for evaporation is that t h e s y s t e m
allows boiling of the juice in partial vacuum and hence at a lower t e m p e r a t u r e .
The boiling temperatures are lower in successive effects, the lowest being in t h e
last effect where the concentration of the juice is the highest. T h e sugar s o l u t i o n
cannot withstand high temperatures, particularly at higher concentrations.
The last effect is connected to a condenser where the vapours are drawn a n d
condensed. T h e continuous condensation of vapour by spraying cold water creates
a vacuum inside the last effect to the extent of about 650 mm (mercury) w i t h t h e
corresponding boiling temperature of about 55 °C. Depending upon the d r a w a l of
vapour and its condensation in the calandrias, the partial pressure ( v a c u u m ) is
maintained in other effects with corresponding temperatures. T h e total p r e s s u r e
difference and hence the temperature difference (which is the driving force), b e t w e e n
the calandria of the first effect and the vapour space of the last effect gets d i s t r i b u t e d
between the effects depending upon the vapour withdrawal. In a straight e v a p o r a t o r
set, the steam consumed is equal to roughly the total quantity of water e v a p o r a t e d
divided by the number of effects in the set. This also means that the evaporation is
roughly equal in all the effects. With the given heating surface and the heat transfer
coefficient in each effect, the temperature difference (At) between the effects g e t s
adjusted to keep the evaporation equal in all the effects.

3.1 Vapour bleeding

To further economise on the total steam consumption, extensive vapour b l e e d i n g

is resorted to, which means withdrawal of vapours from different effects of e v a p o -
rators for the purpose of juice heating and pan boiling. Instead of using e x h a u s t
steam in juice heaters and pan boiling, vapours from the effects III, II a n d I of t h e

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evaporator set, are used. In modern sugar mills the entire pan boiling is done
using vapour from the effect II. The raw juice heating is done out of vapour from
the effect III and the treated juice heating is done by the vapours of effects II and
I in two stages. This is possible in the case of quadruple and quintuple effect
evaporators. With extensive vapour bleeding as above, while there is still substan-
tial economy by going to quadruple effect from triple effect, there is no substan-
tial benefit by going to quintuple from quadruple effect. The quintuple effect
increases the initial investment and also the maintenance cost.
The vapour bleeding reduces the vapour going out to the condenser. Higher
the vapour bleeding, lower is the vapour going to condenser. The objective should
be to reach a point where the vapour going to evaporator condenser is close to nil.
This can be very nearly achieved by installing an online juice heater in the path of
the vapour between the last body and the condenser. It can be generally stated that
the steam consumption in the evaporator is equivalent to the total vapours bled
plus the vapour going to the condenser. If the vapour bleeding is achieved to reach
"nearly nil vapour to condenser" stage in the evaporator, the total process steam
consumption is just equal to the steam consumption at juice heaters and pans.
Effectively, the steam consumption for evaporation can be deemed as nil.
It is theoretically possible to achieve "absolute nil vapour to condenser" by
using the c o l d j a w juice itself to condense the vapours in the evaporator con-
denser (by direct contact). T h e total heat in the vapour is recovered for heating
the cold raw juice.
With the above, the total steam consumption in a white sugar factory can be
brought down close to 4 0 % on the cane and in a raw sugar factory close to 3 5 %
on the cane. T h e condensates from the calandria of the juice heaters and evapora-
tor vessels must be extracted on a continuous basis. The accumulation of conden-
sates often will result in water hammering besides reducing the effective heating
surface and thereby affecting the evaporation rate.
Appropriate heights with closed system should be provided for the gravity flow
of condensates and to provide a positive head to the pump. The condensates are
recycled back in the process for various purposes. The entire condensates of the
steam are pumped back into the boiler feed water tank. The vapour condensates
are used for imbibition, pan floor requirements and also for centrifugal require-
ments. A small quantity of condensates from the first vapour is also used as 'make
up' for boiler feed water. T h e condensate that is used for boiler make up should be

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free from traces of sugar. Often condensates are cooled to some degree before
using for imbibition. Condensate is soft water and hence is ideal for use as
imbibition water.
To get the full benefit of the evaporator set, the approach should be to have
maximum pressure difference (AP) or maximum temperature difference (AT) be-
tween the exhaust steam in the calandria of the first effect and the vapour space of
the last effect. There is a limit for achieving the vacuum in the last effect which is
decided by the atmospheric pressure and the temperature of the cold water avail-
able. While so, the exhaust steam pressure can be increased which again has limi-
tations due to the fact that the inversion of sugar in the juice takes place at higher
temperatures. T h e inversion is a function of temperature, concentration, and time.
With more and more vapour bleeding, the juice reaches higher concentrations
even in earlier effects where the temperatures are comparatively higher. Hence
two of the three factors are unfavourable when the exhaust steam pressure in-
creases which becomes necessary for extensive vapour bleeding. To compensate
for both these factors, the third factor, namely, the time has to be reduced. It is
possible to reduce the retention time in the evaporator vessels, particularly in
those vessels where the temperatures are high.
Falling film vessels are found to be successful in reducing the retention time
especially in the first and second effects. In the falling vessels, the juice flows from
the top towards the bottom of the vessels along the walls of the tubes as a thin
film. As it reaches the bottom well, it is pumped out. Falling film evaporators also
offer another great advantage in that there is no loss of temperature difference due
to hydraulic head which happens in normal evaporators where there is always a
certain level of juice maintained in the body which has to rise through the tube to
the top of the calandria. There is a temperature difference between the bottom of
the juice column and the vapours generated at the top of the juice level. This is an
effective loss in temperature difference. Hence the falling film permits lesser tem-
perature difference for giving the same rate of evaporation. In other words, for a
given heating surface and given gross temperature difference, the evaporation in a
falling film evaporator is higher.
The falling film evaporator offers one more advantage—being a long tube evapo-
rator the number of tubes for a given heating surface is less and hence the distri-
bution of juice becomes easy. This is true particularly for large vessels. In case of a
rising film with long tubes, the retention period further increases and the loss of
temperature difference is also higher.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

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425
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

It is also observed in practice that in falling film evaporator bodies, the scaling
is considerably less.
T h e disadvantage in the falling film evaporator is the requirement of pumps
for recirculation and transferring to the next body; hence additional power is
consumed.
Some of the choices in the evaporator configuration are given below. A balance
has to be struck between the steam, economy, initial investment, maintenance
problems and cost.
Assumption
Cane crushed 100 t/h
Clear juice 100 t/h
Brix of clear juice 13.00
Brixy syrup 65.00
Evaporation 80%
Water evaporated 80 t/h
Steam consumption
a) for raw juice 7.0% cane
b) for treated juice 7.0% cane
c) for pan boiling 22.0% cane
d) water added for desuperheating 4.0% cane
e) steam for clear juice heating 4.0% cane

