NUCLEI

CHAPTER – 13

NUCLEI
In every atom, the positive charge and mass are densely No. of Protons, Electrons, nucleons and Neutrons in an
concentrated at the center of the atom forming its nucleus. Atom:
More than 99.9% mass of the atom is concentrated in the (a) Number of protons in an atom = Z
nucleus. (b) Number of electrons in an atom = Z
Composition Of Nuclei (c) Number of nucleons in an atom = A
the nucleus has two main components: protons and neutrons. (d) Number of neutrons in an atom = N = A – Z
The positively-charged entities are protons that are solely Isotopes –
present inside the nucleus and neutrons are neutral in charge The nuclides having the same atomic number (Z) but
and do not carry any charge. different mass number (A) are called isotopes.
Atomic number Isobars-
The total number of protons present inside a nucleus of an The nuclides having the same mass number (A), but different
atom is called atomic number. The atomic number is denoted atomic number (Z) are called isobars.
by the letter ‘Z’. Isotones-
Atomic mass The nuclides having the same number of neutrons (A–Z) are
The total combined number of neutrons and protons present called isotones.
inside a nucleus is called atomic mass. While calculating the Mass – Energy
mass of an atom, the mass of electrons should not be Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy and one
calculated; rather only the mass of neutrons and protons are can convert mass-energy into other forms of energy, say
taken into consideration. This is because the electrons are the kinetic energy and vice-versa. Einstein gave the famous mass-
lightest particles in a nucleus, and hence their mass is never energy equivalence relation E = mc2
considered while calculating atomic mass. The atomic mass Here the energy equivalent of mass m is related by the above
number is also known as mass number. The atomic mass equation and c is the velocity of light in vacuum and is
number is denoted by the letter ‘A’. approximately equal to 3×108 m s
It is the nearest integer value of mass represented in a.m.u.
(atomic mass unit). Nuclear Binding Energy
1 It is the minimum energy required to break the nucleus into
1 a.m.u. = [mass of one atom of 6C12 atom at rest and in its constituent particles.
12
ground state] Or
= 1.6603 × 10–27 kg 931.478 MeV/c2 Amount of energy released during the formation of nucleus
mass of proton (mp) = mass of neutron (mn) = 1 a.m.u. by its constituent particles and bringing them from infinite
separation.
Binding Energy (B.E.) = mc2 Radioactivity
BE = m (in amu) × 931 MeV/amu It was discovered by Henry Becquerel. Spontaneous emission
= m × 931 MeV of radiations (  ) from unstable nucleus is called
Note radioactivity. Substances which show radioactivity are
known as radioactive substance. Radioactivity was studied
If binding energy per nucleon is more for a nucleus, in detail by Rutherford.
then it is more stable.
Law Of Radioactive Decay
When a radioactive material decays, the number of nuclei
Example decaying per unit time is proportional to the total number of
nuclei in the sample material. So,
If (
𝐵.𝐸1
)>(
𝐵.𝐸2
) If N is the total number of nuclei in the sample and ΔN is the
𝐴1 𝐴2 number of nuclei that decay in time Δt, then
then nucleus 1 would be more stable. 𝛥𝑁
∝ 𝑁
𝛥𝑡
𝛥𝑁
Or, = 𝜆𝑁
Variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass 𝛥𝑡

number: where λ denotes the radioactive decay or disintegration

The binding energy per nucleon first increases on an average constant. The change in the number of nuclei in the sample is
and reaches a maximum of about 8.8 MeV for A = 56. now given by dN = – ΔN in time Δt. As a result, the rate of
For still heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon slowly change of N (in the limit Δt → 0) is,
𝑑𝑁
decreases as A increases. Binding energy per nucleon is = – 𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
maximum for 26Fe56, which is equal to 8.8MeV. Binding Or,
𝑑𝑁
= – 𝜆 𝑑𝑡
𝑁
energy per nucleon is more for medium nuclei
Now, if we integrate both sides of the above equation, we get,
than for heavy nuclei. Hence, medium nuclei are highly stable. 𝑁 𝑑𝑁 𝑡
∫𝑁 = 𝜆 ∫𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Nuclear Reaction 0 𝑁 0

When a beam of monoenergetic particles (e.g., 𝛼-rays, 𝑙𝑛 𝑁 – 𝑙𝑛 𝑁0 = – 𝜆 (𝑡 – 𝑡0 )

neutrons etc.) collides with a stable nucleus, the original Where N0 denotes the number of radioactive nuclei in the
nucleus is converted into a nucleus of new element. This sample at any given time. t0 is the initial time, and N is the
process is called a nuclear reaction. A typical nuclear reaction number of radioactive nuclei at any subsequent time t. After
is that, we set t0 = 0 and rearrange the above equation (3) to get,
𝑁
𝑎+X →Y+𝑏 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = – 𝜆𝑡
𝑁0
where 𝑎 is incident energetic particle, 𝑋 is target nucleus, 𝑌 is Or, N(t) = N0e– λt … (4)
residual nucleus and 𝑏 is outgoing particle. This reaction in This equation is representing the Law of Radioactive Decay.
compact form is expressed as
𝑋(𝑎, 𝑏)𝑌 Radioactive Displacement Laws
In a nuclear reaction mass number, electric charge, linear (i) When a nuclide emits an 𝛼-particle, its mass number is
momentum, angular momentum and total energy are always reduced by four and atomic number by two, i.e., AZ X →
A−4 4
conserved. The energy of reaction is Z−2 Y + 2 He + Energy
Q = (𝑀𝑎 + 𝑀𝑋 )𝑐 2 − (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑌 )𝑐 2 (ii) When a nuclide emits a 𝛽-particle, its mass number
remains unchanged but atomic number increases by
Nuclear Fission-
one, i.e., AZ X → AZ+1 Y + 0−1 𝛽 + 𝑣 + Energy, where 𝜈 is the
The heavier nuclei being unstable have tendency to split into
antineutrino.
medium nuclei. This process is called Fission.
The 𝛽-particles are not present initially in the nucleus
Nuclear Fusion- but are produced due to the disintegration of neutron
The Lighter nuclei being unstable have tendency to fuse into into a proton,
a medium nucleus. This process is called Fusion. i.e., 10 n → 11 H + 0−1 𝛽 + 𝜈 (antineutrion)
Nuclear Force When a proton is converted into a neutron, positive 𝛽-
The nuclear force is a force that acts between the protons and particle or positron is emitted.
1 1 0
neutrons of atoms. 1 H → 0 n + 1 𝛽 + 𝜈 (neutrino)
The nuclear force is the force that binds the protons and (iii) When a nuclide emits a gamma photon, neither the
neutrons in a nucleus together. This force can exist between atomic number nor the mass number changes.
protons and protons, neutrons and protons or neutrons and Half-life and Mean life
neutrons. This force is what holds the nucleus together. The The half-life period of a radioactive substance is defined as
charge of protons, which is +1e, tends to push them away the time in which one-half of the radioactive substance is
from each other with a strong electric field repulsive force, disintegrated. If 𝑁0 is the initial number of radioactive atoms
following Coulomb’s law. But nuclear force is strong enough present, then in a half life time 𝑇, the number of undecayed
to keep them together and to overcome that resistance at radioactive atoms will be 𝑁0 /2 and in next half 𝑁0 /4 and so
short range. on.
