Control System Engineering-I

Course: B. Tech (EE)

Sem: 5th

Teacher: Dr. B. Rout

Electrical Engineering Department
VSSUT, BURLA

1 2/1/2021
 Syllabus
Control System Engineering I ( Course code: UPC)
MODULE-I
Scope of control system Engineering, Various Classification of Control System, Closed Loop Control
Versus Open Loop Control, Mathematical model of physical systems, transfer function, block diagram
algebra, signal flow graph (SFG), Mason’s gain formula. Feedback Characteristics: Types of feedbacks,
effect of degenerative feedback on control system, regenerative feedback, Application of Control
system to engineering and non-engineering problem. [10 hrs]
MODULE-II
Time domain analysis: Standard test signals: Time response of 1st. order systems to unit step and
unit ramp inputs. Time response of second order systems to unit step input. Time response
specifications. Steady state errors and error constants of different types of control systems
Generalized error series method, Application of MATLAB and its Tool Box for time response
analysis. Effect of poles and zeros on system response. [8 hrs]
MODULE-III
Concepts of stability: Necessary conditions of stability, Hurwitz stability criterion, Routh stability
criterion, application of Routh stability criterion to linear feedback systems, Relative stability
Analysis. Root locus techniques: Root locus concepts, rules for construction of root loci,
determination of roots from root locus, root contours, systems with transportation lag, Root locus
2
plots with MATLAB. [8 hrs]
2/1/2021
MODULE-IV
Frequency domain analysis: Introduction, Polar plots, Bode plots, determination of stability from
Bode plots, Nyquist stability criterion, application of Nyquist stability criterion to linear feedback
systems, Log magnitude versus phase plots, Use of MATLAB for plotting Bode & Nyquist
diagram. Closed loop frequency response: Constant M circles, constant N circles, use of Nichols
chart. [10 hrs]
MODULE-V
Controllers: Proportional, derivative and integral control actions, PD, PI and PID controllers and
their applications to feedback control systems, PID controller gains tuning by Zeigler- Nichols
method. 2-Degree-of-freedom control.
Sensitivity transfer functions (S and T) and their significance: Measure of loop
robustness in terms of the peaks of sensitivity and transfer functions for any PID compensated
system. [6 hrs]
TEXT BOOKS
•K. Ogata, “Modem Control Engineering”, PHI Publishers.
•I.J. Nagrath, M. Gopal, “Control Systems Engineering”, New Age International
Publishers.
•Norman S. Nise, “CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING”, John Wiley & Sons.
Reference Books
•G.F.Franklin, J.D.Powell, A. Emami, Naeini, “Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems”,
Schaum’s Outlines, TMH Publishers.
•B.C.Kuo,
3 F. Golnaraghi, “Automatic Control Systems”, John Willey & Sons. 2/1/2021
 Module_1 Contents:
Lecture_1 Scope of control system Engineering, Various Classification of Control System, Closed
Loop Control Versus Open Loop Control, Control systems components
Lecture_2 Mathematical model of physical systems, Laplace transfer function, Properties of
T.F
Lecture_3 Transfer function Mechanical system, of translational and rotational motion,
Analogy of Force voltage and Force- current
Lecture_4 Transfer function Electrical system, Transfer function Electronics system,
Lecture_5 T.F. of electro-mechanical systems, Numerical
Lecture_6 Analogy of Force-voltage and Force-current, Numerical

Lecture_7 Rules for block diagram reduction, system representation in block diagram, Numerical

Lecture_8 Signal flow graph (SFG), Mason’s gain formula, Numerical

Lecture_9 Comparison between BDR and SFG , Numerical SFG from block diagram, Types of
feedbacks,
Lecture_10 Effect of degenerative feedback on control system, regenerative feedback,
Application of control system in non-engineering field
4 2/1/2021
 Module_2
Lecture_11 System Analysis in time domain, Standard test signals- Characteristics of
step, ramp, parabolic , impulse and sinusoidal signal:

Lecture_12 Time response of 1st order systems to unit step and unit ramp inputs, impulse and
parabolic
Lecture_13 Time domain specifications, numerical

Lecture_14 Error constants of different types of control systems, type-0,type-1,type-2,

Numerical

Lecture_15 Generalized error series method, Relation between the static and dynamic error
coefficient Numerical
Lecture_16 Time domain specification numerical, steady state error numerical

Lecture_17 Application of MATLAB and its Tool Box for time response analysis

Lecture_18 Effect of poles and zeros on system response.

5 2/1/2021
 Module_3

Lecture_19 Concepts of stability: Necessary conditions of stability

Lecture_20 Hurwitz stability criterion, Routh stability criterion,

Lecture_21 Relative stability Analysis, Application of Routh stability criterion to linear feedback
systems,

Lecture_22 Evan condition ,Root locus techniques. Properties of root-locus

Lecture_23 Construction of root locus: Numerical

Lecture_24 Determination of roots from root locus, root contours.

Lecture_25 Systems with transportation lag

Lecture_26 Plots with MATLAB, Numerical

6 2/1/2021
Module_4
Lecture_27 Frequency domain analysis: Introduction, Relation between the time domain and
frequency domain specifications
Lecture_28 Advantages and disadvantages of frequency domain, Frequency response specifications.

Lecture_29 Bode plot for various factors in the system, determination of stability from Bode plot

Lecture_30 Polar plot for different types of open loop system, stability and relative stability from
polar plot
Lecture_31 Nyquist stability criterion, application of Nyquist stability criterion to linear
feedback systems.
Lecture_32 Use of MATLAB for plotting Bode & Polar plot
Lecture_33 Constant M circles, constant N circles

Lecture_34 Log magnitude versus phase plots

Lecture_35 Numerical, MATLAB for Nyquist plot

Lecture_36 Closed loop frequency response, Use of Nichols chart

7 2/1/2021
 Module_5

Lecture_37 Introduction to Controller, types of controller, Proportional, derivative and integral

control actions, advantages and disadvantages of P,I,D controllers , PID controller gains tuning by
Zeigler- Nichols method, 2-Degree-of-freedom control.

Lecture_38 Sensitivity transfer functions (S and T) and their significance

Lecture_39 Measure of loop robustness in terms of the peaks of sensitivity

Lecture_40 Transfer functions for any PID compensated system.

8 2/1/2021
 Module_1

Lecture_1

Scope of control system Engineering

Various Classification of Control System
Advantages of control system
Closed Loop Control Versus Open Loop Control
Control system components

9 2/1/2021
 Scope of Control System Engineering
Control systems are an integral part of modern society. The various applications of
automatic control system all around us are:
The space-vehicle system, missile-guidance system, robotics system, motor-drive system,
domestic appliances such as in air conditioning control, refrigerator control, various
modern manufacturing industries in designing the automobiles and in control of pressure,
temperature, humidity, viscosity and flow rate in process industries.
• The subject of control engineering is interdisciplinary in nature. It embraces all the
disciplines of engineering including Electronics, Computer Science, Electrical
Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Instrumentation Engineering, and Chemical
Engineering, Production Engineering etc.

• If we are interested to control the position of a mechanical load automatically, we may

use an electrical motor to drive the load and a gearbox to connect the load to the motor
shaft and an electronic amplifier to amplify the control signal.

• The control system engineering may also be extended to non-engineering field such as:
biological system (pancreas regulates blood sugar), economical system, social system,
nature’s behavior scenario, political system as well.
10 2/1/2021
 What is meant by a system:
• A collection of components or procedures which are included in a specified boundary
and together performs an intended job or objective.
• A system gives an output(called response) for an input (called excitation.)
• A system may have many inputs and many outputs called MIMO system

What is control system:

•A system (plant) or mechanism which directs the input to the other system or itself that
will provide a desired response based on laws of physical world is called control system.
• Control system alters the response of a plant or system as desired.

11 2/1/2021
 • There are some inputs on which the engineer have direct control over it and can be
used to control the output. These are called as a control inputs.
• The other type of inputs which has no control over it and these will deflect the
outputs from their desired value. These are called as disturbance input.
A ship dynamics has two control inputs such as rudder and engines. The desired
output is position and forward velocity. The disturbances are wind, waves and current
that gives undesired ship motion.

The block diagram

can be shown as

12 2/1/2021
Various kinds of Control Systems
Motor
Input- Electrical Energy (voltage)
Output- Mechanical Energy (torque, speed)

Air-Conditioner

Input- Electrical Energy (voltage)

Output- Heat Energy ( changes of ambient temperature)

Touching an moving object

Input- object desired position

Output- hand motion to grapes object

Ceiling fan with regulator

Input- Voltage
Output- speed
13 2/1/2021
 Advantages of Control System

➢Power amplification
Ex: a radar antenna, positioned by the low-power rotation of a knob at the input,
requires a large amount of power for its output rotation. A control system can produce
the needed power amplification, or power gain.

➢Remote control
Control systems are also useful in remote or dangerous locations. For example, a
remote-controlled robot arm can be used to pick up material in a contaminated
radioactive environment.

