ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY

INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT V

Mass Media communication - What is Mass Media – Functions of mass communication -

ToPersuade, Inform, Educate, and Entertain; Other functions; Impact & Influence of Mass
Media Types of Mass Media: Traditional media, Print media, Electronic media, Digital media,
Public Relations, Publicity and Propaganda –Theories of mass media: Hypodermic needle
model, uses and gratification model.

Mass media communication

what is mass media - Mass media refers to communication devices, which can be used to
communicate and interact with a large number of audiences in different languages. Be it the
pictorial messages of the early ages, or the high-technology media that are available today,
one thing that we all agree upon, is that mass media are an inseparable part of our lives.
Entertainment and media always go hand in hand, but in addition to the entertainment, mass
media are an effective medium for communication, dissemination of information, advertising,
marketing, and in general, for expressing and sharing views, opinions, and ideas. Mass media
is a double-edged sword - there are positive as well as negative influences of media.
Technically, mass media is any transmission of information that reaches large numbers of
people, usually within a short time frame, in a one-to-many communication flow. It can also
be referred to as mass communication. The information transmitted could be news,
entertainment, advertising or public service announcements.

Types of mass media:

  Television
  Radio
  Newspapers
  Outdoor advertising such as billboards
  Magazines
  Movies, concerts, shows, and events that attract large crowds
  Internet websites
  Social media
  Mobile
  Email

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Social media, mobile, and email mass communications present special cases which are
discussed separately later

Traditional media

Print Media - Print media encompasses mass communication through printed material. It
includes newspapers, magazines, booklets and brochures, house magazines, periodicals or
newsletters, direct mailers, handbills or flyers, billboards, press releases, and books.
Newspapers enjoyed the position of the most preferred medium to reach a wider audience
until electronic communication emerged on the media scene. In the early days, newspapers
were the only medium that masses at large depended on, for daily news. A newspaper carries
all kinds of communication related to a variety of topics like politics, socialism, current affairs,
entertainment, finance, stocks, etc.Apart from this, it also includes topics, which are in lighter
vein like cartoons, crosswords, Sudoku, movie reviews, book reviews, puzzles, crosswords, etc.
This captivates the imagination and interests of readers from all age groups. Newspapers are
an important platform of mass communication, as they reach every nook and corner of the
world where electronic media fails to reach. It plays a pivotal role in providing authentic
firsthand information, building opinions, updating the knowledge of the reader, and serves as
a good platform for advertisers to promote their products. However, with the emergence of
Internet, which updates information every second, and is just a click away, the popularity of
newspapers has reduced.

Magazines

Magazines are another type of popular culture print media. They usually cater to a specific
type of audience who are looking for information based on a particular subject. Magazines
cover a plethora of topics, like current affairs, business, finance, consumers, gadgets, self-help,
luxury, lifestyle, beauty, fashion, entertainment, travel, etc. Magazines like TIME and Reader's
Digest include information, which is all-pervasive. The frequency of magazines can be weekly,
fortnightly, bi-monthly, quarterly, half-yearly, or yearly. These magazines are the best forum
for advertisers, as they have a niche readership. The readers look for a specific type of
information; say for example, a camera ad in a Gadget magazine will definitely have a direct
brand impact on the reader who wants to buy a camera. Also, the shelf life and brand recall of
magazines is far better than newspapers, which have a short life span.

Booklets and Brochures

Booklets and brochures are a part of the promotional literature of a product, or an

organization. There are two types of booklets and brochures. Pre-buying promotion Usually in
malls and stores, promotional literature is distributed free to all (with discount offers, or other
schemes which seem profitable). For example, a free booklet about cosmetics will include
information about the products, latest trends, contents, the benefits of using them, the
available range, or colors, discount coupons, etc. This, will most likely, have a positive impact
on our decision-making.

Post-buying promotion

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These booklets and brochures are usually given with a product for better customer experience
and easy usage, post purchasing. You must have observed when you buy any new item, it is
usually accompanied with a small booklet giving details about the benefits of using the
product, usage directions, cleaning and storage instructions. The guidelines are usually
followed by a series of 'how to' images which facilitate easy information about the product.