27.3.2 Comments
In straight evaporator sets, the advantages are highly significant when the number
of effects are increased from 3 to 4 and from 4 to 5. But with extensive vapour
bleeding, the advantage is significant only when 3 effects are increased to 4 effects
and not when 4 effects are increased to 5 effects. Similarly the vapour line juice
heater saves steam considerably in case of triple effects whereas it is not found that
advantageous in case of quadruple and quintuple sets.
Considering the total heating surface and also the operational and mainte-
nance problems including cleaning of heating surfaces, it is advisable to limit the
number of effects to four and also avoid the vapour line juice heater. Alternatively
in a quintuple set the raw juice heating can be done in two stages. O n e from the
fourth vapour and the second from the third vapour. This will bring down the

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steam consumption in the evaporator to 36.2 ton which is also not very signifi-
cant compared to the additional power required to pump through double juice
heaters and the operational problems.
The choice is ultimately made by calculating the saved incremental steam in
terms of power generation in the condensing steam turbine.
In any case, the total steam consumption cannot be reduced below 41% cane
which is equivalent to the steam consumption for juice heating, pan boiling and
other purposes. Of course, there is a scope for reducing the steam consumption in
pan boiling from 22% to about 20% by using continuous pans and with instru-
mentation. Theoretically the steam required for pan boiling for white sugar manu-
facture is even less.
The above calculations are approximate but good enough for comparison pur-
poses. If detailed calculations are made considering the total heat of exhaust steam,
all vapours, etc. the evaporation and steam consumption figures vary slightly. All
calculations are on the basis that one kg of steam/vapour evaporates one kg of
water. Similarly the steam consumption at juice heaters and vacuum pans varies
with juice per cent cane and the boiling scheme and also the curing schemes.
The above calculations will help one decide on the evaporator configuration.

27.3.3 Extraction of non-condensables

While the juice is boiling in evaporators, certain gases are generated which are not
condensable and get accumulated in the calandria. These gases develop pressure
inside the calandria if not removed and obstruct the free entry of vapours, affect-
ing the evaporation in the previous effect. The evaporation, if reduced in one
effect for any reason reduces the evaporation in all the effects correspondingly.
The non-condensable gases from each calandria are regularly and continuously
removed and vented by connecting it to a lower pressure (higher vacuum) zone
through suitably sized pipelines with control valves. This is applicable for the
calandria of juice heaters and vacuum pans too. If there is a positive pressure in
the calandria, the vents can be opened out to atmosphere. Otherwise the venting
can be done to the vapour pipe of lower pressure. Proper venting of the non-
condensable gases and avoiding leakage of air into the vacuum system in the evapo-
rator and also the connected calandria of the juice heaters are very important for
the proper working of the vapour bleeding arrangement.
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

27.3.4 Condensate e x t r a c t i o n
Once the steam or vapour gives away its latent heat it gets condensed. Hence the
condensation of steam is continuous in all the calandria—the evaporators, juice
heaters, and pans. T h e condensates in the respective calandria must be removed
continuously to make way for the fresh steam/vapour to enter the calandria. As
different calandria are under different pressures, the condensate extraction system
should be properly designed to allow adequate positive head for the respective
condensates to flow freely to the pump suction to facilitate continuous pumping.
The whole system should be leak-proof.

27.3.5 Flashing of condensates

When the condensates from higher pressure calandria are exposed to lower pres-
sure calandria, the condensates flash and the vapours so generated can be utilized
in the calandria of lower pressures. By a proper network of pipelines, all vapours
can be flashed with benefit.

27.3.6 Syrup s u l p h i t a t i o n
In white sugar manufacture it is necessary to bleach the syrup coming out of the
evaporators. For this purpose sulphur dioxide gas is used. The S 0 2 gas is gener-
ated in the sulphur burner (as explained earlier) and the gas is bubbled through
the column of syrup in the syrup sulphitation tank. The pH of the syrup which is
generally in the range 6.0—6.2 is brought down to about 5.0-5.10. Excess of sul-
phitation to a pH below 5.0 is found to cause inversion. It is also found to release
more free S 0 2 gas in the pan boiling affecting the vapour pipes, condensers, and
also bringing down the pH of injection water. If the sulphitation is inadequate the
final sugar quality in terms of colour will not be good.

27.4

CRYSTALLIZATION IN VACUUM PANS (PAN BOILING)

The evaporation of water is done in two stages, the first being in multiple effect
evaporators. T h e second stage of evaporation involves crystallisation of sugar in
terms of crystal formation and crystal growth. Until syrup sulphitation (from the

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 27 Processing of sugarcane into white sugar

milling) the process is continuous. Once the syrup comes to the pan floor it is
stored in storage tanks and further processing becomes batchwise. Even with con-
tinuous pans, the pan boiling process is not totally continuous as certain opera-
tions like 'graining' and 'footing' are done batch by batch. The evaporation rate
varies from stage to stage. Besides, in the pan floor there are a number of materials
stored in storage tanks, other than syrup also, such as melt and molasses like—A
light, A-Heavy, B-Heavy, C-Light, etc. Often more than one material is used in
the same pan for boiling in different sequences and hence a continuous flow of
syrup at this stage is impracticable.
Generally the crystallisation is done in three stages, which means the sugar
from the syrup is recovered by three crops by three successive crystallisations.
"When the crystals are formed and grown in the media of syrup, the syrup gets
exhausted of sugar while the sugar crystals grow in size and the mixture finally
reaches an equilibrium stage between the exhausted mother liquor, which is called
molasses and the crystal content and its total surface area. This stage depends
upon the purity of the initial mother liquor and the total crystal surface area.
Once this equilibrium is reached the boiling is stopped and the product in the
vacuum pan, which is called A-massecuite, is dropped into the crystalliser, which
is at atmospheric pressure. The massecuite contains sugar crystals and molasses.
The molasses after separation from crystals in the centrifugals will be still rich in
sugar. This molasses, called A-heavy molasses is boiled again and a second crop of
sugar is recovered by crystallisation. Similarly the A-heavy molasses gets exhausted
of sugar and reaches an equilibrium. The purity of the mother liquor after reach-
ing equilibrium in this case is much lower when compared to that in the first
boiling (A-massecuite). The product that becomes ready in the second boiling is
called B-massecuite. The B-massecuite is again centrifuged and the molasses called
B-heavy molasses is separated out which is again boiled and the third crop of
sugar is crystallised out. The product of the third boiling is called C-massecuite.
Generally only three boiling schemes are followed; this is found adequate and
economical to exhaust the molasses to minimum sugar content and extract maxi-
mum sugar.
In normal practice, actual crystallisation is done only in the last massecuite.
The graining (formation of initial crystals and stabilising them) is done on a fairly
higher purity medium like A-heavy molasses or sometimes a mixture of syrup and
A-heavy molasses (depending upon the purities) and the grains are developed by