 𝑁0
That is 𝑡 = 𝑇 (half-life), 𝑁 = 𝐴0 = 𝜆𝑁0
2 𝐴 𝑁
∴ From relation 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇 ∴ = = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝐴0 𝑁0
𝑁 1
we get, 0 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇 or 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇 = i.e., 𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
2 2
From equations (𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖), we get -particle
𝑁 1 𝑡/𝑇
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 = ( ) It is a doubly charged helium nucleus. It contains two protons
𝑁0 2
and two neutrons.
Equation (iii) is the basic equation for the solution of half-life
Mass of -particle = Mass of 2He4 atom – 2me 4 mp
problems of radioactive elements.
The half-life 𝑇 and disintegration constant 𝜆 are related as Charge of -particle = + 2 e
𝑇=
0.6931 -particle
𝜆
(a) – (electron) : Mass = me ; Charge = –e
The mean life of a radioactive substance is equal to the sum
of life time of all atoms divided by the number of all atoms, (b) + (positron) : Mass = me ; Charge = +e
i.e., Mean life, positron is an antiparticle of electron.
𝜏=
sum of life time of all atoms
=
1 Antiparticle
total number of atoms 𝜆 A particle is called antiparticle of other if on collision both can
From equations (iv) and (𝑣), we get
annihilate (destroy completely) and converts into energy. For
𝑇 = 0.6931𝜏 i.e., 𝑇 < 𝜏
example: (i) electron ( – e, me) and positron (+ e, me) are anti
Activity of Radioactive Substance particles.
The activity of a radioactive substance means the rate of (ii) neutrino (𝑣) and antineutrino (𝜈̄ ) are anti particles.
decay (or the number of disintegrations/ sec). This is denoted
by -particle
𝑑𝑁 𝑑 They are energetic photons of energy of the order of Mev and
𝐴 = | | = | (𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆 )| = 𝜆𝑁 having rest mass zero.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
If 𝐴0 is the activity at time 𝑡 = 0, then,

Q. For the 𝛽 + (positron) emission from a nucleus, there is another competing process known as electron capture
(electron from inner orbit, say, the K-shell is captured by the nucleus and a neutrino is emitted.
𝑒 − + AZ 𝑋 ⟶ AZ−1 𝑌 + 𝜈
Show that if 𝛽 + emission is energetically allowed, electron capture is necessarily allowed but not vice-versa.
Sol. Consider the two competing processes
Positron emission: ZZX X ⟶ AZ−1 Y + 𝑒 + + 𝜈 + 𝑄1 and
Electron capture, 𝑒 − + AZ X ⟶ AZ−1 Y + 𝜈 + 𝑄2
𝑄l = [𝑚𝑁 ( AZ X) − 𝑚𝑁 (z−1
A
Y) − 𝑚𝑒 ]𝑐 2
Converting nuclear masses into atomic masses
𝑄1 = [𝑚( AZ X) − 𝑍𝑚𝑒 − {𝑚(z−1 A
Y) + (Z − 1)𝑚𝑒 } − 𝑚𝑒 ]𝑐 2
= [𝑚( AZ X) − 𝑚( AZ−1 Y) − 2𝑚𝑒 ]𝑐 2
𝑄2 = [𝑚𝑁 ( AZ X) + 𝑚𝑒 − 𝑚𝑁 (z−1
A
Y)]𝑐 2
= [𝑚( AZ X) − 𝑚𝑒 + 𝑚𝑒 − {𝑚(z−1
A
Y) + (Z − 1)𝑚𝑒 }]𝑐 2
= [𝑚( AZ X) − 𝑚(z−1
A
Y)]𝑐 2
This means that 𝑄1 > 0 implies 𝑄2 > 0; but 𝑄2 > 0 does not necessarily imply 𝑄1 > 0. Thus if 𝛽 + emission is
energetically allowed, electron capture is necessarily allowed, but not vice-versa.

Q. The fission properties of 239 94 Pu are very similar to those of 235 92 U. The average energy released per fission is
180MeV. How much energy, in MeV, is released if all the atoms in 1 kg of pure 239 94 Pu undergo fission?
Sol. Average energy released per fission of 239
94 Pu, E av = 180MeV
Amount of pure 239 94 Pu, m = 1 kg = 1000 grams
Avogadro's number = NA = 6.023 × 1023
Mass number of 239 94 Pu = 239
Now, 1 mole of 239 94 Pu contains NA atoms. Therefore, ' m ' grams of 239 94 Pu will contain {(NA /Mass number)
× m} number of atoms, = [(6.023 × 1023 )/239] × 1000 = 2.52 × 1024 atoms.
Hence, total energy released during the fission of 1 kg of 239 94 Pu is:
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑎𝑣 × 2.52 × 1024
= 180 × 2.52 × 1024 = 4.536 × 1026 MeV
Mass Defect Nuclear fusion – energy generation in stars
It has been observed that there is a difference between It has been calculated that the sun radiates energy at the rate
expected mass and actual mass of a nucleus. of about 1026 J per second. The sun is radiating at this rate
Mexpected = Z mp + (A – Z)mn for several millions of years. The sources of energy of the sun
cannot be the chemical reactions because the energy released
Mobserved = Matom – Zme
in chemical reactions cannot last so long. It has also been
It is found that found that hydrogen and helium constitute about 90% of the
Mobserved < Mexpected mass of the sun and 10% are other elements. Since heavy
Hence, mass defect is defined as elements present in the sun are very small in quantity, so the
Mass defect = Mexpected – Mobserved source of energy of the sun cannot be nuclear fission. Fusion
∆m = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn] – [Matom – Zme] reactions are the source of energy in the sun and the stars,
inside which the temperature is of the order of 107 -108K. The
Nuclear Reactor basic energy-producing process in the sun is the fusion of
When 23592U undergoes a fission after being bombarded by a hydrogen nuclei and the same is true for many other stars.
neutron, it splits into two nuclei and releases a neutron. This The sequence of nuclear reactions is as follows:
12
extra neutron now initiates the fission of another 23592U 6C + 1 H1 → 7 N13 + Q1 (MeV)
13
nucleus. For that matter, 2.5 neutrons are released per fission 7N → 6 C13 + 1 e0 + v
13
of a uranium nucleus. Also, fission produces more neutrons 6C 1
H → 7 N14 + Q 2 (MeV)
1

14
than what can be consumed. 7N + 1 H1 → 8 O15 + Q 3 (MeV)
15
This increases the chances of a chain reaction with each 8O → 7 N15 + 1 e0 + v
15
neutron that is produced, triggering another fission. If this 7N + 1 H1 → 6 C12 + 2 He4
chain reaction is uncontrolled, then it can lead to destruction Total energy released in this cycle = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟔𝟖MeV
(like a nuclear bomb). On the other hand, in a controlled The above combinations give:
1 4 0
manner, it can be harnessed to generate electric power. 4 H →2 He + 21 e + 2v + 2Y + 24.68MeV
12
The initial 6 C acts as a kind of catalyst for the process since
However, there was a small problem. The neutrons generated
it reappears at its end. The above stated thermo-nuclear
in fission were highly energetic. They would escape rather
reactions take place in the sun and other stars and hence they
than trigger another fission reaction. Also, it was observed are the source of energy in the solar system. Thus, energy
that slow neutrons have a higher possibility of inducing fission released by fusion is greater than the energy released by
in 23592U than their faster counterparts. fission.