➢Convenience of input form

Control systems can also be used to provide convenience by changing the form of the
input. For example, in a temperature control system, the input is a position on a
thermostat. The output is a heat. Thus a convenient position of input yields a desired
thermal output.

➢Compensation for disturbances

Control system has the ability to compensate the for disturbances. 2/1/2021
14
 Classification of Control Systems:
➢Classical Control (1940-60) and Modern control 1960 onwards
➢Open-loop control system and Closed-loop control system:
➢SISO and MIMO control systems
➢Linear and non-linear control system
➢LTI and LTV Control system
Open-loop control system and Closed-loop control system
It is a control system where its control action only depends on input signal and does not
depend on its output response.
•The output is neither measured nor fed back to the reference input for comparison.
•In the presence of disturbances, an open loop control system does not perform the desired
output.
control of rotating disc Examples: control of rotating disc, traffic
signal without police , washing machine,
bread toaster, ceiling fan regulator etc

15 2/1/2021
 Problem in open loop: The controlled variable is sensitive to changes in disturbance
inputs.
For example, if the controller is an electronic amplifier and disturbance 1 is noise, then any additive
amplifier noise at the first summing junction will also drive the process, corrupting the output with
the effect of the noise.
The output of an open-loop system is corrupted not only by signals that add to the controller's
commands but also by disturbances at the output or disturbances in plant itself.
The system cannot correct for these disturbances, either and are simply commanded
by the input.

16 2/1/2021
 For an examination that covers three chapters in order to get an A. If the professor adds
a fourth chapter—a disturbance—you are an open-loop system if you do not detect the
disturbance and add study time to that previously calculated. The result of this oversight
would be a lower grade than you expected.

Other examples of open-loop systems are mechanical systems consisting of a mass,

spring, and damper with a constant force positioning the mass. The greater the force,
the greater the displacement. Again, the system position will change with a
disturbance, such as an additional force, and the system will not detect or correct for
the disturbance.

The controlled variable (output) of a toaster is the color of the toast. The device is
designed with the assumption that the toast will be darker the longer it is subjected
to heat. The toaster does not measure the color of the toast; it does not correct for
the fact that the toast is rye, white, or sourdough, nor does it correct for the fact that
toast comes in different thicknesses. A closed-loop toaster oven is more
complex and more expensive since it has to measure both color (through light
reflectivity) and humidity inside the toaster oven.
17 2/1/2021
 Closed-loop control system:
It is a control system where its control action depends on both of its input
signal and output response.

Closed loop control of rotating disc

Block diagram representation

18 2/1/2021
 The input transducer converts the form of the input to the form used by the controller.
An output transducer, or sensor, measures the output response and converts it into the form used
by the controller. For example, if the controller uses electrical signals to operate the
valves of a temperature control system, the input position and the output temperature
are converted to electrical signals.

Closed-loop systems, then, have the obvious advantage of greater accuracy than open-loop
systems.They are less sensitive to noise, disturbances, and changes in the environment.

19 2/1/2021
 Automobile steering control

Examples: Automobile steering control, automatic electric iron,

missile launcher, speed control of DC motor, steel rolling mills etc.
20 2/1/2021
 Major components of closed loop/feedback system

Controller The error detector with amplifier acts as controller here. The weak
amplifying signal is strengthen by actuator. The manipulating signal from the
actuator is sent to the controlled system and results controlled variable.
Actuator: It is a power device which may be pneumatic motor or valve, hydraulic
motor or an electric motor (servo motor)

Sensor/Transducer: It is a measuring device that converts the output variables to

another suitable variable used to compare with reference variable.
21 2/1/2021
 Advantages of closed loop control system:

✓More accurate operation than of open-loop system

✓Can operate efficiently when input or system parameters are variable in nature
✓Less non-linearity effect of these systems on output response
✓High bandwidth of operation
✓Time to time recalibration of the parameters are not required.

Disadvantages:

•Complex design and difficult to construct

•Expensive than that of open-loop control system
•Complicate for maintenance

22 2/1/2021
 Module_1

Lecture_2

Control system Problems

Mathematical model of physical systems

Laplace transfer function, Properties of T.F

Numerical

23 2/1/2021
 Control Engineering is concerned with basic six problems
➢ The identification problem: to measure the variables experimentally and convert data for
analysis if the system is very complex.
➢The representation problem: to describe the dynamic of the system by an analytical form
or model based approach and knowledge based approach.
➢The solution problem: to determine the above system model response
➢The stability problem: general qualitative analysis of the system
➢The design problem: modification of an existing system or develop a new one
➢The optimization problem: from a variety of design to choose the best.

Two basic approaches to solve these six problems are conventional and modern approach
conventional approach is based on complex function theory. (frequency domain, Bode,
Nyquist, )
modern approach is based on the state variable theory.
Representation Problem (model based approach)
Mathematical Modeling:
➢Differential equation/Difference equation) ( continuous time system/ discrete time system)
Differential equation and the state variable representation are very popular mathematical models
for describing the dynamics of a continuous control system.
24 2/1/2021
The system dynamics are related by its input and output variables with constant coefficient
following the physical laws. Consider a first order system where its input variable is x(t)
and output variable is y(t).
Hence the dynamics of the linear time invariant system is given by its differential equation as
dy (t )
a + by (t ) = cx(t )
dt
For second order linear time invariant system
d2y dy
a +b + cy = ex(t )
For third order linear time invariant system dt 2 dt

d3y d2y dy
a +b +c + ey = fx(t )
dt 3 dt 2 dt

➢ Laplace Transfer function ( since differential equations is difficult to represent a

system, this can be transformed to algebraic Equations, frequency domain)
The transfer function model is applicable if the system is linear system

➢ If the initial conditions, multi input and multi outputs of the system are taken into
account, then state space model is required which is time domain analysis approach.
25 2/1/2021
 What is a Model ?
• Model is a mathematical presentation of a plant or system.
•Model helps in the analysis (Input-Output) of the system
•It captures the dynamic of the system.
•Dynamics refers to evolution of system variables

For example:
✓The room temperature when the AC is switched on (how the temperature
behaves or how fast or how fast or how slow the desired temperature is obtained
when the AC switch is on.)
✓ How the speed of a car changes before it reaches the desired speed
✓How the voltage or current evolves when an inductor is present in an electrical
.

Equivalent
Plant or System
Mathematical Model

26 2/1/2021
 Types of Mathematical Modeling
• Dynamics of the system represented in terms of differential
Differential equations
Equation Model •Time domain representation of the system

• Dynamics represented in terms of a Laplace transform

Transfer
expressions
Function
•Frequency domain representation of the system
Model

• State is a set of system variables that describes the system

State Space behavior in conjunction with inputs
Model • Dynamics are represented by a set of first order differential
equations using these state variables.
• Time domain representation of the system
•MIMO and LTV is accommodated in this model for analysis.
27 2/1/2021
 Example: A linear R-L-C circuit

Differential
Equation Model

Transfer
Function
Model

State Space
Model

28 2/1/2021
 The system is very difficult to represent in differential equation form, rather the
differential equation is transformed into an algebraic equation in a complex variable s.
All derivative and integral terms in differential equations are replaced by algebraic form.

Any function of complex variable is called complex function. For Ex G(s)=A+JB since
s =  + j

If a complex function G(s) together with its derivatives exist in a region, it is said to be
analytic in that region.

For ex:

is found to exist everywhere, except at s = – 2, so it is an analytic function at all points in

the s plane except the point s = – 2.

All the points in the s plane at which the complex function G(s) is found to be analytic are
called ordinary points, whereas the points at which it is not analytic are called
singular points. The terms pole and zero are used to describe two different types of
singular points. The singular points are called poles of the complex function G(s) if the
29function or it derivatives approach infinity at these points. 2/1/2021
 The singular points at which the function G(s) equals zero are called zeros. The complex function
G2(s) given by

has zeros at s = – 4, s = – 6, simple poles at s = 0, s = – 1, and a pole of order 2 at s = – 10.

Laplace Transformation

The reverse process of finding f(t) is called inverse Laplace transformation

30 2/1/2021
Laplace Transform of common functions

It is seen that, the exponential function produces a single pole s-plane.

Step Function:

The step function is undefined at t=0

The Laplace transform is given by

The step function whose height is 1 called unit step function.

31 2/1/2021
 Ramp Function

Laplace Transform

Sinusoidal
Similarly,

Since,

32 2/1/2021
 Laplace transform of certain other function

33 2/1/2021
 Initial value theorem:

Final value theorem

Transfer function The block diagram represents the transfer function of the system

General form of Transfer Function

The transfer function of an nth order single-input, x(t), single output, y(t), linear time
invariant system can be written in the form :

nm

The system dynamics can therefore, be represented by an algebraic equation in s domain

by using the concept of transfer function. 2/1/2021
34
 Properties of T.F.
Derivative properties

Linearity:

Constant Multiplication

Right shift theorem

Convolution Integral

Limitations:

It gives no information about the actual structure of the system

Applicable only to LTI System
It is a mathematical model and gain of the system
Impulse response of the system is the transfer function of the system itself
35 2/1/2021
36 2/1/2021
37 2/1/2021
 Numerical:
Find the Laplace transform of the differential equation:
(a) With initial Condition

(b) No initial condition

Solution: (a) Including initial conditions

Taking Laplace transformation

(b) No initial condition

Taking Laplace transformation

38 2/1/2021
 Solution (b) is more easily solved considering no initial conditions.