Handbills or Flyers

Handbills or flyers is a form of communication, which is printed on a small paper. It is easy to

carry, colorful, attractive, and legible to read. They are handed out to all the passers-by. These
are useful mainly for restaurants, hotels, nightclubs, political campaigns, delis, concerts,
rallies, political campaigns, etc. People are more prompted to throw it away without reading.
Hence, many a time this fails to be an effective medium of mass communication.

Books

Last but not the least; books are a significant medium of mass communication as they have a
large reader base. The expressions and opinions of the writer are taken to the readers in the
form of a compiled book.The printed form of communication was popular earlier. However,
with the advent of electronic media, print media has taken a backseat. Although, it is said that
the electronic, or new age media have replaced the print media, there exists a majority of
audience who prefer the print media for various communication purposes.

Electronic Media

Electronic media is the kind of media which requires the user to utilize an electric connection
to access it. It is also known as 'Broadcast Media'. It includes television, radio, and new-age
media, like Internet, computers, telephones, etc.

Television

Television appeals both the auditory and visual senses, and hence is an important
communication device as it beholds the attention of the audience. For many people, it is
impossible to imagine a life without their television sets, be it the daily news, or even the soap
operas. Television has become an advertising hub where advertisers are ready to spend huge
amounts for an ad of few seconds, especially for programs with high viewership.

Radio

It has a significant reach. A considerable number of Americans tune into radio every week
while on their way to work. Advertising on the radio with catchy jingles and phrases is a tried
and tested means of communication. The radio lost its popularity with the boom of television.
But till day, it remains one of the favorite means of electronic communication. Moreover,it is
an interactive means of communication with all dial-in programs which give the listeners an
opportunity to feature on radio.

Digital Media
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New Age Media - With the advent of Internet, we are now enjoying the benefits of high
technology mass media, which is not only faster than the old school mass media, but also has
a widespread range. Mobile phones, computers, and Internet are often referred to as the
new-age media. Internet has opened up several new opportunities for mass communication
which include email, websites, pod casts, e-forums, e-books, blogging, Internet TV, and many
others, which are booming today. Internet has also started social networking sites, which have
redefined mass communication all together. Sites, like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube have
made communication to the masses all the more entertaining, interesting, and easier!

Mobile Phones

Mobile phones have become a boon to mankind. It has made communication possible at
anytime, and from anywhere. Nowadays, mobile phones are not only used for interaction, but
also for other technical utilities, like operating pumps from remote locations, etc. You can also
get alerts of your monetary transactions on a mobile phone. Today, we can stay in touch with
the whole world via Internet on our mobile phones.

Computers

With the invention of computers the impossible has become possible. We virtually get
information about everything from pin to piano with the help of computers. It has added
speed and multimedia to the information, which was earlier available only in the print format.
Also, anyone can voice their opinions through computers. Computers have added a new
breakthrough in the mass media by combining human intelligence with the cutting edge
technology.

Internet

It's the most important device of new age media. The discovery of Internet can be called the
biggest invention in mass media. In the earlier days, news used to reach people only with the
morning newspaper. But today, live updates reach us simultaneously as the events unfold. For
example, the royal wedding of Kate Middleton and Prince William was watched live on the
Internet by millions of people around the world. Its inspired interaction and connectivity
through its social networking medium.

Emails

Emails or electronic mails have drastically reduced the time for drafting and sending letters or
mails. Electronic mails have also facilitated lesser usage of paper.

Blogging

A blog is a space on the Internet where a single person or a group of people record their
information, opinions, photos, videos, etc. It is an interesting and free platform to talk about
any topic. Interaction happens in the form of comments or feedback.

Internet TV
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It is also known as online TV. It usually has an archive of programs. You have to choose the
program; you wish to view from the list. You can either view the programs directly from the
host server, or download the content on your computer. It is an effective means of
communication.

Social Networking

It is the most popular social networking website. Facebook, Twitter, Whatsapp and etc have
several applications which people utilize. It is the best platform to meet old friends, or make
new ones. Advertisers also like this forum for communicating about their products.Visual
media like photography is also a crucial medium, since it communicates via visual
representations. Public speaking and event organizing can also be considered as forms of mass
media. Though print media is still popular, it is not environmentally viable. More and more
people are shifting to e-newspapers, e-Books, e-brochures, etc. Internet has completely
transformed the traditional ideas of communication. Mass communication, over a period of
years, has depicted an evolving trend, and with the advancements in technology, it will
continue to do so in future too. All you have to do is keep yourself abreast with the latest
innovation in mass communication!