Now, the energy of a neutron produced in fission of 23592U is
around 2 MeV. Unless these neutrons are slowed down, they DID YOU KNOW?
tend to escape without inducing fission. This simply means Because of very high temperature (∼107) needed for
that we need a lot of fissionable material to sustain the chain nuclear fusion cannot be attained by any known
reaction. method in the laboratory.
• Atomic Number: 4
He +94 Be →10 n +12
2 1 C
The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic
(c) A free neutron decays spontaneously, with a half- life
number. It is denoted by Z.
of about 900 s, into a proton, electron and an
• Mass number:
antineutrino.
The total number of protons and neutrons present in a
nucleus is called the mass number of the element. It is
1
0 n →11 H +0−1 e + v
denoted by A. • Size of the Nucleus:
• No. of Protons, Electrons, nucleons and Neutrons in (a) It is found that a nucleus of mass number A has a
an Atom: radius
(a) Number of protons in an atom = Z a. R = R0A1/3
(b) Number of electrons in an atom = Z Where, R0 = 1.2 x 10-15 m
(c) Number of nucleons in an atom = A (b) This implies that the volume of the nucleus, which is
(d) Number of neutrons in an atom = N = A – Z. proportional to R3 is proportional A.
• Nuclear Mass: • Density of the Nucleus:
The total mass of the protons and neutrons present in a Density of nucleus is constant; independent of A, for all
nucleus is called the nuclear mass. nuclei and density of nuclear matter is approximately 2.3
• Nuclide: x 1017 kg m−3 which is very large as compared to ordinary
A nuclide is a specific nucleus of an atom characterized matter, say water which is 103 kg m-3.
by its atomic number Z and mass number A. It is • Mass-Energy equivalence:
represented as, ZAA Einstein proved that it is necessary to treat mass as
another form of energy. He gave the mass-energy
Where X = chemical symbol of the element, Z = atomic
equivalence relation as,
number and A = mass number
E = mc2
• Isotopes: Where m is the mass and c is the velocity of light in
(a) The atoms of an element which have the same atomic vacuum.
number but different mass number are called • Mass Defect:
isotopes. The difference between the rest mass of a nucleus and the
(b) Isotopes have similar chemical properties but sum of the rest masses of its constituent nucleons is
different physical properties. called its mass defect. It is given by,
• Isobars: ∆m = [Zmp + (A− Z)mn] − m
The atoms having the same mass number but different • Binding Energy:
atomic number are called isobars. (a) It may be defined as the energy required to break a
• Isotones: nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons
The nuclides having the same number of neutrons are and to separate them to such a large distance that
called isotones. they may not interact with each other.
• Isomers: (b) It may also be defined as the surplus energy which the
These are nuclei with same atomic number and same nucleus gives up by virtue of their attractions which they
mass number but in different energy states. become bound together to form a nucleus.
• Electron Volt: (c) The binding energy of a nucleus ZXA is,
It is defined as the energy acquired by an electron when B.E. = [Zmp + (A− Z)mn – m]c2
it is accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt • Binding Energy per Nucleon:
and is denoted by eV. It is average energy required to extract one nucleon from
• Atomic Mass Unit: the nucleus.
(a) It is
1
th of the actual mass of a carbon atom of It is obtained by dividing the binding energy of a nucleus
12 by its mass number.
isotope 6C12. It is denoted by amu or just by u. 𝐵.𝐸 [𝑍𝑚𝑝 +(𝐴−𝑍)𝑚𝑛 −]𝑐 2
(b) 1 amu = 1.660565 X 10-27 kg 𝐵̄ = =
𝐴 𝐴
(c) The energy equivalence of 1 amu is 1 amu = 931 MeV • Nuclear Forces:
• Discovery of Neutrons: (a) These are the strong in attractive forces which hold
(a) Neutrons were discovered by Chadwick in 1932. protons and neutrons together in a tiny nucleus.
(b) When beryllium nuclei are bombarded by alpha- (b) These are short range forces which operate over very
particles, highly penetrating radiations are emitted, short distance of about 2 – 3 fm of separation
which consists of neutral particles, each having mass between any two nucleons.
nearly that of a proton. These particles were called (c) The nuclear force does not depend on the charge of
neutrons. the nucleon.
• Nuclear Density: • Half-life:
The density of a nucleus is independent of the size of the The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time in
nucleus and is given by, which one-half of its nuclei will disintegrate. It is
Nuclear mass inversely proportional to the decay constant of the
𝜌𝑣 =
Nuclear volume
𝑚𝑣 radioactive substance.
=4 = 2.9𝑥10 kg𝑚−3
17
𝜋𝑅 2 0.693
•
3
Radioactivity:
T1/2 =

(a) It is the phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration • Mean Life:
of the nucleus of an atom with the emission of one or The mean-life of a radioactive sample is defined as the
more radiations like α -particles, β -particles or γ - ratio of the combined age of all the atoms and the total
rays. number of atoms in the given sample. It is given by,
(b) The substances which spontaneously emit
T1/2
penetrating radiation are called radioactive = = 1.44T1/2
substances. 0.693
• Radioactivity Displacement Law: • Rate of Decay or Activity of a Radioactive Sample:
It states that, It is defined as the number of radioactive disintegrations
(a) When a radioactive nucleus emits an α -particle, taking place per second in a given sample. It is expressed
atomic number decreases by 2 and mass number as,
decreases by 4.  dN 
(b) When a radioactive nucleus emits β -particle, its R(t ) =   =  N (t ) =  N (0)e− t
atomic number increases by 1 but mass number  dt 
remains same. • Curie:
(c) The emission of a γ -particle does not change the (a) It is the SI unit of decay.
mass number or the atomic number of the (b) One curie is the decay rate of 3.7 X 1010
radioactive nucleus. The γ -particle emission by a disintegrations per second.
radioactive nucleus lowers its energy state. • Rutherford:
• Alpha Decay: One Rutherford is the decay rate of 106 disintegrations
It is the process of emission of an α -particle from a per second.
radioactive nucleus. It may be represented as, • Natural Radioactivity:
A
X→ A− 4
Y + He + Q
4 It is the phenomenon of the spontaneous emission of-α, β
Z Z −2 2
and γ radiations from the nuclei of naturally occurring
• Beta Decay:
isotopes.