Hence the input-output relation is represented as

General form

Example.

Using Laplace Transform:

39 2/1/2021
 Module_1

Lecture_3

Modeling of physical Systems

Transfer function Mechanical system (translational and rotational
motion)

40 2/1/2021
 Physical Systems:
• Physical systems can be classified into various types:
➢Mechanical Systems
➢Electrical Systems
➢Electronics Systems
➢Hydraulic Systems
➢Thermal Systems
➢Pneumatic System

• Each of the system can be modeled in terms of certain basic elements following physical laws
• Basic elements of all physical systems can be shown to be analogous

Mechanical Systems: Classification based on type of motion:

✓ Translational systems having linear motion

✓Rotational systems having angular motion about its fixed axis.

41 2/1/2021
 Modeling on mass. Mass is an property of an element that stores the K.E. energy due to
translational motion

When a force is acting on a body of mass M, it causes a displacement x.

Since the momentum P is proportional to velocity V, we get P=MV, where, M is mass which is constant

Newton’s second law.

42 2/1/2021
Modeling on Damper: B

Damper is an element of mechanical system, that generates a force which resists the translational
and rotational motion. Example: friction and despot.

The damping force F is linearly proportional to velocity

Modeling on linear spring K:

The linear spring constant is the property of an element that stores the potential energy due to
translational motion.

When a force is applied on spring of constant K , it causes a restoring forces of

which is proportional to the displacement.

In mechanical system, mass ,spring constant and damper are the common system parameters which
can be represented by an equivalent mechanical as well as electrical circuit

The system structure analysis may be done to suit nodal analysis like electrical circuit in mechanical
domain.
43 2/1/2021
 By Nodal Analysis: (Translational Motion), single displacement

Steps:
• Select the non reference node “n” from which displacement occurs and select one reference node .
•All the mechanical elements such as mass, spring constant and dampers are connected between
selected node “n” and reference node.
•Applying Nodal analysis, at point “n” we have Newton’s second law of motion as

Taking Laplace transformation assuming zero initial conditions, we get

44 2/1/2021
 Mechanical System: Free body diagram concept

Writing Newton’s law of motion,

FBD

Taking Laplace transformation assuming zero initial conditions, we get

Shows the denominator is the

characteristic equation.
This Equation gives the roots or poles
of the system which decides the transient
45 behavior of the system. 2/1/2021
 Nodal Analysis in mechanical Domain (double displacement):

Steps: 1 Identify the number of non reference nodes

The number of nodes depend on the number of displacement on the system. Here there are two
Displacements x1 and x2

Step-2: Displacement and reference nodes are identified.

46 2/1/2021
 Step-3 Connect mass M between the node
x2 and reference node

Step 4: Connect spring K between the node x1 and x2

Step 5: Connect spring K between the node x1 and x2

Step 6: Connect force F between the node x1 and reference node

Step 7: Apply Newton’s second law at node x1 F=K(x1-x2) (1)

Step 8: Apply Newton’s second law at node x2. At node 2 sum of the forces are equal to zero.

(2)

Equation (1) and (2) are the mathematical model of the mechanical system.

47 2/1/2021
The transfer function may be found out as G(s)=X2(s)/F(s) =1/(Ms^2)+Bs
 Mechanical Equivalent network (with gain representation)

Procedures:

▪ locate the points xa and xb and the reference. for node at xa

▪The network elements are then connected between these points.
▪The displacements xa and xb are nodes of the mechanical circuit. f = f k = K ( xa − xb ) (1)
▪At each node the sum of the forces must add to zero

d
for node at xb f k = f M + f B = MD2 xb + BDxb As D=
dt

(2)
48 2/1/2021
 Since f = fM + fB (
 f = MD 2 xb + BDxb = xb MD 2 + BD )
xb 1
= =G (3)
f MD 2 + BD

Since f = K ( xa − xb ) = MD2 xb + BDxb  Kxa = xb (MD2 + BD + K )

f
 Kxa = ( MD 2 + BD + K ) From (3)
MD + BD
2

xa MD 2 + BD + K
 = = G1 (4)
f K ( MD + BD)
2

Also, since Kxa = xb (MD2 + BD + K )

xb K
 = = G2 (5)
xa MD 2 + BD + K

xa xb xb
Now multiplying (4) and (5), we get G = G1G2 G =  =
f xa f

49
Note: From (5) the motion xb resulting from a given motion xa 2/1/2021
From (3) and (4) it is seen that, the motions xa and xb, respectively, resulting from a given force f.

The signal xa is unaffected by the presence of the block having the transfer function G2;

Transfer Function—Two Degrees of Freedom

Ex: Find the transfer function, X2(s)/F(s), for the system

viscous friction shown here is . All

other frictions are neglected.

Solution: By Nodal analysis:

Here there are two displacements x1 and x2. Hence two number of non reference nodes and one
Reference node.
Connect all the elements as per given figure from the nodes.
50 2/1/2021
 After writing the dynamics at node 1 and 2 applying nodal method, and then by using
Laplace transformation, we get

At node x1

At node x2

where

51 2/1/2021
 FBD

If we hold M2 still and move M1 to the right, we see the forces shown in Figure (a).
If we hold M1 still and move M2 to the right, we see the forces shown in Figure (b).

The total force on M1 is the superposition (c)

The resultant force for mass M1 is

(1)

52 2/1/2021
 Similarly, for mass M2

The total force on M2 is the superposition (c)

The resultant force for mass M2 is

(2)

Solving (1) and (2) we get

53 2/1/2021
 Rotational system
Also notice that the term associated with the mass is replaced by inertia. The values of K,
D, and J are called spring constant, coefficient of viscous friction, and moment of inertia,
respectively.
In rotational bode the torque due to moment of inertia
is proportional to angular acceleration

Similarly including the torque due to damping

and spring stiffness

We get
54 2/1/2021
 Considering one degree of freedom and taking initial condition into account, the behavior
of the system is studied as follows.

Taking Laplace transform

when f (t ) = 0 x(0− ) = x0

We have

Solving for X(s), we obtain

The roots of numerator is the zeros of the system and the roots of the denominator is the poles of the
system.

The zeros of the system is

K ( s + 3) x0
Let us consider =2 and Then, X ( s) =
M ( s + 1)( s + 2 )
55 2/1/2021
 The pole – zero location is s-plane is

By partial fraction expansion X (s) =

A
+
B
s +1 s + 2

Setting x0 = 1 we found x0 = 1 ( s + 1)( s + 3) ( s + 2 )( s + 3)

A= =2 B= = −1
( )(
s + 1 s + 2 ) s =−1
1
( )(
s + 1 s + 2 ) s =−2
1

 2 1 
The solution x(t ) = L−1 ( X ( s ) ) = L−1  − −t
 = 2e − e
−2t
 s +1 s + 2 

It is desired to know the final value or steady state value using final value theorem

lim x(t ) = lim sX ( s ) = 0

t → s →0

Hence, the final position of the mass is at the equilibrium point x=0
56 2/1/2021
 Further the system can be studied considering the damping ratio and the natural frequency

Where,  is the damping ratio and n is the natural frequency

The roots of the characteristic equation is s1 , s2 = −n  n  2 − 1  1

K
Where, n = and
M

When  1 The roots are real and over damped i.e. transient response will take large
time to settle

 1 The roots are complex conjugate and under damped i.e. transient response
will damped oscillation
The roots are repeated and real and critical damped i.e. transient response
 =1
will damped oscillation
The roots are on imaginary axis and undamped i.e. transient response
 =0 will give sustained oscillation
57 2/1/2021
 s1 , s2 = −n  n 1 −  2  1

The response is under-damped. The plot for the zeros and poles of X(s) are show shown.

Where,  = cos−1 

As  varies keeping n constant

The complex conjugate roots follows a

circular path of radius n

The damping ratio and natural frequency

decides the nature of the transient
response for the second order system.

58 2/1/2021
 The solution for under damped system is

x(t ) =
x0
1−  2
( ( 1−  )t + )
e−nt sin n 2

Adjusting the n it varies envelop e−nt hence, the response x(t)

The larger the value of n the faster the response converges to zero

This shows, the response x(t) depends on the initial condition of the system. The transfer
function only sees the relation between input and output not the internal structure
59of the system. 2/1/2021
 Module_1

Lecture_4

Transfer function Electrical system

Transfer function of electronics system
Numerical

60 2/1/2021
 The basic building elements and variables:

Electrical System Elements:

The electrical system can be modeled in terms of certain basic elements following physical laws

The Basic elements are modeled as followings

Resistor R: It is an element which resists the flow of current in an electrical systems.

61
V=IR
2/1/2021
 Inductor L: It is an element that stores electrical energy in a magnetic field.

Capacitor C: It is an element that stores electrical energy in an electric field.