429
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boiling with B-heavy molasses. This boiling is done carefully in a controlled way
so that the evaporation matches that of the movement and deposition of sugar
molecules on the surface of the existing crystals. Either continuous or in batches,
feed of the molasses is given to match the evaporation rate. During the process the
crystals grow and the molasses gets exhausted of sugar. When the crystal size is
found optimum, by which time, the capacity of vessel is also fully utilised, the
massecuite is concentrated to the maximum extent, the boiling is stopped and it is
dropped into the crystalliser. T h e final massecuite (C-massecuite) is very thick
with about 100 ° brix and is dark coloured. The mother liquor (C-molasses or
final molasses) is highly viscous. Hence it is difficult to separate the crystals effec-
tively from molasses in the centrifugals without the use of some wash water. But
use of wash water results in the sugar dissolving in the centrifugals finding its way
into the molasses which is sent out. To overcome this problem the final massecuite
is centrifuged twice. First, the concentrated final molasses is centrifuged out to
the maximum possible extent without resorting to washing so that the molasses
which is sent out contains minimum sugar. The crystals that are separated will be
brown in colour and magmised, and are centrifuged using water to remove the
adhering molasses. T h e sugar coming out which is called C-double cured sugar or
C-seed is fairly white in colour and of purity above 95, though smaller in size. T h e
molasses from this is recycled in the process.
Similarly when the B-massecuite is cured the sugar that comes out of the cen-
trifugal will be of 97—98 purity but not good enough for packing. This sugar is
magmised and called B-seed. Only A-sugar is taken for packing and marketing.
T h e normal practice in a three boiling system is to use C-seed as the starting
material for B-massecuite and the B-seed as the starting material for A-massecuite.
Thus the sugar moves upwards from C to A, while getting improved in size and
purity, whereas the molasses move downwards from A to C, while getting ex-
hausted of sugar at each stage. There are practices slighdy differing from the above,
but basically the three boiling scheme is generally practised.
T h e objective of the boiling scheme is to get best quality sugar, losing least sugar
in the final molasses and also with minimum re-circulation or recycling of materials
in t h e process. More circulation means more sugar loss and higher steam
consumption. T h e clarification process being the same, better sugar means more re-
circulation and more steam consumption. A compromise then becomes necessary.

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The first massecuite (A-massecuite) is production massecuite and hence the

objective is to get good quality sugar in the sense that the crystal size should be
uniform (the crystal size depending upon the market choice). The colour should
match the standards. In India where maximum direct consumption white sugar is
manufactured, the colour of the sugar is judged by matching it physically with the
standard sugar. The international standard (ICUMSA) still maintains the colour
comparison in liquid phase only, though ICUMSA is not really meant for direct
consumption white sugar. India also started using ICUMSA standards for com-
parison, particularly for export purposes. An ICUMSA figure of less than 100 for
white sugar is supposed to be good, when produced with double sulphitation
process. However factories have improved the colour to as good as 40 ICUMSA
standard by adopting the syrup purification process.
The C-massecuite is called recovery massecuite. The objective of this massecuite
is to recover maximum sugar by exhausting the molasses as much as feasible. The
sugar from this massecuite is obviously melted and recycled in process.
The B-massecuite is an intermediate strike which serves both the purposes. It
helps in improving the purity of A-massecuite and thereby the quality of the
product, at the same time aiding to reduce the purity of C-massecuite and thereby
reducing the purity of the final molasses. Hence the B-massecuite purity is to be
manipulated in such a way as to get a good compromise between the two objectives.
It is possible to maintain the purities of A-massecuite and C-massecuite as
constant at the desired levels by manipulating the B-massecuite purity irrespective
of the virgin syrup purity. Depending upon the syrup purity the B-massecuite
purity can be so adjusted that the A-massecuite purity remains the same always
and also at a level as high as possible so that the quality of the final product is
uniform and good. At the same time the B-massecuite should produce the BH
molasses with purity adequately low to keep the C-massecuite purity under control.
Vacuum: The lower the temperature of boiling in the pan, the better will be the
quality of sugar and also lower would be the steam consumption. Hence it is always
advantageous to keep the boiling temperature as low as possible, which means the
vacuum inside the pan must be maintained as high as possible and must be constant
also. Fluctuations in vacuum will vary the boiling temperatures suddenly affecting
the boiling. For maintaining the vacuum, the condensing of the vapour as well as
removal of non-condensables, must be efficient in the condenser.

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

A satisfactory performance of the condenser is achieved by spraying cold water

at a temperature as close to the wet bulb temperature as possible, having an effi-
cient spray of cold water and also by efficient removal of non-condensables. Leak-
age of air into the system should be totally avoided as it reduces the vacuum in the
system. In a good condenser the approach temperature (rise in temperature of
cold water by absorbing heat from the vapour) is 7-8 °C. But normally it is about
5 to 6 °C. Of course, it also depends upon the initial cold water temperature.
In addition to the efficient cooling of vapours, efficient ejection of the non-
condensables and leaked air is also very important. The water required to eject
them through a set of jet nipples is more than that required for cooling.

27.4.1 Cooling of condenser w a t e r (injection water)

The quantity of cold water which is used for cooling and ejecting in the con-
denser is quite large—of the order of 80 to 100 times the quantity of vapour
condensed or roughly 1 ton of water per ton of cane crushed. Obviously so much
water cannot be pumped into the system as fresh water, nor can it be let out as
effluent. Hence the entire quantity is recycled after cooling.
Generally the cooling is achieved by spraying the water in the atmosphere un-
der pressure allowing for adiabatic expansion. Alternatively cooling towers are
also used to cool water.
While the vapours condensed increase the water going out of the condenser,
the hot water when cooled in the spray pond gets reduced because of the evapora-
tion. Thus the quantity of water remains constant. However some make-up water
is used continuously allowing an equal quantity of water to exit from the system.