It is the process of emission of an electron from a
• Artificial or Induced Radioactivity:
radioactive nucleus. It may be represented as,
𝐴 𝐴 0 It is the phenomenon of inducing radioactivity in certain
𝑍 𝑋 →𝑍+ 1 𝑌+− 1 𝑒 + 𝑣̄ stable nuclei by bombarding them by suitable high
• Gamma Decay: energy sub atomic particles.
It is the process of emission of a γ -ray photon during the • Nuclear Reaction:
radioactive disintegration of a nucleus. It can be It is a reaction which involves the change of stable nuclei
represented as, of one element into the nucleus of another element.
A
Z X → A
Z X + • Nuclear Fission:
(Excited State) (Ground State) It is the process in which a heavy nucleus when excited
• Radioactive Decay Law: gets split into two smaller nuclei of nearly comparable
It states that the number of nuclei disintegrated of masses. For example,
undecayed radioactive nuclei present at that instant. It 235
92 U +10 n →141
56 Ba +36 Kr + 30 n + Q
92 1

may be written as, • Nuclear Reactor:

N(t) = N(0)e−λt It is a device in which a nuclear chain reaction is initiated,
Where N(0) is the number of nuclei at t = 0 and λ is maintained and controlled.
disintegration constant. • Nuclear Fusion:
• Decay or disintegration Constant: It is the process of fusion of two smaller nuclei into a
It may be defined as the reciprocal or the time interval in heavier nucleus with the liberation of large amount of
which the number of active nuclei in a given radioactive energy.
sample reduces to 36.8% of its initial value.
 PRACTICE EXERCISE
Q11. The nuclear radius is of the order of
MCQ (a) 10–10 m (b) 10–6 m
(c) 10 m
–15 (d) 10–14 m
Q1. The 'rad' is the correct unit used to report the
Q12. A nucleus represented by the symbol 𝐴𝑍𝑋 has
measurement of
(a) the ability of a beam of gamma ray photons to (a) 𝑍 neutrons and 𝐴 – 𝑍 protons
(b) 𝑍 protons and 𝐴 – 𝑍 neutrons
produce ions in a target
(b) the energy delivered by radiation to a target (c) 𝑍 protons and 𝐴 neutrons
(d) 𝐴 protons and 𝑍 – 𝐴 neutrons
(c) the biological effect of radiation
(d) the rate of decay of a radioactive source Q13. The energy required to break one bond in DNA is
Q2. Half-life of radioactive element depends upon 10−20 J. This value in eV is nearly
(a) amount of element present (a) 6 (b) 0.6
(b) temperature (c) 0.06 (d) 0.006
(c) pressure Q14. The half-life of radium is about 1600 years. If 100 g of
(d) nature of element radium existing now, 25 g will remain unchanged after
Q3. Control rods used in nuclear reactors are made of (a) 4800 years (b) 6400 years
(a) stainless steel (b) graphite (c) 2400 years (d) 3200 years
(c) cadmium (d) plutonium Q15. A sample of radioactive element has a mass of 10 g at
Q4. Boron rods in a nuclear reactor are used to an instant 𝑡 = 0. The approximate mass of this element
in the sample after two mean lives is
(a) absorb excess neutrons
(b) absorb alpha particle (a) 1.35 g (b) 2.50 g
(c) 3.70 g (d) 6.30 g
(c) slow down the reaction
(d) speed up the reaction
ASSERTION AND REASONING
Q5. A moderator is used in nuclear reactors in order to
(a) slow down the speed of the neutrons Directions: Each of these questions contain two statements,
(b) accelerate the neutrons Assertion and Reason. Each of these questions also has four
(c) increase the number of neutrons alternative choices, only one of which is the correct answer.
(d) decrease the number of neutrons You have to select one of the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) given
Q6. Fusion reactions take place at high temperature below.
because (a) atoms are ionised at (a) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is a correct
high temperature (b) molecules break up at explanation for assertion.
high temperature (c) nuclei break up at high (b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a
temperature (d) kinetic energy is high correct explanation for assertion
enough to overcome repulsion between nuclei (c) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect
Q7. Neutron decay in free space is given as follows (d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct
1 1 0
0 n →1 H +−1 e + [] Q1. Assertion: Neutrons penetrate matter more readily as
Then the parenthesis [ ] represents a compared to protons.
(a) neutrino (b) photon Reason: Neutrons are slightly more massive than
(c) antineutrino (d) graviton protons.
Q8. Radioactivity is Q2. Assertion: The mass number of a nucleus is always less
(a) irreversible process than its atomic number.
(b) self-disintegration process Reason: Mass number of a nucleus may be equal to its
(c) spontaneous atomic number.
(d) all of the above Q3. Assertion: The binding energy per nucleon, for nuclei
Q9. γ-rays are deflected by with atomic mass number A > 100, decrease with A.
(a) an electric field but not by a magnetic field Reason: The forces are weak for heavier nuclei.
(b) a magnetic field but not by an electric field Q4. Assertion: The heavier nuclei tend to have larger N/Z
(c) both electric and magnetic field ratio because neutron does not exert electric force.
(d) neither by electric field nor by magnetic field Reason: Coulomb forces have longer range compared
Q10. The element gold has to the nuclear force.
(a) 16 isotopes (b) 32 isotopes Q5. Assertion: Radioactive nuclei emit 𝛽 −1 particles.
(c) 96 isotopes (d) 173 isotopes Reason: Electrons exist inside the nucleus.
 neutrons and protons from each other. For simplicity
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS assume that the coin is entirely made of 63
29 Cu atoms (of
mass 62.92960u ). The masses of proton and neutrons
Q1. Why is it found experimentally difficult to detect are 1.00783 u and 1.00867 u respectively.
neutrinos in nuclear β-decay?
Q4. A 1000 MW fission reactor consumes half of its fuel in
Q2. Write two characteristic features of nuclear force 5 years. How much 235
92 U did it contail initially? Assume
which distinguish it from Coulomb’s force.
that the reactor operates 80% of the time and that all
Q3. The radioactive isotope 𝐷-decays according to the energy generated arise from the fission of 235 92 U and
sequence. that this nuclide is consumed only by the fission
𝛼 𝛽−
𝐷 ⟶ 𝐷1 ⟶ 𝐷2 process. Energ. generated per fission of 235 92 U is
If the mass number and atomic number of 𝐷2 are 176 200MeV.
and 71 respectively, what is the Q5. How long an electric lamp of 100 W can be kept
(i) mass number glowing by fusion of 2.0 kg of deuterium? The fusion
(ii) atomic number of 𝐷 ?
reaction can be taken as:
Ans. The sequence is represented as ZA𝐷⟶𝛼 2 2 3
1 H + 1 H ⟶ 2 He + 𝑛 + 3.2MeV
Z−2A−4𝐷1⟶𝛽− Z−1A−4𝐷2
125 27 Q6. The count rate of a Geiger Muller counter for the
Q4. What is the nuclear radius of Fe, if that of Al is
3.6 fermi? radiation of a radioactive material of half-life of 30
minutes decreases to 5 second−1 after 2 hours. The
Q5. Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 1: 2. What
initial count rate was
is the ratio of their nuclei densities?