Parallel Circuit: Nodal Analysis

By KCL

62 2/1/2021
 Substituting

So, in current source circuit, the basic system variables are current and flux.

Series Circuit By KVL

substituting

So, in voltage source circuit, the basic system variables are voltage and charge.
63 2/1/2021
 R-L-C series circuit

di 1
V = Ri + L + idt
dt C

Using Laplace
transform

T.F. of the system is

Vc (s) 1 / LC
 = 2
V (s) s + ( R / L) s + (1 / LC )

Vc (s) n2 n =
1
=
R
 = 2 Where,
V (s) s + 2n s + n2 LC 2 L/C
64 2/1/2021
 R-C series Circuit
The dynamic of the circuit is


1 I ( s)
Ri + idt = V1  RI ( s ) + = V1 ( s )
C sC

 1   1 
 V1 ( s ) = I ( s )  R +   V1 ( s ) = I ( s )  R + 
 sC   sC 
 1 
The output voltage is V2 ( s ) = I ( s )  
 sC 
V2 ( s) 1 1 1/ 
Taking the ratio V2 to V1, we get G ( s) = = = = 1st order
V1 ( s) RCs + 1  s + 1 ( s + 1/  )

Where,  = RC called time constant and s = −1/  is the single pole at real axis

Ex: Find E0(s)/Ei(s)

65 2/1/2021
 The dynamics of the system is
(1)

(2)

where (3)

Taking Laplace Transform, we get

(4)

(5)

Eliminating I1 from (1) and (2) and writing Ei (6)

(s) in terms of I2, we get T.F.

(7)

66
The two roots in denominator are2/1/2021
real
 Electronics System:
OPAMP is the basic building block in electronic circuit for transfer function. The OPAMP are active
element and has high gain when operating in the linear region. This OPAMP amplifies the signal
Used as filter in compensation purposes. It has two input terminal, the positive terminal is called
non-inverting and negative terminal called inverting terminal. This has also one output terminal
.and two terminals for power supplies.

Ideal OPAMP Characteristics

➢ The input impedance is high. so, no current flows into either of the input terminals
➢The output impedance is low.
➢ The output voltage is not affected by the load connected across the terminal.
➢ The difference between the two input voltages is nearly zero. e2 − e1 = 0  e2 = e1
e0
➢Amplification gain A= =
e2 − e1

An ideal OPAMP

67 2/1/2021
Example: ei − e' e' − e0
i1 = , i2 = ,
R1 R2

Since, negligible current flows into input terminal i1 = i2

ei − e' e' − e0
=
R1 R2

Inverting opamp
since e0 = A(e2 − e )
'
 e0 = − A(e − e2 )
'

Since e2 = 0  e0 = − A(e' )

As A→ e' = 0

e0 R
e e
 i =− 0  =− 2
R1 R2 ei R1

68 2/1/2021
69 2/1/2021
70 2/1/2021
 Find for the following circuits

Example:

Non-inverting amplifier Equivalent circuit

71 2/1/2021
 Sol:

72 2/1/2021
 Differential Circuit
Integrator circuit

73 2/1/2021
 Module_1

Lecture_5

T.F. of electro-mechanical systems

T.F. of Armature control of DC servomotor
T.F. of field control of DC servomotor
Numerical

74 2/1/2021
 Electro-Mechanical System:
This system is the combination of electrical and mechanical system. The electric motor is coupled
with the mechanical load through bearing and gear arrangement. The DC servomotor is an high
power actuating device used to provide high torque in the application of motor-drive control,
robotic control, machine tools etc. The transfer function of this motor is developed by
approximation to an actual motor. Neglecting the hysteresis and voltage drop across the brush
terminals. The T.F. is obtained by applying the voltage either to armature or field coils. The field
needs to be unsaturated.
In armature-controlled D.C. motor,
field is constant

d
=
dt
75 2/1/2021
 The time domain dynamic of the combined system is

The motor torque Tmia

Since field current is constant
(1)
d d
The motor back emf Eb  Eb =
dt dt
(2)

The electric dynamic (3)

The motor-load torque dynamic

(4)
neglecting the disturbing torque

However, the time domain dynamics are not desirable for system representation,
so, we need the Laplace transform of the above dynamics.
76 2/1/2021
 In Laplace domain

Tm (s) = Kt I a (s) (5)

Eb (s) = Kb s (s) (6)

( sLa + Ra ) Ia (s) = Ea (s) − Eb (s)

Putting the value of Ia from (7) and Tm from (8) in
E ( s) − Eb ( s)
 I a ( s) = a (7) equation (5), we form the block diagram for closed
( sLa + Ra ) loop system

( )
Tm ( s ) = s 2 J + sf  ( s ) (8)
 ( s) Kt
G( s) = =
Ea ( s) s ( Ra + sLa ) ( sJ + f ) + Kt Kb 
T (s)
 m = s 2 J + sf
 (s) Kt
 G( s) =
s( s 2 + 2n s + n2 )

Since the time constant of armature coil is much less compared to motor inertia, sLa is neglected.

 ( s) Kt
G( s) = =
Ea ( s) s  Ra ( sJ + f ) + Kt Kb  (9)
77 2/1/2021
  ( s) Kt / ( Ra f + Kb Kt ) Km
 = = (10)
Ea ( s ) s ( s + 1) s( s + 1)
Ra J
Km =
Kt
Motor gain constant = Motor time constant
where Ra f + Kb Kt Ra f + Kb Kt

The motor gain Kt and feedback gain Kb are equal during steady state operation. The power input to
the motor is ( Kb)ia and the power delivered to shaft is T
In the steady state ( Kb)ia = T

Since T = Kt ia  Kb = Kt

So, the transfer function for position control obtained from armature control technique is of
second order system neglecting the armature inductance and it is a closed loop system.

Field control DC Motor T.F.

For wide speed variation of load, the field control scheme is used in industrial application. During this
operation, the power maintains constant, since the terminal voltage and armature rated current are
fixed.The field flux is varied by changing the field current with field unsaturated.

78 2/1/2021
 The air gap flux is proportional to field current

 = K f if

The torque produced by the motor is

Proportional to the field and armature current.
Since, armature current is fixed,

Tm = K1ia = K1K f i f ia

(11)

As
di f
Field circuit dynamics E f = Rf if + Lf (12)
dt

d 2 d
Motor-load dynamic TL = J 2
+ f (13)
dt dt

Neglecting the disturbing torque Tm = TL

Converting into Laplace transform of the eq(11) –(13), we obtain

79 2/1/2021
 (14)

E f (s) = R f I f (s) + sL f I f (s) (

 E f ( s ) = I f ( s ) R f + sL f ) 
I f ( s)
=
1
(15)
E f ( s) R f + sL f

 ( s)
TL (s) = Js 2 (s) + fs (s) (
 TL ( s ) =  ( s ) Js 2 + fs ) 
TL ( s )
=
1
Js 2 + fs (16)

Arranging the equation (14) –(16), we obtain the block diagram

The Transfer function of the open loop block is

3rd order system

Writing in pole-zero form

 ( s) Kt / fR f Lf
= G(s) = Where,  f =
80
Writing in time constant form E f (s) (
s s + f )(s + L ) Rf
2/1/2021
 Develop a block diagram of a DC generator (Amplidyne generator) using as a
rotating amplifier, supplying current to resistive load.

An amplidyne is a two stage generator

(rotating amplifier ). The input is applied
To main field winding and the output
voltage is developed across the pair of
the brushes which is short circuited.
This short circuit current produces the
flux for generating the voltage across the
rest pair in amplified signal which is the
Field dynamics
induced voltage E.

Air gap flux= field flux - AR flux

Induced voltage

Voltage causes armature current

Armature reaction flux is proportional to Ia output

81 2/1/2021
 The cause-effect relation develops a block diagram

By simplifying

82 2/1/2021
 Assignments:

Modeling on Thermal System

Modeling on Pneumatic System

Two phase AC servomotor

83 2/1/2021
 Module_1

Lecture_6

Analogy of Force-voltage and Force-current,

Numerical

84 2/1/2021
 Analogous System
The mechanical translational system or rotational system can be treated as analogous to
electrical system when the differential equations for both cases are compared.

In such systems whose differential equations are of identical form are called analogous systems.

The concept of analogous system is a useful technique for the study of various system
Electrical, mechanical, thermal, pneumatic system etc. If the solution of one of system is obtained,
it can be extended to all other system analogous to it.

The force F (torque T) and voltage V are the analogous variable s in this study.

The R-L-C component of electric circuit is compared with mass-spring-damper elements of

mechanical system

Inductor stores electrical energy Mass stores mechanical energy

85 2/1/2021
 Mechanical Rotational system Ex: tachometer, velocity sensor

The rotational motion of a rigid body can be defined as the motion of a body about its fixed axis.
There are three types of torques resists the rotational motion. Inertia torque, damping torque
and stiffness torque.

Shaft inertia (J) stores the K. E. of rotational motion and is the product of MOI and angular
momentum

Damping torque D is available in rotational body due to bearing and viscous friction.