27.5

CRYSTALLISERS

In the vacuum pan, the boiling takes place until an equilibrium is reached be-
tween the crystal content and the mother liquor purity. When the crystal size has
reached the desired size, the massecuite is discharged from the pan into another
vessel called crystalliser. The crystallisers are provided with a cooling system for
cooling the massecuite. The massecuite is allowed time in the crystailiser. The
crystallisers are equipped with cooling coils in which cold water is circulated.

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 27 Processing of sugarcane into white sugar

During the cooling further crystallisation takes place and the molasses gets fur-
ther exhausted of sugar. Practically no energy is spent for crystallisation in the
crystallisers.
Generally the cooling arrangements are made in crystallisers for all types of
massecuite with the difference that the A- and B-massecuites are cooled down to
about 50 °C to 55 °C and C-massecuite to about 40 °C.

27.5.1 Reheating

While A-& B-massecuites which are cooled to about 50 to 55 °C can be cured in

centrifugals effectively, the C-massecuite which is cooled to 40 °C cannot be
cured. Hence it is necessary to reheat the C-massecuite to about 50 to 55 °C
before centrifuging. Reheating is done without undoing the crystallisation that
took place during cooling. The fact that the sugar solution can reach super satura-
tion helps in achieving this. Further, a special type of heater called transient heater
heats the cooled massecuite very quickly and the massecuite is cured before any
crystal dissolution starts.
Even in the crystallisers the rate of cooling is to be controlled in such a way that
the sugar molecules which crystallise out should find a place to deposit on the
crystals. Too rapid cooling may result in dust formation which will find its way
out through the molasses in the centrifugals. Too slow cooling may result in inad-
equate exhaustion. Generally cooling times (with water cooled coils) of 6 hours
for A- and B-massecuites and about 16 hours for C-massecuite are found opti-
mum. About 2 °C per hour in case of B-and C-massecuites and about 1.5 °C per
hour in case of C-massecuite would give good results.

27.6

CENTRIFUGING

The massecuite after cooling is centrifuged in centrifugals to separate the mother

liquor (molasses) from the crystals. There are two types of centrifugals used for
the purpose. Batch type centrifugals are used to cure A-massecuite and continu-
ous centrifugals are used for curing B-& C-massecuites. Often part of the B-
massecuite is cured in batch type centrifugals to use the cured sugar as die seed for
footing for A-massecuite. The sugar coming out of the continuous centrifugal is

433
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

generally melted and the melt liquor is used for boiling in A-massecuite. The C-
massecuite is very thick and viscous. Hence centrifuging this massecuite offers
resistance. To reduce the viscosity and ease curing, the massecuite is reheated im-
mediately before it enters the centrifugal. In addition, a little water or dilute final
molasses (the latter is preferred) is used at the entry of the massecuite to the cen-
trifugal. While these steps help in improving the curing, it would not allow dis-
solving of the crystals. In spite of all these, the sugar coming out of the first
centrifuging would be brown in colour, having a purity of 80 to 85 only. Further
efforts to increase the purity of the cured sugar will result in and increase in the
final molasses purity. Hence the curing of C-massecuite is divided into two parts.
The first part is to separate the concentrated molasses with minimum sugar con-
tent. In the second part the first cured sugar is cured again by magmising it with
water or AH molasses, etc. The second cured sugar will be of about 94-95 purity
which is melted and re-crystallised in A-massecuite. The molasses coming out in
the second curing is called C-light molasses which is used in C- massecuite. While
the re-circulation is not reduced by second curing, the materials are segregated
and sent out through the nearest route. For example the 80/85 purity of first
cured sugar is segregated into two parts, namely, C-double cured sugar of 95
purity and CL molasses of about 60 purity. The 95-purity material goes to A-
massecuite and most of it finds its way into the final product. The 65-purity
material (low purity) goes to C-massecuite and the non-sugar of this material
finds its way into the final molasses.
A-curing in the earlier days was done in two stages; today it is common to cure
in a single stage, washing with only superheated water instead of steam and water.
The modern high speed and high gravity factor centrifugals perform very effi-
ciently making double curing redundant. Single curing is giving excellent results
in terms of sugar quality. Double curing results in enormous re-circulation of
sugar beside increasing the power consumption, initial investment, maintenance
cost, etc.
In the modern centrifugals, the drives with stepped speed multi-pole motor
have been replaced by thyristor controlled AC drives with step-less speed varia-
tions. These centrifugals with flat bottoms are fully automatic and can recycle as
high as 16 cycles/hour. These machines are not only energy efficient, but also
highly productive as there is no time loss during the change of speeds, both up-
wards and downwards.

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 27 Processing of sugarcane into white sugar

27.6.1 Superheated water wash

Superheated water wash replaces steam wash and hot water wash. It reduces the
total cycle time and increases the productivity of the machine. Besides super-
heated water washing facilitates quick drying of sugar on the hopper. Thus it
improves the quality of sugar and reduces re-circulation and increases the ma-
chine capacity. The temperature of the super heated water is maintained generally
at 120/125 °C. The temperature is controlled automatically by proper instru-
mentation. The duration of wash depends upon the size of crystals and massecuite.

27.6.2 Molasses separation

The mother liquor separated in the centrifugal will be thick and of lower purity
until the water wash is opened in the centrifugals. Subsequent to water opening,
due to dissolution of sugar the molasses purity increases. For the most effective
recycling of the molasses into the processes, it is prudent to separate the molasses
into two streams, one being heavy molasses without dilution and the other being
the light molasses which comes out after washing starts. The cut-off point for
separation can be fixed and made to operate automatically based on timers. The
higher purity molasses (light) goes back to higher grade massecuite A-massecuite
and the lower purity molasses (heavy) goes to B-massecuite and C-massecuite.

27.6.3 Magmising

The C-fore worker is generally magmised with C-light molasses. Some factories
use AH molasses. Some other factories who keep the C-fore worker sugar purity
low to avoid the purity of the final molasses going up, use water for magmising.

27.7

SUGAR DRYING, GRADING, PACKING AND STORING

27.7.1 Sugar d r y i n g

In most places in case of white sugar manufacturing, hopper drying is prac-

tised. The sugar is made to hop on multi-deck hopper conveyors while the hot air,

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Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

followed by cold air is blown, which will dry and cool the sugar. T h e lumps are
separated out.