Public Relations

PR or public relations is nothing but the practice of protecting as well as enhancing the
reputation of any particular organization/firm or for that matter any individual. In today’s
world of fierce competition, where every organization strives hard to work toward its brand
image, public relations have become the need of the hour. It is essential for every organization
to communicate well with its public/target audience. The correct flow of information is
essential. Here comes the importance of public relations.

The practice of maintaining a healthy relationship between organization and its

public/employees/stakeholders/investors/partners is called public relations. Public relation
activities ensure the correct flow of information between the organization and its public also
called its target audience. Public relations goes a long way in maintaining the brand image of
an organization in the eyes of its audience, stake holders, investors and all others who are
associated with it.For schools, the target audience would be students and their
parents/guardians, for retailers the target audience would be customers and so on.In the
above examples, Public Relations ensures a smooth two way communication between the
school authorities and its target audiences (students and their parents).Retailers must address
their customers well for a positive word of mouth and a strong brand positioning. It is really
important to create a positive image of any particular brand in the minds of consumers for it
do well. Public relations experts not only help in the flow of information from the organization
to its public but also from the public to the organization.(Two way communication).The flow of
information from the public to the organization is generally in the form of reviews,
feedback(positive/negative),appreciation and so on. Public relations strengthen the
relationship between the organization and its target audience, employees, stakeholders,
investors etc.

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PR is Not Advertising

Many people use the term PR and advertising are interchangeably, when the terms do not
mean the same thing. PR involves sharing information with the public using platforms that do
not require a payment, such as social media or through press releases shared with magazines
and newspapers. PR professionals package information and disseminate it in the hopes that it
will be organically shared. Advertising, on the other hand, involves paying for space in the
media, or on websites, and controlling the message that is conveyed. The goal of public
relations is to shape public perception of a business, presenting a positive image through
various strategies to its various constituents. Public Relation Activities.

Here are some ways of enhancing an organization’s brand image:

1. Addressing the media

2. Speaking at various press conferences, seminars.

3. Advertisements to correctly position the brand, Pamphlets, Brochures, magazines notices,

newsletters and so on.

4. Corporate Social responsibility(CSR Activities)

5. Introducing various loyalty schemes for customers like membership cards, premium clubs so
as to retain the customers.

6. Various events, shows and activities.

Spin

Public relation experts sometimes turn a bad situation into the organization’s favor. Such a
situation is called as spin. Spin refers to a situation where public relation experts tactfully
utilize an unfavorable situation for company’s benefits and publicity.

Negative PR

In cases of negative PR, public relation experts instead of focusing on enhancing their
organization’s image, concentrate on tarnishing the reputation of business rivals. Negative PR
also called as dirty tricks involves extensive research and information gathering.

Effective Public Relations

Public Relations is said to be effective under all the below circumstances: Awareness: To
create a positive image of an organization, the message must reach the public. Information
must reach in its desired form for effective public relation. Acceptance: The audience must
understand what the message intends to communicate. They ought to agree with the
message. Action: The audience ought to give feedback to the organization accordingly.To

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conclude public relations is nothing but an effort to present one’s organization in the best
light.

Publicity and Propaganda

Publicity is also a way of mass communication. It is not a paid form of mass communication
that involves getting favorable response of buyers by placing commercially significant news in
mass media. Publicity is not paid for by the organization. Publicity comes from reporters,
columnists,and journalists. It can be considered as a part of public relations.Publicity involves
giving public speeches, giving interviews, conducting seminars, offering charitable donations,
inaugurating mega events by film actors, cricketers, politicians, or popular personalities,
arranging stage show, etc., that attract mass media to publish the news about them.Publicity
is undertaken for a wide range of purposes like promoting new products, increasing sales of
existing product, etc. It also aimed at highlighting employees’ achievements, company’s civic
activities, pollution control steps, research and development successes, financial performance,
its progress, any other missionary activities, or social contribution.

Definitions:

According to William J. Stanton “Publicity is any promotional communication regarding an

organization and/or its products where the message is not paid for by the organization
benefiting from it.”

Characteristics of Publicity:

Key characteristics of publicity have been briefly described in following part:

1. Meaning:

Publicity is not a paid form of mass communication that involves getting favorable response of
buyers by placing commercially significant news in mass media. It involves obtaining favorable
presentation upon radio, newspapers, television, or stage that is not paid for by the sponsor.