If the rotor shaft of the load or the motor is very large (for high servo-motor), then the
torsional stiffness (K) is taken into consideration like spring constant. If the shaft is small, the
torsional stiffness of a rotating body is neglected.

d 2 d d 2 d For low power

T = J 2 +D + K For high power servo T=J 2
+D
dt dt dt dt

86 2/1/2021
 Analogous System R-L-C series circuit


di 1 Mechanical Translational
V = Ri + L + idt
dt C System

dq dq 2 q dx dx 2
V = R +L 2 + F = D + M 2 + Kx
dt dt C dt dt

Rotational System The rotational motion of a d d 2

rigid body is about its axis T =D + J 2 + K
dt dt

Force-Voltage Analogy

87 2/1/2021
 Force-Current Analogy R-L-C Parallel


dV V 1
I =C + + Vdt
dt R L

d 2
1 d  As V =
d
I =C 2 + + dt
dt R dt L

dx 2 d 2 d rotational
dx
F = M 2 + D + Kx translational T=J +D + K
dt dt dt 2 dt

88 2/1/2021
 Analogous between transformer and Gears

89 2/1/2021
 Module_1

Lecture_7

Rules for block diagram reduction,

system representation in block
diagram,
Numerical

90 2/1/2021
 System Representation Problem, Block-Diagram Reduction:
Block diagram: It is the pictorial representation of the cause-and-effect relationship
between input and output of a physical system. Fig (a) block representation (b) block
with gain of a system

The arrowhead pointing towards the block indicates the input and the arrowhead leaving away
from the block represents the output.The arrows are called signal

The functional operation of the system can be visualized through the block diagram
representing the dynamic of the system

Depending upon the view point of analysis, different blocks can be drawn for a particular system.

Summing Point: It is a circle with cross is the symbol that indicates the summing operation.

The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that

signal is to be added or subtracted.

91 2/1/2021
Branch Point: A branch point/take off is a point from which the signal leaves concurrently
to other block or summing point.

Block diagram of a closed loop system:

The output signal is fed to the input from branch point

or take off point for comparison

Before feeding the signal to the input, this must be converted to

desired signal through transducer at feedback path.
Unity feedback system when H(s)=1

Closed loop transfer function

For the system the input R(s) and output C(s)
are related as follows.

B( s )
Open loop gain = = G( s) H ( s)
E (s)

C ( s)
Feed forward path gain is G( s) = Non-unity feedback system
E ( s)

If H ( s) = 1 Then open loop gain and feed forward path gain are same 2/1/2021
92
 The output

Actuating error signal

Replacing E(s) from C(s)

Closed Loop T.F. (1) SISO system

(2)

It is seen that, the output of closed loop system depends on both closed loop T.F. and nature of
input.
In MIMO system, each input can be treated independently at a time neglecting other inputs. The
complete output of the system is obtained taking all inputs following superposition principle.
93 2/1/2021
 MISO system The control input and disturbance inputs are taken into consideration

When D(s)=0 When R(s)=0

C1 G1G2 G1G2 R
=  C1 = C2 G2 G2 D
R 1 + G1G2 H =  C2 =
1 + G1G2 H D 1 + G1G2 H 1 + G1G2 H
94 2/1/2021
 The resulting output is C(s) = C1 (s) + C2 (s)

G1G2 R G2 D G2
C ( s) = +  C (s) = G1R + D 
1 + G1G2 H 1 + G1G2 H 1 + G1G2 H

As G1G2 H 1 The effect of disturbance C(s)/D(s) is zero. This is the advantages of

closed loop system

Procedures for drawing block diagram

➢Write the equation for describing the behavior of individual component
➢Take Laplace transform neglecting the initial condition of the set of equations
➢Represent each Laplace transform equation individually in each block form
➢ Assemble the elementary blocks to make a complete block that represent the system

Ex:
The dynamics
RC circuit

95 2/1/2021
 Corresponding Laplace transform

The overall block diagram is

Block diagram reduction:

Blocks are connected in series only if the output of one block is not affected by the next
following block.
A number of cascaded blocks are represented by a single block.
A complicated block consisting of many feedback loops can be simplified by step by step
arrangement
96 2/1/2021
 Note: On simplification, one should know that, the input and output signal does not change.
In the complicated loops , one should bring the summing point to the left side and take off point to
the right side.
Solve the inner loop , finally the outer loop
Reduction Rules

Moving a summing point

Ahead of the block

Moving a take off point

Ahead of the block

Moving a take off point

Beyond of the block

Non-unity feedback
to feedback loop

Eliminating a feedback
loop
97 2/1/2021
 Reduce the block using the rule

Step_1

98 2/1/2021
 Step_2

C (s) G1G2G3G4 / (1 + G1G2 H1 )(1 + G3G4 H 2 )

=
R( s ) H3
1 + (G1G2G3G4 / (1 + G1G2 H1 )(1 + G3G4 H 2 ))
G1G4

99 2/1/2021
 Find the transfer function for the following block.

Solution:
Step_1, Moving the inner summing point to the left of the block G1 following the rule 1

100 2/1/2021
 Step_2 Find the T.F. for the inner loop containing G1, G2 and H1. Replace this by a single block
following rule 5

Step _3 reduce the inner loop in the figure shown in step 2 following rule 5

Step_4 Find the complete T.F. Following rule 5 for the figure shown in step 3

101 2/1/2021
 Note: The numerator of the closed loop T.F. C/R is the product of their feed forward gain.

Denominator

Ex:
Find Y/R

solution

Step_1
Take off point is shifted to right
102 2/1/2021
 Step_2

Step_3

Ex:

103 2/1/2021
 Ex : Find C/R for the following

104 2/1/2021
 Module_1

Lecture_8

Signal flow graph (SFG), Mason’s gain

formula,
Numerical

105 2/1/2021
 Signal Flow Graph (SFG):
Signal flow graph is another form of control system representation which shortens the
representation by replacing the summing point, take off point with simple nodes and block of
gain with transmittance.The two nodes are interconnected by line called branch with transmittance.
A closed path is a loop that originates and terminates at same node with no node being met twice
along the path.
Two loops are non touching if they do not have common node.
The input and output variables are represented by node as well.
Only applicable to linear system

Ex Consider a straight line equation y = mx

Where x and y are input and output variables. m is the slope or gain. In SFG, the I/P and
O/P variables are represented by nodes and gain by transmittance. The two nodes are
interconnected by line called branch. y = mx
SFG Source node m Sink node
x y

Ex SFG

106 2/1/2021
 Ex:
SFG

Ex

SFG

107 2/1/2021
 Mason’s gain formula:
Masson’s gain formula is used to determine the overall T.F. (gain) from source node to sink
node of a system. It is very convenient way in comparison to block diagram reduction. The
Masson’s gain formula is given by

C (s)
P 
k =1
k k
G (s) = =
R(s) 

Where, N=Total number of forward path

Pk=path gain of kth forward path joining from source node to sink node

Δ= determinant of the graph

=1 - (Σ loop gains of all individual loops) + (Σ sum of the gain products of all combinations
two non-touching loops ) - (Σ sum of gain products all combinations of three non-touching
loops) + …

Δk= Cofactor of the path Pk

= value of Δ after eliminating all loops that touches kth forward path
=1-(loop gains not touching kth forward path.)
108 2/1/2021
 Using Mason’s gain formula:

Step_1 Find the number of forward path and its corresponding path gain.

There is one forward path from source node R(s) to sink node. C(s)

The path gain is P1= G

Step-2 Find the individual loop gain.

109 There is one loop and the loop gain is L1= - GH 2/1/2021
 Step_3 Find the combinations of two non-touching loop and their gain product.

Here no such two non-touching loops. Hence it is zero.

Step-4 Find the cofactor of the determinant

Δk= the value of Δ after eliminating all loops that touches kth forward path

=1-(loop gains not touching kth forward path.)

Here Δ1=1

Step-5 Find the determinant of the SFG Δ

Δ =1 - (Σ loop gains of all individual loops) + (Σ sum of the gain products of all combinations
two non-touching loops ) - (Σ sum of gain products all combinations of three non-touching
loops) + …
Δ = 1- (L1) = 1+GH

Step-6 Now the required TF is

110 2/1/2021
 Ex: Find SFG using Masson’s gain formula Corresponding SFG

Solution:

Step_1 There are two forward path connecting the input R(s)to output Y(s)

Step_2 There are four individual/self loops

Step_3
111 2/1/2021
 Step_4

Ex:

Sol:

112 2/1/2021
 Ex:

Solutions:

Feed forward path gain:

113 2/1/2021
 Ex:
Find the over all T.F. by SFG

Solution:
Individual path gain

Three loops
114 2/1/2021
 The overall T.F.