27.7.1 Sugar grading

Grader: T h e sugar is carried through elevators from the hopper and made to
fall on a multi-deck vibrating grader consisting of 3 or 4 screens arranged one
above the other. Some lumps, joint crystals, etc. are separated out on the top
screen whereas the dust is passed through the lowest screen and taken back into
the process. T h e middle decks are fitted with suitable screens to separate and
collect the sugar in two or three grades sizewise.
T h e sugar collected from the graders are separately stored gradewise in bins
from where it is filled in bags, weighed automatically, and packed.

27.7.3 Warehouse

T h e sugar industry is a seasonal industry and hence the production takes place
only in some part of the year whereas the consumption of sugar takes place all
through the year. So in case of white sugar manufacturing, the production cannot
be shipped out as and when produced. A substantial quantity of sugar is to be
stored in properly constructed warehouses. Sugar being hygroscopic, the con-
struction of the warehouse needs special attention. The flooring has to be water
proof. T h e roof also has to be protected. In areas of heavy rains, even the roof is
covered with a thin layer of waterproof material on the roof sheets. Care should be
taken to see that the humidity inside the godown is not too high or not too low.
T h e ventilation is to be controlled accordingly.
Generally sugar is bagged in 100 kg bags in India. Elsewhere it is bagged in
50 kg bags.

436
Glossary

Some technical terms used in a sugar factory.

1. Bagasse—the residue of cane after crushing in one mill or a train of mills.
2. Brix is the percentage of total solids dissolved in a liquid or in a sugar solution.
3. CCS—Commercial Cane Sugar estimated by any of the empirical formulae.
4. DRIS—Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System—a method of
leaf analysis where nutrient ratios are used.
5. Fibre—the dry, water insoluble matter in cane.
6. Filter cake—the material retained on the screens or cloth of the filters.
7. First expressed juice—the juice expressed by the first two rollers of a mill
tandem.
8. Java Ratio (JR)
JR = Sucrose or (pol) % cane /Sucrose (pol)% first expressed juice.
9. Magma—a mechanical mixture of crystals and molasses or heavy syrup.
10. Massecuite—the concentrated syrup or molasses in which the sugar has
been crystallized.
11. Molasses—when massecuite is spun in a centrifugal machine the sugar crys-
tals are separated from the mother liquor termed molasses.
12. Planooning—a plant crop and a single ratoon.
13. Purity or purity coefficient—purity is the cane sugar present in percentage
terms of the solid matter.
Purity % = Sucrose or pol/corrected brix x 100
The corrected brix is for temperature correction.
14. Recovery per cent—total tons sugar bagged per 100 tons of cane crushed.
15. Reducing Sugars (RS)—reducing sugars in cane its products interpreted as
invert sugar. Invert sugars are made up of glucose and fructose
16. RS ratio or invert ratio or invert.
RS ratio (invert) = % Reducing sugars x 100 /% sucrose
17. Sucrose or pol—pol is the value determined by direct or single polarization
of a normal weight solution in a saccharimeter.
18. The final molasses is the liquid residue from which no more sugar can be
removed economically. This is also called 'black strap' in the trade.
19. Vinasse or dunder—the liquid distillery effluent is the extracted residue
remaining after alcohol has been separated by distillation.
20. Virgin cane—usually plant cane.

437
References

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Dwivedi, R. S. 1999. Unnurtured and untapped super sweet non-sacchariferous plant
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Fauconnier, R. 1993. Sugarcane. Macmillan: London. 140.
Gallo-Meagher, M., and Irvine, J. E. 1996. Herbicide resistant, transgenic sugarcane plants
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Hunsigi, G. 1984. The production technology for sugar and sugarcane: An innovative
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Hunsigi, G., and Singlachar, M. A. 1994. Sugarcane: A renewable natural agricultural
resource. Curr. Sci. 66(12):891-92.
International Society of Sugarcane Technologists (ISSCT). 1996. Newsletter. (2): 1-4. 23
ISSCT Congr., New Delhi.
International Society of Sugarcane Technologists (ISSCT). 1997. Newsletters. (3, 4): 1-4,
1-4. 23 ISSCT Congr., New Delhi.
Kulkarni, D. G. 1971. Tropical sugar. 204. Gnan Jyot Prakashan, Pune.
Mann, G. M. S. 1995. Indian sugar industry: Retrospect and prospect. In Sugarcane-agro-
industrial alternatives, eds. G. B. Singh, S. Solomon. 3-16. Oxford and IBH: New
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1152-55.
Heinz, Don, J., and Mee, G. W. P. 1969. Plant differentiation from callus tissue of Saccha-
rum species. Crop Sci. 9:316-318.
Hendre, R. R., Iyer, R. S., Kotwal, M., Khuspe, S. S., and Mascarenhas, A. F. 1983. Rapid
multiplication of sugarcane by tissue culture. Sugarcane. Vol. 1:5-8.
Kyte, L., and Kleyn, J. 1996. Plants from test tubes. An introduction to micropropagation.
3th ed. 240. Timber Press: Portland, Oregon.

457
Appendixes

Appendix 1 Estimated targets of sugarcane production and area requirement

Source: Task force on sugar industry for the 9th five year plan issued by Directorate of Sugar.

Appendix 2 Estimated per capita consumption during the 9th plan

Source: Task force on sugar industry for the 9th five year plan issued by Directorate of Sugar.
 Appendixes

Appendix 3 MS Medium

Source: Kyte and Keyn, 1996.

459
SUGARCANE GROWING REGIONS OF INDIA
Index

A Alditol 325
A-massecuice 429 alfacellulose 345, 346
A. flavus 216 Align method of planting 85
abiotic stresses 283 allelochemicals 241, 344
abscisic acid 304 Allelopathy 240,241
Acacia 398 Allophanes 169
Acacia albida 111 Alternate furrow irrigation 101
Acaulospora 158 alternatively alternate furrow
acesulfame-K 2, 325 irrigation 101
Acetobacter 138, 144, 145 AM hyphae 158
Acetobacter diazotrophicus 140, 141, amylase 303
186, 187 anaerobic digestion 369
acetogenesis 369 anaerobic lagooning 370
acid sulphate soils 51 anaerobic system 363
acid-invertase 300, 301 animal chocolates 356
Aconitic acid 354 antidotes 264, 267
Activated carbon 346 apparently healthy 285
Activated sludge 366 Aqua petrohol 352
additive series 112 Arbuscular mycorrhizae 158
adjuvant(s) 263, 267 Arceneaux's universal equation 308
Adsali 78 Areton 76, 283
Adventitious roots 99 arrow 24
Aerated Steam Therapy (AST) 252 Artificial sweeteners 2
Aerenchyma 99 Aspartame 2, 325
aerobic system 363 Aspergillus 147
Agallol 76 Aspergillus awamori 156, 187, 188, 216
agglomerated products 340 Aspergillus flavipus 345
agro-climatic zones 9 Aspergillus niger 216, 354
Agrobacterium 147, 257, 289 associative N2 fixers
Agrobacterium radiobacter 155, 156, 188 (Rhizocoenosis) 186
Agronomic efficiency 127, 128 ATPase 303
Albizia falcataria 111 auriculiformis 111
Albizzia 147 Australian CCS formula 310