2. Non-paid Form:

Publicity is not a paid form of communication. It is not directly paid by producer. However, it
involves various indirect costs. For example, a firm needs some amount for arranging function,
calling press conference, inviting outstanding personalities, decorating of stage, other related
costs, etc.

3. Various Media:

Mostly, publicity can be carried via newspapers, magazines, radio, or television. For example,
in case a product is launched by popular personality in a grand function, the mass media like
newspapers, television, radio, magazines, etc., will definitely publicize the event.

4. Objectives:
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Sales promotion is undertaken for a wide variety of purposes. They may include promotion of
new product, pollution control, special achievements of employees, publicizing new policies,
or increase in sales. It is primarily concerns with publishing or highlighting company’s activities
and products. It is targeted to build company’s image. In a long run, it can contribute to
increase sales.

5. Control of Producer:

Company has no control over publicity in terms of message, time, frequency, information, and
medium. It comes through mass media like radio, newspapers, television, etc. It is given
independently by the third party. It is presented as a news rather than propaganda.

6. Credibility/Social Significance:

Publicity has high degree of credibility or reliability as it comes from mass media
independently. It is given as news for social interest. It has more social significance compared
to other means of market promotion.

7. Part of Public Relations:

Publicity is a part of broad public relations efforts and activities. Public relations includes
improving, establishing, and maintaining direct relations with all public's. Publicity can help
improve public relations.

8. Costs:

Publicity can be done at much lower cost than advertising. Company needs to spend a little
amount to get the event or function publicized.

9. Effect:

Publicity message is more likely to be read, viewed, heard, and reacted by audience. It has a
high degree of reliability as it is given by the third party.

10. Repetition:

Frequency or repetition of publicity in mass media depends upon its social significance or the
values for news. Mostly, it appears only once.

Importance of Publicity:

Like advertising and sales promotion, sales can be increased by publicity, too. Publicity carries
more credibility compared to advertisement. Publicity is cost free; it doesn’t involve direct
cost. Publicity offers a lot of benefits to the producers and distributors. Importance of publicity
can be made clear from the below stated points:

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1. Publicity is an effective medium to disseminate message to the mass with more credibility.
People have more trust on news given by publicity.

2. The credibility level of publicity is much higher than advertising and other means of market
promotion. People express more trust on what the third party independently says. It appears
directly through newspapers, magazines, television, or radio by the third party. It is free from
bias.

3. It provides more information as the valuable information is free from space and time
constraints. Similarly, publicity takes place immediately. No need to wait for time or space in
mass media. It enjoys priority.

4. The firm is not required to pay for publicity. The indirect costs related to publicity are much
lower than other means of promotion.

5. It is a part of public relations. It is free from exaggeration; it carries more factual

information about company. It is more trust worthy. It helps establish public relations.

6. Generally, publicity covers the varied information. It normally involves name of company, its
goods and services, history, outstanding achievements, and other similar issues. The
knowledge is more complete compared to advertisement.

7. Publicity directly helps middlemen and sale persons. Their tasks become easy. Publicity
speaks a lot about products on behalf of middlemen and salesmen. Sellers are not required to
provide more information to convince the buyers.

8. It is suitable to those companies which cannot effort the expensive ways to promote the
product.

9. Publicity increases credit or fame of the company. Publicity on company’s assistance in

relief operations during flood, earthquake, draught, and other natural calamities highlights its
name and social contribution in mass media. People hold high esteem to this company.

10. Publicity can be used by non-commercial organizations/institutes like universities,

hospitals, associations of blinds or handicaps, and other social and missionary organizations.
They can publicize their noble works by the medium of publicity.

Objectives of Publicity:

Publicity is aimed at a number of objectives.The most common objectives of publicity have

been discussed in brief as under:

1. Building Corporate Image:Through publicity, a company can build or improve its corporate
image. People trust more on what press reporters, columnists, or newsreaders say via mass
media independently than what the company says. Publicity highlights the company’s name
and operations. It popularizes the name of the company.

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2. Economy:It is a cost saving medium. Here, a company is not required to pay for message
preparation, buying space and time, etc. The cost involved is much lower than other means of
market promotion. Financially poor companies may opt for publicity.