115 2/1/2021
 EX: Find SFG from the block

Ex:

SFG

116 2/1/2021
 Solution
there are two forward paths between the input R(s) and the output Y(s). The forward
path gains are
P1 = G4(s) for the path R(s)E(s)X2(s)Y(s)
P2 = G1(s)G2(s)G3(s) for the path R(s)E(s)X4(s)X3(s)X1(s)Y(s)
there are five individual loops. The loop gains are

L1 = –G1(s)G2(s)H2(s) for the loop E(s)X4(s)X3(s)E(s)

L2 = – G1(s)G2(s)G3(s) for the loop E(s)X4(s)X3(s)X1(s)Y(s)E(s)
L3 = – G4 for the loop E(s)X2(s)Y(s)E(s)
L4 = – G2(s)G3(s)H1(s) for the loop X4(s)X3(s)X1(s)Y(s)X4(s)
L5 = G4(s)H1(s)G2(s)H2(s) for the loop E(s)X2(s)Y(s)X4(s)X3(s)E(s)

there are no non-touching loops in this signal flow graph. The determinant Δ for the
graph is given by

Δ = 1 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5)
= 1 + G1(s)G2(s)H2(s) + G2(s)G3(s)H1(s) + G1(s)G2(s)G3(s) + G4(s) -G4(s)H1(s)G2(s)H2(s)

117 2/1/2021
 The value of Δ1 is computed in the same way as Δ by removing the loops that touch
the first forward path P1. In this example, since path P1 touches all the five loops, Δ1 is
found as Δ1 = 1

Proceeding in the same way, we find Δ2 = 1, The T.F.

C (s) P11 + P2  2
G (s) = =
R(s) 

C (s) G4 + G1 G 2 G 3
G (s) = =
R(s) 1 + G1 G 2 H 2 + G 2 G 3 H1 + G1G 2 G 3 + G4 − G 2 G4 H1H 2

118 2/1/2021
 Module_1

Lecture_9

Comparison between BDR and SFG ,

Numerical on SFG from block diagram
Types of feedbacks

119 2/1/2021
 Comparison between block diagram and SFG

Block Diagram Reduction Signal Flow Graph

Applicable to LTI Applicable to LTI

Each element is represented by block Each variable is represented by node

Self loop does not exist Self loop exists

It is time consuming method Requires less time

Block diagram is required at each and every At each step SFG is not required
step
Feedback path is present Feedback loop is present

T.F. is shown in block T.F. shown on branch

120 2/1/2021
Procedures for getting SFG from block diagram
• Replace all the summing points and take off points by nodes
•If the branch connecting a summing point and take off point has unit gain,
then both summing point and take off points are represented by a single node
• If there are more take off points from the same signal, then all points represented by a
single node
• If there is no block between two summing points, then those summing points are
considered as one node.

121 2/1/2021
 SFG from block diagram model

Step-1: All variables and signals are replaced by nodes.

Step-2: Connect all nodes according to their signal flow.
Step-3: Each of gains is replaced by transmittances of the branches connected between
two nodes of the forward paths.
Step-4: The feedback path is replaced by transmittances of -1 multiplied with its gain.

122 2/1/2021
 Ex:

123 2/1/2021
 Ex:

124 2/1/2021
 Ex:

125 2/1/2021
 We can also find

126 2/1/2021
 Types of feedback on control system

In open loop control system, there is no provision for supervision to correct the behavior of
system output due to lack of proper system components.

The open loop system is highly sensitive to disturbances and changes in parameters of the plant.

The closed loop known as negative feedback system is used for self correcting mechanism.

The most important property of negative feedback system is to reduce the sensitivity if any system
parameter variation occurs.

There are two types of feed back control system

➢Negative feedback system (degenerative)

➢Positive feedback system (regenerative)

127 2/1/2021
Degenerative feedback control system: It is a control system where the feedback signal
opposes the input signal.

C ( s) G( s)
=
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)

when G(s) H (s) = 1 C(s) = finite

Regenerative feedback control system: It is a control system where the feedback

signal supports or adds the input signal.

C ( s) G ( s)
=
R( s) 1 − G ( s) H ( s)

when G(s) H (s) = 1 C ( s) = 

128 2/1/2021
 However, the regenerative is sometimes used for increasing the loop gain of feedback system.

The positive feedback is necessarily required for the system in the inner followed by the negative
in the outer loop.
G1 G1G2 G3
1 − G1 H1 1 − G1 H1

The closed loop T.F. is C ( s) G1G2G3 / (1 − G1 H1 ) 

G1G2G3
= 1 − G1 H1 + G1G2G3 H
R( s) 1 + G1G2G3 H / (1 − G1 H1 )

1
If G1H1 = 1 the inner loop gain becomes very high and the closed loop T.F. becomes H (s)

Thus, due to the high inner loop gain, the closed loop T.F. becomes insensitive to G(s), i.e.
Forward path gain 2/1/2021
129
 Module_1

Lecture_10

Effect of degenerative feedback on control system,

regenerative feedback,
Application of control system in non-engineering field

130 2/1/2021
 ❑ Effect of feedback on parameter variation

open loop

The parameter changes due to environmental and aging factor

Let G(s) be the change in G(s) due to parameter variation and C (s) be the

Corresponding change in output.

then C(s) = G(s) R(s) becomes C(s) + C(s) = G(s) + G(s) R(s)

= G(s) R(s) + G(s) R(s)

131 2/1/2021
  C(s) + C(s) = C(s) + G(s) R(s)
 C(s) = G(s) R(s) (1)

Hence, it is observed that, for a small variation of gain parameter, the output is
proportionally varied.
parameter variation on closed loop system C ( s) G( s)
=
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)

G(s)
 C (s) = R( s )
1 + G(s) H (s)

Let there is a small change in output C (s) due to change in G(s)

G ( s) + G ( s)
So, C ( s) + C ( s) = R( s )
1 + ( G ( s) + G ( s) ) H ( s)

G ( s) + G ( s)
C ( s) + C ( s) = R( s)
1 + G ( s) H ( s) + G ( s) H ( s)

As G( s ) H ( s ) G(s) H (s)
132 2/1/2021
  G ( s) + G ( s) 
We have C ( s) + C ( s) =   R( s )
 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) 

 G(s)   G ( s ) 
C ( s) + C ( s) =   R ( s ) + 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )  R ( s )
 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )   

 G ( s) 
C ( s) =   R( s) (2)
 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) 

1
Comparing (1) and (2), we observe that, the output variation in closed loop is 1 + G( s) H ( s)

times that of open loop system. Usually G(s)H(s) is very high which means, feed back reduces
the change in output due to effect of parameter variation.

133 2/1/2021
 ❑ Effect of feed back on sensitivity
Sensitivity:
The performance of an open loop control will change due to any change in its parameter
values.

The parameters changes because of environmental conditions or because of ageing.

The resistance of coils change with temperature, the gain of transistors change with
time, and the friction of a bearing is dependent upon the level of lubrication.

The performance of the open loop system will also change because of unwanted 'noise‘
signals which will always be affecting any physical system.

We then say that the performance of the system is 'sensitive' to parameter variations
and to unwanted noise signals.

One of the prime reasons for using feedback is that it reduces the sensitivity of the
system to both parameter variations and external noises or disturbances

134 2/1/2021
Sensitivity of T.F. T(s) on G(s ) due to degenerative Feedback :
The effect of a parameter change on system performance can be expressed in terms of a sensitivity
function.

T / T T G
 SGT = = 
G / G G T

In an open-loop system, C (s) = G(s) R(s)

When G(s) changes to G(s) + G(s) Then, C(s) = G(s) R(s)

T / T G G
 SGT = =  =1 In open loop T =G
G / G G G

In an closed-loop system, G G(s)

T = C (s) = R(s)
1 + GH 1 + G (s) H(s)

T G   G   G 
SGT = =  G /  
G T G 1 + GH   1 + GH 
135 2/1/2021
 Closed loop   G 
SGT =   (1 + GH )
G  1 + GH 

(1 + GH ) − GH
=  (1 + GH )  SGT =
1
(1 + GH ) 2
(1 + GH )
1
Since the GH is very high, the sensitivity for a closed loop system is reduced by a factor (1 + GH )

This implies that, the closed loop system is less sensitive to G variation w.r.t. open loop system

Sensitivity on feedback gain H

Open loop: In open loop system, H=0

T H
So, sensitivity S H = =0
T
H T

T H   G  H  S HT = −
GH
= −1
Closed loop S HT = =   1 + GH
H T H  1 + GH  G / (1 + GH )

The closed loop system is more sensitive variation in feedback path parameter
136 2/1/2021
 Negative sign implies that, T decreases with increase in H.