Q7. Half-life of a radioactive element is 12.5 hours and its
NUMERICAL TYPE QUESTIONS quantity is 256 g. After how much time its quantity will
remain 1 g?
Q1. A heavy nucleus 𝑋 of mass number 240 and binding Q8. A certain mass of Hydrogen is changed to Helium by
energy per nucleon 7.6MeV is split into two fragments the process of fusion. The mass defect in fusion
𝑌 and 𝑍 of mass numbers 110 and 130. The binding reaction is 0.02866 u. Then determine the energy
energy per nucleon in 𝑌 and 𝑍 is 8.5 MeV per nucleon.
liberated per u.
Calculate the energy 𝑄 released per fission in MeV.
(Given 1 u = 931 MeV)
Q2. When four hydrogen nuclei combine to form a helium
nucleus, estimate the amount of energy in MeV Q9. What is the respective number of α and β particles
released in this process of fusion. (Neglect the masses emitted in the following radioactive decay?
200
of electrons and neutrinos) Given: 𝑋90 → 168𝑌80
(i) mass of 11 H = 1.007825u Q10. The binding energy per nucleon of 73Li and 42He nuclei
(ii) mass of helium nucleus = 4.002603u, 1u = are 5.60 MeV and 7.06 MeV respectively. In the nuclear
931MeV/c 2 reaction
7 1 4 4
Q3. A given coin has a mass of 3.0 g. Calculate the nuclear 3Li + 1H ⟶ 2He + 2He + 𝑄
energy that would be required to separate all the Then determine the value of energy 𝑄
 HOMEWORK EXERCISE
(a) 7N14 (b) 7N13
MCQ (c) 5B13 (d) 6C13
27 Q11. An element 𝐴 decays into element 𝐶 by a two step
Q1. If radius of the 13 Al nucleus is estimated to be 3.6
processes
fermi, then the radius of 125
52 Te nucleus be nearly 𝐴 → 𝐵 + 2He4 ; 𝐵 → 𝐶 + 2𝑒 − , Then
(a) 8 fermi (b) 6 fermi
(a) 𝐴 and 𝐶 are isotopes (b) 𝐴 and 𝐶 are isobars
(c) 5 fermi (d) 4 fermi
(c) 𝐴 and 𝐵 are isotopes (d) 𝐴 and 𝐵 are isobars.
Q2. The mass of a 73 Li nucleus is 0.042u less than the sum Q12. If in a nuclear fusion process the masses of the fusing
of the masses of all its nucleons. The binding energy per nuclei be 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 and the mass of the resultant
nucleon of 73 Li nucleus is nearly nucleus be 𝑚3 , then
(a) 46MeV(b) 5.6McV (a) 𝑚3 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 (b) 𝑚3 = |𝑚1 − 𝑚2 |
(c) 3.9MeV(d) 23MeV (c) 𝑚3 < (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) (d) 𝑚3 > (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
Q3. The mass defect in a particular nuclear reaction is 0.3 Q13. Which of the following is used as a moderator in
grams. The amount of energy liberated in kilowatt hour nuclear reaction?
is (Velocity of light = 3 × 108 m/s ) (a) Cadmium (b) Plutonium
(a) 1.5 × 106 (b) 2.5 × 106 (c) Uranium (d) Heavy water
(c) 3 × 106 (d) 7.5 × 106
Q14. Fission of nuclei is possible because the binding
Q4. Energy equivalent of 2 g of a substance is energy per nucleon in them
(a) 18 × 1013 mJ(b) 18 × 1013 J (a) increases with mass number at low mass numbers
(c) 9 × 1013 mJ(d) 9 × 1013 (b) decreases with mass number at low mass numbers
Q5. If MO is the mass of an oxygen isotope g17
g , MP and MN (c) increases with mass number at high mass numbers
are the masses of a proton and a neutron respectively, (d) decreases with mass number at high mass
the nuclear binding energy of the isotope is numbers.
(a) (Mo − 17MN )c 2 (b) (Mo − 8Mp )c 2 Q15. Atomic weight of Boron is 10.81 and it has two
(c) (Mo − 8MP − 9MN )c 2 (d) Mo c 2 isotopes 5B10 and 5B11 . Then the ratio of 5B10 : 5B11 in
Q6. Mass defect of helium (2 He4 ) is [use, mass of proton, nature would be
𝑚𝑝 = 1.0072676 u, mass of neutrons, 𝑚𝑛 = (a) 15: 16 (b) 10: 11
1.008665 𝑢 and mass of 2 He4 = 4.001506 𝑢 (c) 19: 81 (d) 81: 19
(a) 0.016767 u (b) 1.00726 u
(c) 2.00686 u (d) 0.0303592 u ASSERTION AND REASONING
Q7. α-particle consists of
(a) 2 protons only Directions: Each of these questions contain two statements,
(b) 2 protons and 2 neutrons only Assertion and Reason. Each of these questions also has four
(c) 2 electrons, 2 protons and 2 neutrons alternative choices, only one of which is the correct answer.
(d) 2 electrons and 4 protons only You have to select one of the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) given
below.
Q8. The half-life of a radioactive nucleus is 50 days. The
2 (a) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is a correct
time interval (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) between the time 𝑡2 when of it explanation for assertion.
3
1
has decayed and the time 𝑡1 when of it had decayed is (b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a
3
(a) 30 days (b) 50 days correct explanation for assertion
(c) 60 days (d) 15 days (c) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect
(d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct
Q9. Two radioactive nuclei 𝑃 and 𝑄, in a given sample
decay into a stable nucleus 𝑅. At time 𝑡 = 0, number of Q1. Assertion: Cobalt-60 is useful in cancer therapy.
𝑃 species are 4 𝑁0 and that of 𝑄 are 𝑁0 . Half-life of 𝑃 Reason: Cobalt -60 is source of J- radiations capable of
(for conversion to 𝑅) is 1 minute where as that of 𝑄 is killing cancerous cells.
2 minutes. Initially there are no nuclei of 𝑅 present in Q2. Assertion: It is not possible to use 35Cl as the fuel for
the sample. When number of nuclei of 𝑃 and 𝑄 are fusion energy.
equal, the number of nuclei of 𝑅 present in the sample Reason: The binding energy of 35Cl is too small.
would be Q3. Assertion: Energy is released when heavy nuclei
(a) 2 𝑁0 (b) 3 𝑁0 undergo fission or light nuclei undergo fusion and
9𝑁 5𝑁
(c) 0 (d) 0 Reason: For heavy nuclei, binding energy per nucleon
2 2
Q10. The nucleus 6C12 absorbs an energetic neutron and increases with increasing Z while for light nuclei it
emits a beta particle (β). The resulting nucleus is decreases with increasing Z.
 Q3. How much mass has to be converted into energy to
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
produce electric power of 200 MW for one hour?