3. Assisting Middlemen and Salesmen:Publicity can help middlemen and salesmen in

performing the sales-related activities successfully. Information conveyed through publicity
speaks a lot of things on behalf of sellers. Publicity makes selling tasks much easier.

4. Information with High Creditability:Sometimes, publicity is targeted to disseminate

information more reliably. Customers do not express doubts on what publicity appeals.
Customers assign more value to information supplied by mass media via publicity than by the
advertisement.

5. Removing Misunderstanding or Bad Image:Company can defend the product that has
encountered public problems. In many cases, publicity is aimed at removing misunderstanding
or bad impression. Whatever a publicity conveys is more likely to be believed.

6. Building Interest on Product Categories:Publicity attracts attention of buyers. Due to more

trusted news, people build interest in various products and activities.

7. Newsworthiness Information:Publicity publicizes the fact in an interesting ways. Publicity is

eye-catching in nature. People do not skip the news presented by publicity that more likely
happens in case of advertising. For

example, when a new product is launched by the distinguished personalities like film star,
eminent artist, or cricketer in a grand function, the product becomes popular within no time

Propaganda

“Propaganda is the deliberate and systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate

cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the
propagandist.” -Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O’Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion
Throughout the course of human history, we have witnessed a number of events that have
been a source of pain and shame for people across the world. The removal and relocation of
native people in North America, the Jewish Holocaust of the Second World War, and the
ethnic cleansing of Tuts is in Rwanda during the early 1990s are only a few examples. But,
while each of these represents the worst aspects of humanity, they're also an example of the
successful use of propaganda.

Propaganda is a mode of communication used to manipulate or influence the opinion of

groups to support a particular cause or belief. Over the centuries, propaganda has taken the
form of artwork, films, speeches, and music, though it's not limited to these forms of
communication. Though its use is not exclusively negative, propaganda very often involves a
heavy emphasis on the benefits and virtues of one idea or group, while simultaneously
distorting the truth or suppressing the counter-argument. For example, the Nazi party rose to
power by promoting the idea that it would lead Germany out of economic depression, which it

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claimed was, among other things, the result of Jewish people stealing jobs from hard-working
Germans.

Types of Propaganda

Even propaganda is categorized based on the methods it uses to shape its argument. These
categories are traditionally labeled as white, black, and gray propaganda. While there are
discrepancies in the way these terms are defined, Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O’Donnell
(Propaganda and Persuasion) use the following labels:

“White propaganda comes from a source that is identified correctly, and the information in
the message tends to be accurate…Although what listeners hear is reasonably close to the
truth, it is presented in a manner that attempts to convince the audience that the sender is
the ‘good guy’ with the best ideas and political ideology.”“Black propaganda is credited to a
false source, and it spreads lies, fabrications, and deceptions.”“Gray propaganda is
somewhere between white and black propaganda. The source may or may not be correctly
identified, and the accuracy of information is uncertain.” While these definitions are in
themselves fairly ambiguous, one could argue that all forms of persuasion fall into the
category of white propaganda at the very least, extending the general definition of
propaganda to anything that argues an opinion.

Theories of Mass Media

The study of communication and mass media has led to the formulation of many theories:
structural and functional theories believe that social structures are real and function in ways
that can be observed objectively; cognitive and behavioral theories tend to focus on
psychology of individuals; interaction theories view social life as a process of interaction;
interpretive theories uncover the ways people actually understand their own experience; and
critical theories are concerned with the conflict of interests in society and the way
communication perpetuates domination of one group over another .The earliest theories
were those propounded by Western theorists Siebert, Paterson and Schramm in their book
Four Theories Of the Press (1956).These were termed "normative theories" by McQuail in the
sense that they "mainly express ideas of how the media ought to or can be expected to
operate under a prevailing set of conditions and values." Each of the four original or classical
theories is based on a particular political theory or economic scenario.

HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY/ MAGIC BULLET THEORY

History and Orientation The "hypodermic needle theory" implied mass media had a
direct,immediate and powerful effect on its audiences. The mass media in the 1940s and
1950s were perceived as a powerful influence on behavior change.Several factors contributed
to this "strong effects" theory of communication, including: the fast rise and popularization of
radio and television the emergence of the persuasion industries, such as advertising and
propaganda the Payne Fund studies of the 1930s, which focused on the impact of motion
pictures on children, and Hitler's monopolization of the mass media during WWII to unify the
German public behind the Nazi party

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Core Assumptions and Statements

The theory suggests that the mass media could influence a very large group of people directly
and uniformly by ‘shooting’ or ‘injecting’ them with appropriate messages designed to trigger
a desired response.Both images used to express this theory (a bullet and a needle) suggest a
powerful and direct flow of information from the sender to the receiver. The bullet theory
graphically suggests that the message is a bullet, fired from the "media gun" into the viewer's
"head". With similarly emotive imagery the hypodermic needle model suggests that media
messages are injected straight into a passive audience which is immediately influenced by the
message. They express the view that the media is a dangerous means of communicating an
idea because the receiver or audience is powerless to resist the impact of the message. There
is no escape from the effect of the message in these models. The population is seen as a sitting
duck. People are seen as passive and are seen as having a lot of media material "shot" at
them. People end up thinking what they are told because there is no other source of
information.

New assessments that the Magic Bullet Theory was not accurate came out of election studies
in "The People's Choice," (Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet, 1944/1968). The project was
conducted during the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940 to determine voting patterns
and the relationship between the media and political behavior. The majority of people
remained untouched by the propaganda; interpersonal outlets brought more influence than
the media. The effects of the campaign were not all-powerful to where they persuaded
helpless audiences uniformly and directly, which is the very definition of what the magic bullet
theory does. As focus group testing, questionnaires, and other methods of marketing
effectiveness testing came into widespread use; and as more interactive forms of media (e.g.:
internet, radio call-in shows, etc.) became available, the magic bullet theory was replaced by a
variety of other, more instrumental models, like the two step of flow theory and diffusion of
innovations theory.

USES AND GRATIFICATIONS MODEL

History and Orientation

Originated in the 1970s as a reaction to traditional mass communication research emphasizing

the sender and the message. Stressing the active audience and user instead. Psychological
orientation taking needs, motives and gratifications of media users as the main point of
departure. Core Assumptions and Statements Uses and gratifications theory attempts to
explain the uses and functions of the media for individuals, groups, and society in general.

There are three objectives in developing uses and gratifications theory:

1) to explain how individuals use mass communication to gratify their needs. “What do people
do with the media”.

2) to discover underlying motives for individuals’ media use.

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3) to identify the positive and the negative consequences of individual media use. At the core
of uses and gratifications theory lies the assumption that audience members actively seek out
the mass media to satisfy individual needs.

Statement: A medium will be used more when the existing motives to use the medium leads
to more satisfaction.

CULTURAL STUDIES MODEL:

With the decline of hypodermic needle theories a new perspective began to emerge: the
stalagmite theories. Black used the metaphor of stalagmite theories to suggest that media
effects occur analogously to the slow buildup of formations on cave floors, which take their
interesting forms after eons of the steady dripping of lime water from the cave ceilings above.
One of the most popular theories that fit this perspective is cultivation theory. Cultivation
theory (sometimes referred to as the cultivation hypothesis or cultivation analysis) was an
approach developed by Professor George Gerbner, dean of the Annen berg School of
Communications at the University of Pennsylvania. He began the 'Cultural Indicators' research
project in the mid-1960s, to study whether and how watching television may influence
viewers' ideas of what the everyday world is like. Cultivation research is in the 'effects'
tradition. Cultivation theorists argue that television has long-term effects which are small,
gradual, indirect but cumulative and significant.

Core Assumptions and Statements:

Cultivation theory in its most basic form, suggests that television is responsible for shaping, or
‘cultivating’ viewers’ conceptions of social reality. The combined effect of massive television
exposure by viewers over time subtly shapes the perception of social reality for individuals
and, ultimately, for our culture as a whole. Gerbner argues that the mass media cultivate
attitudes and values which are already present in a culture: the media maintain and propagate
these values among members of a culture, thus binding it together. He has argued that
television tends to cultivate middle-of-the- road political perspectives. Gerbner called this
effect ‘mainstreaming’.