R2
Ex: Find the transfer function T of this inverting amplifier where K = 1
R1

Find the sensitivity due to change in A and due to change in feedback gain K

Given the gain A = 104

R2
K = = 0.1
R1

137 2/1/2021
 The equivalent circuit of the amplifier is
V0 = A (Vi − KV0 )

 V0 + AKV0 = AVi

 V0 (1 + AK ) = AVi

V0 A
T = =
Vi 1 + AK
The sensitivity due to change in A is
V0 A 104
T A 1 1 T= = = = 10
S TA = = = = 0.001 Vi 1 + AK 1 + 104  0.01
A T 1 + AK 1 + 104  0.1

The sensitivity due to change in feed back gain K is

T K KA −103
S KT = =− = = −1
K T 1 + AK 1 + 104  0.1

138 2/1/2021
 Ex:
Calculate the sensitivity of the system transfer function w.r.t.
(a) Forward path gain
(b) Feedback path gain 60
s ( s + 10 )

given  = 1.6 rad/sec

0.8

Sol:
a)
T G
The sensitivity of the T.F. w.r.t. forward path gain is given by SGT =
G T
G
since T =
1 + GH

1 1 s 2 + 10s
SGT = = = 2
1 + GH 1 + 60
*0.8 s + 10s + 48
s( s + 10)

s 2 + 10s − 2 + j10 −(1.6)2 + j10(1.6)

Substituting s = j SGT = = =
s + 10s + 48
2
− + j10 + 48
2
−(1.6) 2 + j10*1.6 + 48

139 2/1/2021
 −2.56 + j16
SGT =
45.44 + j16
(−2.56)2 + 162
The magnitude of the sensitivity is SGT = = 0.336
(45.44) + 16
2 2

(b) The sensitivity of the system T.F. w.r.t. feedback gain is

T H GH  48 
S HT = =− = − 2 
H T 1 + GH  s + 10s + 48 

substituting s = j  48 
S HT = −  2 
 − + j10 + 48 

48
S HT = − = −0.996  −1
(45.44) + 16
2 2

Negative sign indicates that, T decreases with increase in H. Hence, feedback reduces the sensitivity

140 2/1/2021
 ❑ Effect of feed back on stability Consider first order system. The T.F. is

V0 ( s ) 1 1
= =
Vi ( s ) 1 + RCS 1 +  s

Where  is the time constant

The general representation of first order system in block diagram is

1
K 1+ s

V0 ( s) K
Where K is the amplifier gain. The open loop T.F. in time constant form is G( s) = =
Vi ( s ) 1 +  s

In pole-zero form K / 1
G (s) = Open loop pole is at s=−
s + 1/  

1
s=−

141 2/1/2021
 Closed loop system

K
1 + s Where K ' is the sensor gain

K'
Now,
Closed loop pole
K /1 + s K /
CLT .F . = T ( s) = =
1 + KK '  1 + KK ' 
'
KK
s=− 1+ s+ 
 1 + s   

1
s=−

Open loop pole

Hence, the increasing the system gain K, the stability is improved in closed loop as compared
to open loop system.
142 2/1/2021
 ❑ Effect of Feedback on bandwidth: (the range of frequencies over which the system
Responds satisfactorily )
K' K' /  G(s) =
K
Open loop G ( s) =  G ( s) =
s + 1 s + 1
s +

Closed loop (unity feed back) G ( s) K / (1 + s ) K

T (s) =  T (s) = =
1 + G ( s) 1 + K / (1 + s ) s + 1 + K

K / (1 + s ) K
 T (s) = =
1 + K / (1 + s ) s + 1 + K

K / (1 + K ) K / (1 + K ) 
 T (s) = = where  CL =
s / (1 + K ) + 1 s CL + 1 K +1

1
B.W. is the frequency at which the DC gain drops to
2
K K 1
For open loop G( s) = = =
s + 1 j + 1 2

K / (1 + K ) K / (1 + K ) 1
For closed loop T ( s ) = = =
s CL + 1 j CL + 1 2
143 Band width of an audio 2/1/2021
amplifier
 K K / (1 + K ) 1 1 1
=  = =
j + 1 j CL + 1 j + 1 (1 + K )( j CL + 1) 2

 j + 1 = (1 + K )( j CL + 1) = 2   2 2 + 1 = (1 + K )( 2 CL

2
+ 1) = 2

Also  bCL = (1 + K )bOL

➢ Effect of feedback on disturbance:

Disturbance in forward path:

Td ( s )
 C ( s) =
G1 H

If the gain G1 is very high, disturbance in forward path is less affected

144 2/1/2021
 Properties Open Loop System Closed Loop System Comments

Transfer Open loop gain is higher

Function & because G(s) is normally
Gain high
Parameter Variation in output with
variations parameter variation is lower
in closed loop system
Sensitivity Closed loop is much less
sensitive to G while open
loop is 100%
But closed loop is highly
sensitive with H variation
Stability For 1st order system, Pole is at For closed loop system, the
the pole is at pole shifted more stable
position by adjusting K
Band Width Band width increases in
closed loop system
Disturbance The disturbance does Noise or disturbance is Closed loop system are able
145
not arise considerable reduced to control disturbance
2/1/2021
 Module_2

Lecture_11

System Analysis in time domain, Standard test signals-

Characteristics of step, ramp, parabolic , impulse and sinusoidal
signal:

146 2/1/2021
 Time Domain Response
The manner in which the dynamic system responds to an input, expressed as a function of time
is called time domain response.
It is possible to compute the time domain response of a system if the mathematical model of
the system is known.

The time domain response has two components,

➢ Transient response/natural response: This response will decay (for stable system)
exponentially or oscillatory to zero as time increases and is independent of the input quantity.
The oscillatory or exponential nature are due to system’s storage energy device. This device does
not allow the response instantaneously.
➢ Steady state response/forced response: This is the response of a system after transient
part decays to zero. However, this response depends both on system dynamics and the input
quantity. If the response of the system at steady state does not exactly agree with given input, then
steady state error will occur. This error is the indication of accuracy.

The dynamic response along with steady state response decides the system behavior (absolute
stability, relative stability and steady state error of the system)

So the total response is given by

147 2/1/2021
 The difference between the input xi (in this case ramp) and output x0 during transient period is
called transient error and the difference between the input and out during steady state period is
Called steady state error.

The transient and steady state response are studied with certain standard signal called test signal.

Typical test signal: The common test signal are step, ramp, acceleration, impulse and sinusoidal.
The mathematical and experimental analysis of a control system can be carried out easily.
148 2/1/2021
 Which test signal is required ?
If the system is subjected to sudden disturbances, a step input is the good choice.
If the inputs to a system is gradually changing with time , then ramp function is the right choice.
If the input to a system is more gradually increased with time than ramp, then parabolic
function is used.
If the inputs is subjected to shock input, then impulse function is the best one.
Impulse signal: The impulse input is useful when we consider the convolution integral
For the output y(t) in terms of input r(t) which is written for the system shown

Impulse response

Since the integral has a value only at  = 0 , therefore

is the impulse response for the system.

149 2/1/2021
 When the system is subjected to a large magnitude , narrow width pulse. An impulse
is a pulse with width t → 0 The strength of impulse is its area A

The impulse function whose area is unity is called unit

impulse function.

Also the derivative of unit step signal is the unit impulse.

dr (t )
 (t ) =
dt

 dr (t )  1
R( s) = L( (t )) = L   = s  =1
 dt  s

Unit step function: Displacement input signal

150 2/1/2021
 Ramp function:

Also called velocity input signal. It is a step function of velocity. Integration of step is ramp function.

A is the slope of the line.

Parabolic Function:

This is the acceleration input and integration of ramp is the parabolic function.

The derivative of unit ramp is also called parabolic function.

151 2/1/2021
 Sinusoidal signal Test
This is one of the test signal used
testing of frequency domain
Response. This gives a steady state response
Information of the system. The steady state
response also a sinusoidal response with
some phase angle.
r (t ) = sin(t )

R( s ) = L(r (t )) = L sin( wt ) =
s2 +  2

Application of step signal to a system

Consider a simple system given by the transfer function in which only one pole and one zero is
present. Let us apply the step input to this system. The system results the transient and steady state
response.

The pole-zero
Location for given
system G(s)

152 2/1/2021
 When step input is applied, the output or response becomes

Where,

Thus,

Summary:
✓ The pole at step function generates the forced
response i.e. the pole at origin generates a step
function at output.
✓ A pole of the system (transfer function G(s)) ✓The zero of the system implies
generates the natural response, i.e. pole at -5 from the magnitude of the forced
origin of s-plane generates e−5t and natural response.
✓ The pole at -5 is on real axis of s-plane gives
exponential response. The pole farther away from the
153 origin gives faster response. 2/1/2021
 Module_2

Lecture_12

Time response of 1st order systems to unit impulse, step and unit ramp
inputs, Parabolic input

154 2/1/2021
Types and order of the system:
Types of the system: The number of poles of open loop T.F. G(s)H(s) at origin denotes
type of the system. Generally H(s) = 1 or unity feedback is considered.