Q1. (I) Write the basic nuclear process involved in the Q4. A nucleus ruptures into two nuclear parts, which have
emission of 𝛽 + in a symbolic form, by a radioactive their velocity ratio equal to 2: 1. What will be the ratio
nucleus. of their nuclear size (nuclear radius)?
(ii) In the reactions given below: Q5. The rate of radioactive disintegration at an instant for
(a) 611C ⟶ 𝑦𝑧 𝐁 + 𝑥 + 𝜈 a radioactive sample of half-life 2.2 × 109 s is 1010 s −1 .
𝑐
(b) 12 12 20
6 C + 6 C ⟶ 𝑎 Ne + 𝑏 He Then calculate the number of radioactive atoms in the
Find the values of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐. sample at that instant.
Q2. State three properties of nuclear forces. Q6. A radioactive sample with a half-life of 1 month has the
Q3. Calculate the energy in fusion reaction: label: ‘Activity = 2 micro curies on 1 – 8 – 1991’. What
2 2 3 2 would be its activity two months earlier?
1 H + 1 H ⟶ 2 He + n, where BE of 1 H = 2.23MeV and
3
of 2 He = 7.73MeV Q7. The half-life of a radioactive isotope ‘𝑋’ is 20 years. It
Q4. Why do stable nuclei never have more protons than decays to another element ‘𝑌’ which is stable. The two
neutrons? elements ‘𝑋’ and ‘𝑌’ were found to be in the ratio 1: 7 in
Q5. Four nuclei of an element undergo fusion to form a a sample of a given rock. Then determine the age of the
heavier nucleus, with release of energy. Which of the rock.
two — the parent or the daughter nucleus — would Q8. Half-life of a radioactive element is 12.5 hours and its
have higher binding energy per nucleon? quantity is 256 g. After how much time its quantity will
remain 1 g?
NUMERICAL TYPE QUESTIONS Q9. The half-life of a radioactive isotope 𝑋 is 50 years. It
decays to another element 𝑌 which is stable. The two
Q1. Chlorine has two isotopes having masses 34.98 u and
elements 𝑋 and 𝑌 were found to be in the ratio of 1: 15
36.98 u. with relative abundance of 75.4% and 24.6 %,
in a sample of a given rock. Then calculate the age of
respectively. Then find the average atomic mass of
the rock.
chlorine.
Q10. A radioactive element has half-life period 800 years.
Q2. If the nuclear radius of 27 Al is 3.6 fm, then determine
the approximate nuclear radius of 64 Cu in fm. After 6400 years what amount will remain?
 PRACTICE EXERCISE SOLUTIONS
S4. (b) E-particles, being emitted with very high speed
MCQ compared to D-particles, pass for very little time
near the atoms of the medium. So, the probability
S1. (c) The risk posed to a human being by any radiation of the atoms being ionized is comparatively less.
exposure depends partly upon the absorbed dose, But due to this reason, their loss of energy is very
the amount of energy absorbed per gram of slow and they can penetrate the medium through
tissue. Absorbed dose is expressed in rad. A rad is a sufficient depth.
equal to 100 ergs of energy absorbed by 1 gram S5. (c) Electrons are not inside nucleus
of tissue. The more modern, internationally
adopted unit is the gray (named after the English SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
medical physicist L. H. Gray); one gray equal 100
rad. S1. Neutrinos are chargeless (neutral) and almost
S2. (d) Half-life of a substance doesn’t depend upon massless particles that hardly interact with
amount, temperature and pressure. It depends matter.
upon the nature of the substance. S2. Characteristic Features of Nuclear Force
S3. (c) Control rods are made of cadmium. (i) Nuclear forces are short range attractive
forces (range 2 to 3 fm) while Coulomb’s
S4. (a) Boron rods absorb excess neutrons forces have range up to infinity and may be
S5. (c) Moderator slows down neutrons. attractive or repulsive.
S6. (d) Extremely high temps needed for fusion make (ii) Nuclear forces are charge independent
K.E. large enough to overcome repulsion between forces; while Coulomb's force acts only
nuclei. between charged particles
S7. (c) An electron is accompanied by an antineutrino. S3. (i) Given 𝐴−4=176⇒ Mass number of 𝐷, 𝐴=180
(ii) Z − 1 = 71 ⇒ Atomic number of 𝐷, 𝑍 = 𝟕𝟐
S8. (d) All the characteristics given are true for
radioactivity S4. Nuclear radius, 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴1/3 ⇒ 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴1/3
For Al, 𝐴 = 27, R Al = 3.6 fermi, for Fe, 𝐴 = 125
S9. (d) γ-rays carry no charge. They are neither deflected
by an electric field nor by a magnetic field. 𝑅Fe 𝐴Fe 1/3 125 1/3
∴ =( ) =( )
𝑅Al 𝐴Al 27
S10. (b) Gold has 32 isotopes ranging from A = 173 to A =
5 5
204 ⇒ 𝑅Fe = 𝑅Al = × 3.6 fermi = 𝟔. 𝟎 fermi
3 3
S11. (d) Nuclear radius = 10–14 m.
S5. Nuclear density is independent of mass number,
S12. (b) 𝑍 is number of protons and 𝐴 is the total number so ratio 1: 1.
of protons and neutrons.