Cultivation theorists distinguish between ‘first order’ effects (general beliefs about the
everyday world, such as about the prevalence of violence) and ‘second order’ effects (specific
attitudes, such as to law and order or to personal safety). There is also a distinction between
two groups of television viewers: the heavy viewers and the light viewers. The focus is on
‘heavy viewers’. People who watch a lot of television are likely to be more influenced by the
ways in which the world is framed by television programs than are individuals who watch less,
especially regarding topics of which the viewer has little first-hand experience. Light viewers
may have more sources of information than heavy viewers. ‘Resonance’ describes the
intensified effect on the audience when what people see on television is what they have
experienced in life. This double dose of the televised message tends to amplify the cultivation
effect.

Favorite Methods

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Cultivation analysis usually involves the correlation of data from content analysis (identifying
prevailing images on television) with survey data from audience research (to assess any
influence of such images on the attitudes of viewers). Audience research by cultivation
theorists involves asking large-scale public opinion poll organizations to include in their
national surveys questions regarding such issues as the amount of violence in everyday life.
Answers are interpreted as reflecting either the world of television or that of everyday life.
The answers are then related to the amount of television watched, other media habits and
demographic data such as sex, age, income and education.

Scope and Application

Cultivation research looks at the mass media as a socializing agent and investigates whether
television viewers come to believe the television version of reality the more they watch it.

Example

In a survey of about 450 New Jersey schoolchildren, 73 percent of heavy viewers compared to
62 percent of light viewers gave the TV answer to a question asking them to estimate the
number of people involved in violence in a typical week. The same survey showed that
children who were heavy viewers were more fearful about walking alone in a city at night.
They also overestimated the number of people who commit serious crimes. This effect is
called ‘mean world syndrome’. One controlled experiment addressed the issue of cause and
effect, manipulating the viewing of American college students to create heavy- and light-
viewing groups. After 6 weeks of controlled viewing, heavy viewers of action-adventure
programs were indeed found to be more fearful of life in the everyday world than were light
viewers.

I) CLASSICAL THEORIES

Authoritarian Theory

According to this theory, mass media, though not under the direct control of the State, had to
follow its bidding. Under an Authoritarian approach in Western Europe, freedom of thought
was jealously guarded by a few people (ruling classes), who were concerned with the
emergence of a new middle class and were worried about the effects of printed matter on
their thought process. Steps were taken to control the freedom of expression. The result was
advocacy of complete dictatorship. The theory promoted zealous obedience to a hierarchical
superior and reliance on threat and punishment to those who did not follow the censorship
rules or did not respect authority. Censorship of the press was justified on the ground that the
State always took precedence over the individual's right to freedom of expression.This theory
stemmed from the authoritarian philosophy of Plato (407 - 327 B.C), who thought that the
State was safe only in the hands of a few wise men. Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679), a British
academician, argued that the power to maintain order was sovereign and individual objections
were to be ignored. Engel, a German thinker further reinforced the theory by stating that
freedom came into its supreme right only under Authoritarianism.The world has been witness
to authoritarian means of control over media by both dictatorial and democratic governments.

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Libertarianism or Free Press Theory

This movement is based on the right of an individual, and advocates absence of restraint. The
basis of this theory dates back to 17th century England when the printing press made it
possible to print several copies of a book or pamphlet at cheap rates. The State was thought of
as a major source of interference on the rights of an individual and his property. Libertarians
regarded taxation as institutional theft. Popular will (vox populi) was granted precedence over
the power of State.

Advocates of this theory were Lao Tzu, an early 16th century philosopher, John Locke of Great
Britain in the17th century, John Milton, the epic poet ("Aeropagitica") and John Stuart Mill, an
essayist ("On Liberty"). Milton in Aeropagitica in 1644, referred to a self righting process if free
expression is permitted "let truth and falsehood grapple." In 1789, the French, in their
Declaration Of The Rights Of Man, wrote "Every citizen may speak, write and publish freely."
Out of such doctrines came the idea of a "free marketplace of ideas." George Orwell defined
Libertarianism as "allowing people to say things you do not want to hear". Libertarians argued
that the press should be seen as the Fourth Estate reflecting public opinion. What the theory
offers, in sum, is power without social responsibility.