461
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

Autotoxicity 240 bhat and bangar 53

Autumn planting 78,109 Bhendi 320
Available Soil Moisture (ASM) 189, 234 Bhumi Labh 360
Azadirachta indica 212 Bi-wall system 201
Azospirllum 138, 140, 141, 144, 145, billets 314
186,213,214,237,242 binding material 378
AzospiriUum brasilense 345 biocide 355
Azotobacter 138, 140, 141, 144, 145, bioearth 359, 371
147, 186,213,237,242 Biofilters 365
Biofiltration 366
B
Biofuels 352
B 37172 47
biogas 360
Bacillus 138, 140, 147, 186, 216
biogas (methane) 360
Bacillus megatherium 155, 156,
Bioherbicides 257
188, 216
bioliquor 338
Bacillus polymyxa 157, 187
Biological methods 256, 368
back crossing 20
Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF) 140
back-firing 316
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 6,
bacterial wilt 115
350, 362, 363, 367, 368, 370, 371
bactericides 336
Biological Software (BSW) 186
Bactrinol 313
Biological suppression of weeds 256
Badila 18
biomass 333, 349, 350, 351, 352, 367
bagacillo 359, 362
biomass cost 350
bagasse 333
Biostil process 350, 352
Bagasse briquettes 341
Biotic stresses 283
bagasse logs 341
Black Strap Molasses 352
bagasse mat 402
Bagasse Newsprint (BNP) 338, 340
bar gene 257
break crop 106
Bavistin 283,284
brown sugar 323
Bayleton 253
bud chips 88
Benlate 281
bud groove 23
benornyl 283,284
Bulk Density (BD) 55, 208
Bhal 53
Bulk planting 311
Bhargava Commission 373, 374
bullock carts 313
Bhargava formulae 374, 376
bullock-drawn ridgers 95

462
 Index

bunchy top 269 Clostridium 352

Bura 323 C 0 2 concentration 67
Burnt cane 307 Cogeneration of power 360, 375, 378
buttress roots 24 collateral hosts 254
by-product 375 combine harvester 314
commercial crop 330
C
commercial seed 252
calandria 427 comprehensive models 293
calcium phosphate 411 Conservation tillage 53
Callus culture 389 Contact herbicides 257
Cane fires 316 Contour system 87
cane preparation 406 copper oxychloride 284
Cane registration 311 cream jaggery 321, 346
Cane Tops and Leaves (CTL) 344 critical period 195
CaO (burnt lime) 412 crop coefficient Kc 235
Carbendazim 252, 281 Crop log 224
cascade fermentation 352 crop logging 180
Casuarina 398 crop residues 147
Casuarina equistifolia 111 crop rotation 281
catalysts 303 Cryopreservation 393
catch crops 106 crystallisation 433
cattle licks 356 crystallisers 433
cellulolysis 187 crystals 435
Cellulomonas 187 Cumulative Pan Evaporation
Central pollution boards 362 (CPE) 195,234
certified seed 252 Curve sickle 312
Chemical Oxygen Demand cut-out 190, 311
(COD) 362,367 cut-out period 304, 306
chemigation 202 Cytozyme 240
chemotherapy 281
Chip-bud cutting machine 88
D
chlorophyll 133 dead hearts 269, 270, 271
Citric acid 354 Deep trench planting 83
Cladosporium 345 dehydrogenases 367
closely spaced 77 delignification 537

463
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

depithing 336 Eminan 6, 76

Detrashing 270, 274 empirical models 293, 295
Dhiancha 147 energy cane 346
Diagnosis and Recommendation enhancer 304
Integrated System (DRIS) 181, 224, Enterobacter 138, 140
225, 226 entomopathogens 278
diazotrophy 187 entomophages 278
difficult-to-ripen 60 environmental contribution 288
difficult-to-ripen areas 303 Enzyme Commission 301
disc ploughing 73 Erianthus 16
diurnal variations 70 Essential Commodity Act 375
Doab 53 esterase activity 304
Doneilly Chutes 403 Estimated Recoverable Sugar 309
DRIS index 225 ET 235, 236
DRIS model 181 ET and EO 191
dry matter 6 ET or CU 191
dry off 190,306,311 Ethephon 304, 306
dry planting 95 ethrel (Ethephon) 50
drying off 304 ex vitro 391
dunder 367 Exchangeable Sodium Percentage
(ESP) 103
E
explant 389
early maturing 43
exponential 126
earthing up 95, 265
External P Requirement 151
earthworms 147, 188 extraneous matter 313
eelworms 286 extravitrum 391
effluent 367
Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) 364, F
365 Fairs bands 98
Eksali 78 Falling film 417
Electro Ultra Filtration (EUF) 162 FAO model 58, 59
electroporation 290 farming system 119
elephant grass 273 feeder root system 220
Embryo culture 397 fertigation 202
embryogenesis 389 fibre 334