S13. (c) Given: energy, 𝐸 = 10−20 J NUMERICAL TYPE QUESTIONS
1
Now, 1 J = −19 eV
1.6×10
10−20
S1. Energy released 𝑄 = (𝑀𝑌 + 𝑀𝑍 )𝑐 2 − 𝑀𝑋 𝑐 2
∴ 𝐸= −19 eV = 0.0625 eV ≃ 0.06 eV = 8.5(110 + 130)MeV − 7.6 × 240MeV
1.6×10
1 𝑛 𝑁 1 𝑛 = (8.5 − 7.6) × 240MeV
S14. (d) Using 𝑁 = 𝑁0 ( ) ⇒ =( ) = 0.9 × 240MeV = 𝟐16MeV
2 𝑁0 2
25 1 𝑛 S2. Energy released = Δ𝑚 × 931MeV
⇒ =( ) ⇒𝑛=2
100 2
Δ𝑚 = 4𝑚( 11 H) − 𝑚( 42 He)
The total time in which radium change to 25 g is
Energy released (𝑄) = [4𝑚( 11 H) − 𝑚( 42 He)] ×
= 2 × 1600 = 3200 yr
931MeV
1
S15. (a) At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑀0 = 10 g and 𝑡 = 2𝜏 = 2 ( ) = [4 × 1.007825 − 4.002603] × 931MeV
𝜆
2
1 2 = 26.72MeV
𝑀 = 𝑀0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 = 10𝑒 −𝜆(𝜆) = 10 ( ) = 1.35 g
𝑒 S3. Masses of protons and neutrons in 63u of Cu
= 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 = 29𝑚𝑝 + (63 − 29)𝑚𝑛
ASSERTION AND REASONING
= 29 × 1.00783 + (34 × 1.00867) =
29.22707 + 34.29478 = 63.52185u
S1. (b) Both statements are separately correct
Mass of 63
29 Cu atom = 62.92960u
S2. (d) In case of hydrogen atom mass number and Mass defect = 63.52185 − 62.92960 = 0.59225u
atomic number are equal. Energy released in 63 29 Cu atom = 0.59225 ×
S3. (c) Nuclear force is nearly same for all nucleus 931MeV = 551.385MeV
 6.02×1023 S6. Half-life time = 30 minutes; Rate of decrease (𝑁)
Number of atoms in 3 g of copper = ×
22
63 = 5 per second and total time = 2 hours = 120
3 = 2.87 × 10 minutes. Relation for initial and final count rate,
∴ Energy required to separate all nucleons 𝑅 1 time/half−life 1 120/30 1 4 1
(neutrons and protons) from each other =( ) =( ) =( ) =
𝑅0 2 2 2 16
= 2.87 × 1022 × 551.385MeV = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 1025 MeV Therefore 𝑅0 = 16 × 𝑅 = 16 × 5 = 80 s −1
1
S4. Number of U − 235 atoms in 1 gram = ×6× 𝑁 1 𝑛
235 S7. = ( ) ; 𝑛 → no. of decays
23 𝑁0 2
10
1 1 1 8 1 𝑛
Energy generated per gram of 23592 U = 235 × 6 × 256
=( ) =( ) ∴𝑛 =8
2 2
1023 × 200 × 1.6 × 10−13 Jg −1 Time for 8 half-life = 100 hours
𝑃 = 1000MW = 1000 × 106 W S8. As 21H + 21H ⟶ 42He
𝑡 = 5 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 5 × 3.154 × 107 s Here, ∆𝑀 = 0.02866 u
Total energy generated in 5 years with 80% time ∆𝑀×931
on ∴ The energy liberated per u is = MeV
4
80 0.02866×931 26.7
𝑄 = 𝑃𝑡 = (1000 × 106 × × 5 × 3.154 × = MeV = MeV = 6.675 MeV
100 4 4
7
10 ) J S9. On emission of one α-particle, atomic number
Amount of 235 decreases by 2 units and mass number decrease
92 U consumed in 5 years.
by 4 units. While the emission of β-particle does
S5. Number of deuterium atoms in 2 g = 6.02 × 1023
not affect the mass number and atomic number
Number of deuterium atoms in 2.0 kg is =
increases by 1 unit. Here, decrease in mass
6.02 × 1026
6.02×1026 number = 200 – 168 = 32.
Number of reactions = = 3.01 × 1026 ∴ Number of α-particles = 32/4 = 8.
2
Energy released in one reaction = 3.2MeV ∴ Number of β-particles = 16 – 10 = 6.
Total energy released, 𝑊 = 3.01 × 1026 ×
S10. Binding energy of 73Li nucleus
3.2MeV = 9.632 × 1026 MeV
= 7 × 5.60 MeV = 39.2 MeV
= 9.632 × 1026 × 1.6 × 10−13 J = 15.4 × 1013 J
If 𝑡 second is the required time during which the Binding energy of 42He nucleus
bulb glows, then 𝑊 = 𝑃𝑡 gives = 4 × 7.06 MeV = 28.24 MeV
𝑊 15.4×1013 The reaction is
𝑡= = 7 1 4
𝑃 100 3Li + 1H ⟶ 2( 2He) + 𝑄
= 15.4 × 1011 s ∴ 𝑄 = 2(BE or 42He) − (BE of 73Li)
15.4×1011
= years = 4.9 × 104 years. = 2 × 28.24 MeV – 39.2 MeV
3.15×107
= 56.48 MeV – 39.2 MeV = 17.28 MeV
 HOMEWORK EXERCISE SOLUTIONS
Divide (i) by (ii), we get
MCQ 1 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡2 1
= ⇒ = 𝑒 −𝜆(𝑡2−𝑡1) ⇒ 𝜆(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = ln 2
1/3 2 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡1 2
S1. (b) 𝑅 = 𝑅0 (𝐴) ln 2
𝑅1 𝐴 1/3 27 1/3 3
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = ⇒ 𝑇1 = 50 days
𝜆
∴ = ( 1) =( ) = 2
𝑅2 𝐴2 125 5 S9. (c)
5
𝑅 = × 3.6 = 6 fermi P Q
3
S2. (b) B. E −0.042 × 931 = 42MeV 4N0 N0
Number of nucleons in 73 Li is 7. Half-life 1 min 2 min
42
∴ B.E. / nucleon − − 6MeV = 5.6MeV No. of nuclei, NP NQ
7
0.3
at t = 0
2
S3. (d) E = Δm𝑐 ⇒ E = × (3 × 108 )2 = 2.7 ×
1000 Let after 𝑡 min the number of nuclei of 𝑃 and 𝑄 are
13
10 J equal.
2.7×1013
= = 7.5 × 106 kWh. 1 𝑡/1 1 𝑡/2
3.6×106 ∴ 𝑁𝑃 = 4𝑁0 ( ) and 𝑁𝑄 = 𝑁0 ( )
2 2
S4. (b) According to mass-energy equivalence relation,
As 𝑁𝑃 = 𝑁𝑄
Energy, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
1 𝑡/1 1 𝑡/2 2𝑡
By substituting, ∴ 4𝑁0 ( ) = 𝑁0 ( ) or 4 =
2 2 2𝑡/2
𝑚 = 2g = 2 × 10−3 kg, 𝑐 = 3 × 108 ms −1 𝑡/2 2 𝑡/2 𝑡
We have, 𝐸 = 2 × 10−3 × (3 × 108 )2 or 4 = 2 or 2 = 2 or = 2 or 𝑡 = 4 min
2
⇒ 𝐸 = 2 × 10−3 × 9 × 1016 18 × 1013 After 4 minutes, both 𝑃 and 𝑄 have equal number
S5. (c) Binding energy of nuclei.
= [7MP + (𝐴 − 𝑍)MN − M]c 2 ∴ Number of nuclei of 𝑅
= [8MP + (17 − 8)MN − M)c 2 𝑁0
= (4𝑁0 − ) + (𝑁0 − 0) =
𝑁 15𝑁0 3𝑁
+ 0= 0
9𝑁
4 4 4 4 2
= [8MP + 9MN − M 2 c 2 12
S10. (b) 6C + 0𝑛1 → 6C13 → 7N13 + −1β0 + Energy
= [8MP + 9MN − Mo ]c 2
S6. (d) Mass defect, Δ𝑚 S11. (a) From step (ii), 𝐵 has 2 units of charge more than
= Mass of nucleons – Mass of nucleus 𝐶.
= [𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 – 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 ] − 𝑀𝑛 From step (i), 𝐴 loses 2 units of charge by
Here, mass number, A = 4 emission of alpha particle. Hence, 𝐴 and 𝐶 are
Atomic number, Z = 2 isotopes as their charge number is same.