Social Responsibility Theory

Virulent critics of the Free Press Theory were Wilbur Schramm, Siebert and Theodore
Paterson. In their book Four Theories Of Press, they stated "pure Libertarianism is antiquated,
outdated and obsolete." They advocated the need for its replacement by the Social
Responsibility theory. This theory can be said to have been initiated in the United States by
the Commission of The Freedom Of Press, 1949. The commission found that the free market
approach to press freedom had only increased the power of a single class and has not served
the interests of the less well-off classes. The emergence of radio, TV and film suggested the
need for some means of accountability. Thus the theory advocated some obligation on the
part of the media to society. A judicial mix of self regulation and state regulation and high
professional standards were imperative. Social Responsibility theory thus became the modern
variation in which the duty to one"s conscience was the primary basis of the right of free
expression.

Soviet Media/Communist Theory

This theory is derived from the ideologies of Marx and Engels that "the ideas of the ruling
classes are the ruling ideas". It was thought that the entire mass media was saturated with
bourgeois ideology. Lenin thought of private ownership as being incompatible with freedom of
press and that modern technological means of information must be controlled for enjoying
effective freedom of press.

The theory advocated that the sole purpose of mass media was to educate the great masses of
workers and not to give out information. The public was encouraged to give feedback as it was
the only way the media would be able to cater to its interests.Two more theories were later
added as the "four theories of the press" were not fully applicable to the non-aligned

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countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, who were committed to social and economic
development on their own terms. The two theories were:

Development Communication Theory

The underlying fact behind the genesis of this theory was that there can be no development
without communication. Under the four classical theories, capitalism was legitimized, but
under the Development communication theory, or Development Support Communication as it
is otherwise called, the media undertook the role of carrying out positive developmental
programmes, accepting restrictions and instructions from the State. The media subordinated
themselves to political, economic, social and cultural needs. Hence the stress on
"development communication" and "development journalism". There was tacit support from
the UNESCO for this theory. The weakness of this theory is that "development" is often
equated with government propaganda.

Democratization/Democratic Participant Media Theory

This theory vehemently opposes the commercialization of modern media and its top-down
nonparticipant character. The need for access and right to communicate is stressed.
Bureaucratic control of media is decried.Since the early 1900s, Theories of mass
communication have changed dramatically. largely as a result of quickly changing technology
and more sophisticated academic theories and research methods. A quick overview of the
state of the media in the early 1900s and in the early 2000s provides some context for how
views of the media changed. In the early 1900s, views of mass communication were formed
based on people’s observation of the popularity of media and assumptions that something
that grew that quickly and was adopted so readily must be good. Many people were optimistic
about the mass media’s potential to be a business opportunity, an educator, a watchdog, and
an entertainer. For example, businesses and advertisers saw media as a good way to make
money, and the educator class saw the media as a way to inform citizens who could then be
more active in a democratic society. As World War I and the Depression came around, many
saw the media as a way to unite the country in times of hardship. Early scholarship on mass
media focused on proving these views through observational and anecdotal evidence rather
than scientific inquiry.Fast forward one hundred years and newspapers are downsizing,
consolidating to survive, or closing all together; radio is struggling to stay alive in the digital
age; and magazine circulation is decreasing and becoming increasingly more focused on micro
audiences. The information function of the news has been criticized and called “infotainment,”
and rather than bringing people together, the media has been cited as causing polarization
and a decline in civility (Self,

Gaylord, & Gaylord, 2009). The extremes at each end of the twentieth century clearly show
that the optimistic view of the media changed dramatically. An overview of some of the key
theories can help us better understand this change.

Conceptual Model

Example

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The classic example of the application of the Magic Bullet Theory was illustrated on October
30, 1938 when Orson Welles and the newly edition of H.G. Wells' "War of the
Worlds."interrupted with a "news bulletin" for the first time. What the audience heard was
that Martians had begun an invasion of Earth in a place called Grover's Mill, New Jersey. It
became known as the "Panic Broadcast"civil defense and set a standard for provocative
entertainment. Approximately 12 million people in the United States heard the broadcast and
about one million of those actually believed that a serious alien invasion was underway. A
wave of mass hysteria disrupted households, interrupted religious services, caused traffic jams
and clogged communication system homes to seek shelter in more rural areas, raided grocery
stores and began to ration food. The nation was in a state of chaos, and this broadcast was the
cause of it.Media theorists have classified the Magic Bullet Theory. This is exactly how the
theory worked, by injecting the message directly into the "bloodstream" of the public,
attempting to create a uniform thinking. The effects of the broadcast suggested that the
media could manipulate a passive and gullible public, leading theorists to believe this was one
of the primary ways media authors shaped audience perception.

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