464
 Index

Fibre boards 341 Handpicking 273

Flat method of planting 81 haploids 288
flowering stimulus 48 Harvest Index (HI) 27
fluazifop 304, 306, 307 heat units 29
fluff 249 Helminthosporioside 284
fly ash 341, 362' Helminthosporium 345
fodder and feed 342 herbigation 202
foliar spray 222 heterotoxicity 240
Foundation seed 252 Hibiscus cannabinus 320
freckling 173, 224 High Fructose Corn Syrup
Fusarium 345 (HFCS) 3, 324
fusilade 304 High Test Molasses 352
fusilade super 304 Hot air treatment 251
Hot Water Treatment (HWT) 252
G
Hugot formulae 310
gamma BHC 131 humidities 66
gasohol 352 Hurricanes and typhoons 69
genetic contribution 288 Hydrogenases 367
Genetically modified Herbicide Tolerant
(GmHT) 256,257 I
Gigaspora 158 IA clones 335
Glomus 158 ideotype 347
Glomus mossae 158 IISR 8626 technique 91
glyphosate 306 imbibition 401
Gramaxone 50,314 Imperata cylindrica 266
Grass Shoot Disease (GSD) 250 incineration 370
green cane harvesting 314 Income Equivalent Ratio 110
Green leaf manuring 75 India intercropping 112
green manure crops 104, 112 input of protons 102
Greenhouse effect 299 Integrated Disease Management 268
Greenhouse gases .(GHGs) 70 Integrated Nutrient Management
Groundnut 320 (INM) 242
growing degree days' 306 Integrated Pest Management 268
Integrated Technology Transfer 372
H
intercropping 113
hand stripper 312

465
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

internal drainage 203 Light Use Efficiency (LUE) 227

International Sugar Agreement (ISA) 4 lignocellulose 334
intertillage 265 Lime Requirement 102
invasiveness 267, 288, 346 liming materials 102
invertase 301, 303 liquid jaggery 323, 327, 328
Iron chelates 222 liquid manure 371
Irrigation Use Efficiency (IUE) 191 Liquid mulch 237
itaconic acids 354 loading 310
lodging 97
J losses 374
Jaggery 318 low pressure nozzles 198
Java Ratio 307 luxury consumption 159
Lysine 354
K
Lysol 285
K - H 2 0 index 164
Kaakavi or Kakumbi 327 M
kappa number 336, 338 Malabar pump 99
Kenaf 340 manchas blanchs 98
Khandasari 323 Marginal Benefit Cost Ratio 110
KHS 2045 47 massecuite 433, 435
Kranz syndrome 330 mature pineapple 284
mechanised cultivation 77,314
L
mechanistic models 293
l/d ratio 338 Mechanized harvesting 314
Lactic acid 354 Mesta 340, 398
Lactobacilli 336, 338 methane 360
lalas 128 methyl bromide 286
Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) 115 microclimate 69, 330
leachates 145 micropropagation 391, 397
Leaf Protein 344 Microtube system 201
leaf rolling index 193 mill extraction 405
leaf water potential 0FL) 193 mill sanitation 409
legumes 111 minimum tillage 53
Leuconostoc 313 Miscanthus floridulus 16
Light Interception (LI) 2 2 7 Misri 324

466
 Index

Mitscherlich equation 126 nimbin 131

Modified Growing Degree Days nitrate reductase activity 171,221
(MGDD) 65 Nitrogen cycling 130
Modified trench 86 Nitrogen harvest index (HIN) 27, 211
Moist Hoc Air Treatment (MHAT) 252 Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) 126,
molasses 434 128, 129, 130, 134, 140, 171, 210, 221
molasses toxicity 355 noble canes 30
Mole drains 99 nomogram 56
monellin 2 non-centrifugal sugars 2
monolithic crop 331 Non-flowering 311
morphogenesis 390 non-sacchariferous plants 10,11
mother liquor (molasses) 433 Number of Millable Canes (NMC) 77
MRP 153 Nutrasweet 325
MS-I medium 395 Nutrient Balance Index (NBI) 181, 226
MS-II medium 395 Nutrient modelling 296
multiple effect 415 •nutrient ratio 124
Murashige and Skoog medium (MS nyctiperiod 47
medium) 391, 394
mushrooms 342
o
mycoherbicides 257 organic mercurial compound. 281
mycoplasmal 285 outside glass 391
Mycorrhizae 157, 397
P
mycorrhizosphere 158
P-Solubilizing Microbes (PSM) 238
N Paecilomyces lilacinus 187
N cycle 138 paired-row planting 89, 90
Narenga 16 parasites 278, 280
Natural alkaloids 393 Parasuram axe 312
Natural ripening 303 Partha method of planting 82
Neemcake Coated Urea (NCU) 131 particle board(s) 341
Net Rendement 318 pathogenic microorganisms 278
neutral invertase 301 Pegasse soils 51
New Guinea 15 Pencillium 147
newsprint 339 Pencillium digitatum 187
nimbidin 131 pentosans 338

467
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

per capita 1 primary extraction 406

Phenyl Mercuric Acetate 284 Primary Index (PI) 300
phosphatase 303 primary juice 401
Phosphaticum 216 primary tillage 72
photoperiod 47 Producer gas 341
photosynthetic rates 26 Proper housekeeping 409
Photosynthetically Active Radiation propping 97
(PAR) 69 protectants 264
phyllochron 29 Protein sweeteners 325
phytomass 348, 349 protozoa 364
phytosiderophores (PS) 137 Pseudomonas 138, 216
phytotoxicity 260 Pseudomonas striata 157, 187
picolines 353 PSM 155
piping 128, 334 puddling the soil 272
Pit planting 88 puparia 275
pithiness 334 pyridines 353
Plant Growth Regulating substances pyrilla epidemics 274
(PGRs) 137, 138 pyrites 105
Pleurotus 358 Pythium graminicola 138, 186
Pol Ratio (PR) 229, 308
polybag seedlings 94 R
Polyethylene glycol (PEG) 290 Rab 323
polyurethane 2 Radiation Use Efficiency
Pongamia 147 (RUE) 68, 294
porosity 72 Radiobacter 147
Post harvest deterioration 313 Rajoeng method 84
power cane 360 Ratoon chlorosis 207, 222
power function 126 Ratoon Stunting Disease (RSD) 250
Prasada 324 Ratooning Ability (RA) 233
pre-fertilizing 250 Rayungan method 84
pre-seasonal 78 Rayungans 84, 85, 266
pre-seasonal planting 109 Readily Available Water (RAW) 70
predators 278, 279, 280 Recoverable Cane Sugar method 310
prefertilising 76 Reducing Sugars 318
Press Mud (PM) 119,153,286,357 Regur 53