Number of protons = 2 S12. (c) In nuclear fusion the mass of end product or
Number of neutrons = A – Z = 4 – 2 = 2 resultant is always less than the sum of initial
𝑚𝑝 = 1.0072676 u product, the rest is liberated in the form of
𝑚𝑛 = 1.008665 u and 𝑀𝑛 = 4.001506 𝑢 energy, like in Sun energy is liberated due to
Mass of nucleon in 2 He4 = fusion of two hydrogen atoms.
Mass of 2 protons + Mass of 2 neutrons
S13. (d) In nuclear fission, the chain reaction is controlled
So, mass of nucleons = 2 × 1.0072676 + 2 ×
in such way that only one neutron, produced in
1.008665
each fission, causes further fission. Therefore,
∴ Δ𝑚 = 2 × 1.0072676 + 2 × 1.008665 −
4.001506 some moderator is used to slow down the
= 0.0303592 u neutrons. Heavy water is used for this purpose.
S7. (b) Alpha particle is a positively charged particle. S14. (d) For nuclei having 𝐴 > 56 binding energy per
It is identical to the nucleus of the helium ( 2He4 ) nucleon gradually decreases
atom, so it contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons. S15. (c) Let 5B10 be present as x% so percentage of 5B11 =
S8. (b) According to radioactive decay law (100 – 𝑥)
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 ∴ Average atomic weight
where 𝑁0 = Number of radioactive nuclei at time =
10𝑥+11(100−𝑥)
= 10.81 ⇒ 𝑥 = 19
𝑡=0 100
11
𝑁 = Number of radioactive nuclei left undecayed ∴ % of 5B is 100 – 19 = 81. Ratio is 19 : 81.
at any time 𝑡
𝜆 = decay constant ASSERTION AND REASONING
2
At time 𝑡2 , of the sample had decayed
1
3
1 S1. (a) Cobalt 60 is the radioactive isotope of cobalt.
∴ 𝑁 = 𝑁0 ⇒ 𝑁0 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡2 ...(i) γ−radiation emitted by it is used in radiation
3 3
1
At time 𝑡1 , of the sample had decayed, therapy is cancer as it destroys cancerous cells.
3
2 2 So, assertion and reason are true and reason
∴ 𝑁 = 𝑁0 ⇒ 𝑁0 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡1 ...(ii) explains assertion.
3 3
S2. (c) The process of nuclear fusion can be explained S2. Nuclear radius, 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴1/3 , where A is mass
with the help of concept of binding energy per number. For 27 Al,
nucleon of very light nuclei and the intermediate 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴1/3 = 𝑅0 (27)1/3 = 3𝑅0
nuclei. Binding energy per nucleon of very light 𝑅0 =
3.6
= 1.2 fm [∵ 𝑅 = 3.6 fm, for Al]
nuclei is less than that of intermediate nuclei. It 3

means light nuclei are less stable than that of For 64 Cu, 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴1/3 = 1.2 (64)1/3 = 4.8 fm
intermediate nuclei. As 35Cl has a large binding S3. We have, 𝑃 = 200 MW = 200 × 106 W = 2 ×
energy therefore it cannot be used as fuel for 108 W, 𝑡 = 1ℎ = 3600 s
fusion energy. As, energy, 𝐸 = 𝑃 × 𝑡 = 2 × 108 × 36000
S3. (d) We know that energy is released when heavy Also, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝐸 2 × 108 × 3600
nuclei undergo fission or light nuclei undergo ⇒ 𝑚= =
𝑐2 (3 × 108 )2
fusion. Therefore statement (1) is correct. The = 8 × 10−6 kg
second statement is false because for heavy nuclei
the binding energy per nucleon decreases with S4. Velocity ratio (𝑣1 : 𝑣2 ) = 2 : 1
increasing Z and for light nuclei, B.E/nucleon Mass (𝑚) ∝ Volume ∝ 𝑟 3 .
increases with increasing Z. According to law of conservation of momentum,
𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑣1 𝑚2 𝑟23
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS Therefore
𝑣2
=
𝑚1
=
𝑟13
𝑟1 𝑣 1/3 1 1/3 1
S1. (i) Basic nuclear reaction for 𝛽 + decay is the Or = ( 2) =( ) =
𝑟2 𝑣1 2 21/3
conversion of proton to neutron. Or 𝑟1 : 𝑟2 = 1 : 21/3
𝑝 → 𝑛 + 𝑒+ + v
(ii) (a) 𝑥 = 𝛽 + / 10 𝑒, 𝑦 = 5, 𝑧 = 11 S5. Given, 𝑡1/2 = 2.2 × 109 s
(b) 𝑎 = 10, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = 4 and rate of radioactive disintegration,
𝑑𝑁
= 1010 s −1
S2. Properties of nuclear forces 𝑑𝑡
0.693 0.693
(1) Nuclear forces are the strongest attractive ∴ 𝜆= = = 3.15 × 10−10 s −1
𝑡1/2 2.2×109
forces. Now, we know that, 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
(2) Nuclear forces are short ranged upto 10–15 m. 𝑑𝑁
⇒ = −𝜆𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 = −𝜆𝑁
(3) Nuclear forces are charge independent 𝑑𝑡
⇒ 1010 = 3.15 × 10−10 × 𝑁 ⇒ 𝑁 = 3.17 × 1019
S3. Initial binding energy
𝐵𝐸1 = (2.23 + 2.23) = 4.46MeV S6. In two half-lives, the activity becomes one fourth.
Final binding energy Activity on 1 - 8 - 91 was 2 micro curies.
𝐵𝐸2 = 7.73MeV ∴ Activity before two months,
∴ Energy released = (7.73 − 4.46)MeV = 4 × 2 micro-Curie = 8 micro curies
3.27MeV S7. There is requirement of three half-lives so age of
S4. Protons are positively charged and repel one the rock
another electrically. This repulsion becomes so 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇1/2 = 3 × 20 years = 60 years
great in nuclei with more than 10 protons or so, 𝑁 1 𝑛
that an excess of neutrons which produce only S8. = ( ) ; 𝑛 → no. of decays
𝑁0 2
attractive forces, is required for stability. 1 1 8 1 𝑛
=( ) =( ) ∴𝑛=8
256 2 2
S5. The daughter nucleus would have a higher Time for 8 half-life = 100 hours
binding energy per nucleon.
𝑁 1 𝑛
S9. =( )
𝑁0 2
NUMERICAL TYPE QUESTIONS where 𝑛 is number of half lives
1 1 𝑛 1 4 1 𝑛
∴ = ( ) or ( ) = ( ) or 𝑛 = 4
S1. The average atomic mass of a chlorine atom is 16 2 2 2

obtained by the weighted average of the masses Let the age of rock be 𝑡 years.
𝑡
of the two isotopes, which is ∵ 𝑛=
𝑇1/2
Average atomic mass or 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇1/2 = 4 × 50 years = 200 years
75.4×34.98+24.6×36.98
= 𝑡 6400
100 S10. Number of half-lives, 𝑛 = = =8
= 35.47 𝑢 𝑇 800
𝑁 1 8 1
=( ) =
𝑁0 2 256