468
 Index

relay cropping 85, 106 Saline soils 103

Rendzina 51 sandovit 280
residual action 260 sarkara 14
residual herbicides 257 Sclerocystis 158
Rhizobacteria 137, 186 Sclerostachya 16
Rhizodeposition 135 seblang 84, 85
rhizosphere 135, 209 Seblang or sprouted bud 84
Ridges and furrows 95 second degree polynomial 126, 151
Rind hardness 23 secondary juice 401
Ring system 92 secondary tillage 72
Ripeners 311 self-ploughing 53
ripeness to flower stage 47, 48, 50 semi-aerobic 363
Ritter process 338 Sensitivity Index (SI) 263
Roselle 398 serpentine method of furrow
Rotten bagasse 337 irrigation 199
RUBISCO (Ribulose 1,5-biphosphate Sesbania 111, 147, 398
carboxylase-oxygenase) 128, 133, 3 Sesbania rostrata 111
runners 284 sett roots 24
Shakkar 324
s shoot roots 24
5. officinarum 18, 26 Short Duration (SD) varieties 43
S. sinense 16 shoulder breaking 229
S. spontaneum 16, 26 Side shooting 271
saccharin 325 siderophores 138
Saccharobacter nitrocaptans 138 silicate material 224
Saccharomyces cerevisiae 356 siliciferous plants 173
Saccharum barbari 17 Silicon 223, 303
Saccharum officinarum 17 Single buds 87
Saccharum sinense 17 Single Cell Protein 344, 355
Saccharum sp. 17 SJM formula 308
Saccharum spontaneum 23 Skip-furrow planting 89
Sacrolin 346 skipped/alternate furrow irrigation 199
safeners 267 slops 350, 359, 367
Sakti Sugars 314, 315 slow N release fertilizers 131
Salaha Samitis 373 Sludge 367

469
Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

smother crops 256 strike point 320

smut 250 strip tillage 74
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) 57, stubble root 207
103 stubble shaving 229, 271
sodium tetraphenyl boron sucking pest 274
(NaTPB) 162 sucralose 325
soil biota 54 sucrolin 333
Soil compaction 55 Sucrose 2, 29
Soil drenching 281 sucrose loader 304
Soil Organic Matter (SOM) 56 Sucrose Phosphate Synthase 301
Somatic hybridization 393 Sucrose Synthase (SS) 29, 300, 301
sooty moulds 275 sugar beet 3, 10
Soyabean 320 Sugar Cess Act 1982 376
Spaced Transplanting technique Sugar Control Order 375, 376
(STP) 93, 94 Sugar Development Fund (SDF) 376
sparse flowering 43 Sugar exports 7
Specific Leaf Nitrogen (SLN) 228 sugar factories 5
spent wash 367, 368 Sugar Pricing Board (SPB) 377
Spontaneum plasma 232 sugar yields 374
Sport 397 Sugar-paper-alcohol-power
spring planting 78 complexes 398
Sprinkler irrigation 198 sugarcane model 299
square root 126 Sugarcane trash 139, 342
SS activity 303 Sugarcane varieties 41
stale cane 310 sulphur 105
stalk logging 180, 193 sulphur burner 428
Statutory Minimum Price sulphur dioxide 413
(SMP) 375, 377 sunshine 67
steam consumption 427 super phosphate solution 411
Stevia rebaudiana 11, 327 surface active agents 264
Steviosides 327 surface drainage 203
Steviron 327 Surfactants 264, 267, 280
stillage 350, 359, 367 Surge irrigation 201
Streptomyces 216 surplus power 360
Stress Index (SI) 298 sum 78, 189

470
 Index

Suspended Particulate Matter 367 Transgenic 290

sweet proteins 2 transgenic cane 267
sweet sorghum 10 transgenic herbicide tolerant plant 257
Sweetener Index 324 Translocative herbicides 257
synchrony 243 trash 230,237, 241,343
synergistic 263, 264 trash twisting 97
synergistic or antagonistic 264 Trench or Java method of planting 81
syrup 429 Trichoderma reesei 346
Trichoderma viridae 74, 147, 187, 237,
T 345,358
T. harzianum 187 Trichogramma japonicum 269
T. viridae 187 Turbo tape system 201
tandem 401, 402 twilight photosynthesis 330
tassel 24 Tyndallization 396
teepol 280
u
teleonomic models 293
Ultra-Low-Volume sprayers (ULV) 267
teliospores 282
Urea Super Granules (USG) 131, 212
Telodrin 131
uromol 356
Terminator 292
USWB Pan evaporation (EO) 191
terminator gene 292
tetracycline 292 V
thaumatin 2, 325
vacuum pan 429
thermal time 295
VAM fungi 286
thermotherapy 281
Varieties 30
thiram 283
vermicompost 149
third dewlap 180
Vermicomposting 148, 149
threshold 269
Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizae
Tilah lands 88,105
(VAM) 157, 158, 188,216
tissue culture 378, 391
Vinasse 351, 359, 360, 367
Tjeblock method 85
Vinhoto 359
Torula yeast 355, 356
Vitavax 281
Torulopsis utilis 356
Totipotence 397 w
tractor-drawn mechanical planters 96 Water hyacinth 364
Transfer chamber or hood 397 water shoots 270

471
 Sugarcane in agriculture and industry

water shoots (bull shoots) 128 X

Water Use Efficiency (WUE) 192, 235, Xanthomonas 138
236
Xylitol 325, 346
waterlogged conditions 270
Waxes 358, 359 Y
Weed-free environment 251 Yeast(s) 350, 356
weediness 267, 288, 346 yeast sludge 356, 359
wet feet 203 yield decline 20, 21
wet planting 95 yield declining factors (FY) 231
wetting agents 264 yield gap 7, 9
whip 282 yield plateaus 298
white patches 281
wild rodents 275 z
Winter and Carp 310 Zymomonas mobilis 350, 353
Winter and Carp formula 308
Wrapping and propping 97

472
Sugarcane cultivation and jaggery making is one of the oldest
occupations in India, strengthening the rural economy. With the
passage of time, great strides have been made in improving the yield
and quality of sugarcane. The percapita consumption of sugar has
nearly doubled since independence. Keeping in pace with the demand,
there has been a phenomenal increase in the number of sugar
factories in the country.

Sugarcane in Agriculture and Industry is written in the backdrop

of this scenario. It is meant to be a complete handbook for students,
teachers, planners, administrators, farmers, sugar industry personnel
and the general elite interested in the sweet crop.

The book deals with future farming of sugarcane and sugar processing
to meet the demands of 21 st century. Emphasis is placed on precision
agriculture through simulation models and transgenics with
environmental safety.

An introductory chapter on sugar manufacture, the inclusion of

glossary, comprehensive bibliography and subject index have added
value to the book and enhanced its readability.

The emphasis on practical implications such as different planting

methods, manurial and harvest schedules makes the book
informative, instructive, engaging and worth reading.

PRISM BOOKS PVT LTD ISBN: 81-7286-149-4

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