Order of the system: The highest power of s in the denominator of G(s)H(s) is called as
order of the G(s)H(s).
K ( s + 2)
Let G ( s) H ( s) =
s ( s + 1)( s + 5)

Here, one pole is at origin (type-1) and the highest power of s in denominator is 3. So the
transfer function G(s)H(s) is 3rd order system.
Note: Usually the type is the property of open loop T.F. G(s)H(s) while the order is the
property of closed loop T.F. i.e. number of closed loop poles on the system.
G(s)
T ( s) =
1 + G ( s) H ( s)
The order of system means, the order of characteristic equation 1+G(s)H(s)

Time response of 1st order system with impulse input or

Impulse response of 1st order system

Consider an impulse of area A applied to a 1st order

155 system without zero. 2/1/2021
 The output is

So, where a=1/T, pole of the system

The inverse transform becomes

At time t=0, the output is AK/T and

decreases exponentially as t increases.
Initial slope of the output x0 (t) corresponds to the
speed of response. If the slope is high,
system will be faster.
dx0 (t ) AK
The initial slope is at t=0 =− 2
dt T

Note: Since, the output only gives the transient

response, there is no steady state response, hence no
steady state error
e() = xi () − x0 ()

−
AK Since r () is not defined at infinity
2
156 T
e() is not defined 2/1/2021
 Step response of 1st order system:

Consider a first order system without zero .

where R(s)= 1/s is step input

Open loop pole location
The step response is Of G(s)

The time response is

Where, the input pole at the origin generates the forced response c f (t ) = 1 and the system pole
at -a generates the natural response cn (t ) = −e−at = −e−(t / )

1
Where = time constant
a

The parameter a only decides the system transient response. When t = so e−at = 0.37

So, c(t ) = 1 − 0.37 = 0.63

At time constant t =  the transient response decreases to 37% and hence, the system response

rises to 63% of its final value.

157 2/1/2021
 1
The initial slope at t=0 is =

dc(t )
dt
=
d
dt
( )
1 − e −t / =
1


At t = 4 c(t ) = 1 − e−4  98%

When the output reaches within 2% of

the defined output , the system reached its
steady state condition.
4
At t = 4 =
a
Settling time: The time required to settles at desired value ts = 4

Rise time: The time required to reach from 0.1 to 0.9 of the final value . It is found the difference
2.3 0.11 2.22
of time from c(t) =0.9 to c(t)=0.1. Hence, tr = − =
a a a

The error e(t ) = r (t ) − c(t )  e(t ) = 1 − (1 − e−t / ) = e−t /

The steady state error is ess = tlim e(t ) = 0 Applying final value theorem
→

158
Hence, the steady state error is zero for a first order system with step input. 2/1/2021
 Ramp response of 1st order system

Consider the ramp input with slope Q

applied to a 1st order system.
The output X0(t)

(1)

Multi plying both sides by s 2  s + 1  We get

 T 

(2)

Equating the coefficients on both sides (2)

(3) From (3)

(4) From (5)

(5) Substituting in (4)

Hence From (3)

159 2/1/2021
 Putting A, B, C in (1)

Taking inverse transform

If the slope and gain Q=K=1, then (6)

The 1st term in equation (6) represents the input, the 2nd term represents the steady state error
And 3rd represents the transient component.

The error is found as e(t ) = xi (t ) − x0 (t )

 e(t ) = t − t + T − Te−t /T

 e(t ) = T (1 − e−t /T )

Hence, the steady state error ess = lim e(t ) = T

t →

Thus, reducing the time constant (T), reduces not only the steady state error, but also
improves its speed of response. 2/1/2021
160
 Parabolic response of 1st order system

With the same 1st order system, the parabolic input is given and the resulting output and its
steady state error are found as
1
Input R(s) =
s3
The time response of the output is
t2
c(t ) = T 2 − Tt + − T 2 e −t /T
2
t2
The error is e(t ) = r (t ) − c(t ) = t − T + Tt − + T 2 e −t /T
2 2
2

The steady state error is ess = lim e(t ) = 

t →

Summary:
➢ Step input gives the desired information about the speed of transient response
➢The speed of response is inversely proportional to the time constant of the system
➢The ramp and parabolic input do not give any additional information regarding the speed
of response
➢The steady state error is not defined for impulse input
161 2/1/2021
➢So, it is more appropriate to study behavior of any system by unit step input
 Module_2

Lecture_13

Time response of 2nd order systems to unit step, Time domain

specifications

162 2/1/2021
 Time domain response of second order system
In the first order system, the system parameter (poles) changes the speed of response. However ,
we will see in second order system that how the system parameters can change the form of the
response.
In this system, the characteristics or the transient behavior is known from its component values.
Consider a standard form of second order system considering only pole. By proper selecting the
two parameters such as natural frequency n and damping ratio ,  we get the closed loop
poles. This closed loop pole results various shape or form of the transient response.
The open-loop T.F. of a standard proto type second order system is given by G(s) = n2
s( s + 2n )
The closed loop T.F. of the system for unity feedback system i.e
H ( s) = 1

CLTF
C ( s) G( s) n2
T ( s) = = =
R( s) 1 + G( s) H ( s) s 2 + 2n s + n2

The solution of the characteristic equation results the closed loop poles i.e.

163 s2 + 2n s + n2 = 0 2/1/2021

 The roots of the characteristic equation are given by s1 , s2 = −n  jn 1 −  2

Keeping the natural frequency constant and varying the damping ratio , various forms of transient
response due to closed loop poles are developed.

For example if
s1 , s2 = −n  jn 1 −  2
poles are complex conjugate and lie in
0   1 left half of s-plane and the transient response is under damped.

poles are negative and equal s1 , s2 = −n

 =1
the transient response is critically damped.

poles are negative real and unequal. s1 , s2 = −n  n  2 − 1

 1 The transient response is over damped
Without oscillation.

 =0 poles are on imaginary axis and complex conjugate and

the transient response is undamped or oscillatory.
s1 , s2 =  jn

164 2/1/2021
165 2/1/2021
 Step response of second order system

n2 n2
The output is C ( s) =  C (s) =
(
s s 2 + 2n s + n2 ) (
s s 2 + 2n s + (n ) 2 + n2 − (n ) 2 )
n2 n2
 C ( s) =
(
s ( s + n )2 + n2 (1 −  2 ) )  C ( s) =
(
s ( s + n ) 2
+ d2 )
Since d = n 1 −  2

Taking the Laplace inverse, we get

A Bs + C
By partial fraction C (s) = +
s ( s + n )2 + d2

Solving the equations, we get A=1, B=-1 C = −2n

1 s + 2n 1 s + n n d 

Now C ( s) = − = − −  
s ( s + n )2 + d2  s ( s + n )2 + d2 d ( s +  )2 + d2 

Since,

166 2/1/2021
 This results that, the transient oscillation of the response is damped oscillation with
damped frequency d and varies with 

The error signal for this system is

The error thus exhibits the damped oscillation

At steady state t → No error exist between input and output.

167 2/1/2021
 If the damping is  = 0 the response becomes undamped oscillation with natural frequency n

The output will be

The damped frequency is given by d = n 1 −  2 is always less than undamped natural

frequency n

When  increases beyond unity, the transient response becomes overdamped.

When  = 1 Critically damped, the two poles are equal s1 , s2 = −n
For step input

  1 Over damped, two poles are negative real and unequal. s1 , s2 = −n  n  2 − 1

168 2/1/2021
 Thus the two response is decaying exponentially. The faster exponential term is neglected
considering slower one.

Neglecting the one of the faster pole, the solution is

169 2/1/2021
 Time domain specifications
The standard time domain specifications are available for the second order system with step input
as

170 2/1/2021
 1. Delay Time (td): The delay time is the time required for the response to reach half the final
steady state value the very first time
2. Rise Time (tr): The time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% (for
underdamped system) of its final value. For overdamped system, tr is 10% to 90% of its final
value
3. Peak Time (tp): The peak time is the time required for the response to reach the first peak of
the overshoot
4. Maximum (percent) overshoot, Mp: The maximum overshoot is the maximum peak
value of the response curve measured from unity. It is expressed as

c(t p ) − c()
Maximum percent overshoot =  100%
c ( )

The amount of maximum overshoot indicates the relative stability of the system

Calculation of time domain specifications:

Delay time: As per definition
c(td ) = 0.5

e− t
n d

0.5 = 1 − sin(d td +  )  = − tan

1−  2
1−  2 Where −1

 2/1/2021
171
 ~ 1 + 0.7
td 
n

Rise time (tr) As per definition for underdamped system

e− tn r

1 = 1− sin(d tr +  )
1−  2

e− t
n r

0= sin(d tr +  )  e − t sin(d tr +  ) = 0

n r

1−  2

but e − t  0n r so sin(d tr +  ) = 0

 sin(d tr +  ) = sin(n ) Where n=1 for first intersection of response

with input
 d t r +  =   d t r =  − 
 −
 tr =
172 d 2/1/2021
 Peak time (tp)

At t=tp, the output c(tp) will attain maximum value. So the slope at the maximum point is
zero. −  t
e n p

dc(t p )
=0 As c(t p ) = 1 − sin(d t p +  )
dt 1−  2

dc(t p ) n − t −  t

d cos (d t p +  ) = 0
e n p

= e sin(d t p +  ) −
n p

dt 1−  2
1−  2

 n sin(d t p +  ) = n 1 −  2 cos (d t p +  )

 cos   sin(d t p +  ) = sin   cos (d t p +  )

Where sin  = 1 −  2
cos  = 
 tan(d t p +  ) = tan  2/1/2021
173
 n
 d t p = n  tp =
d
Peak overshoot Mp: As per definition,

M p = c(t ) max − 1  M p = c(t p ) − 1

− n t p
e
M p = 1− sin(d t p +  ) − 1
1−  2


− n

e n 1− 2

 Mp = − sin(d + )
1− 2 d

−
1− 2
e
 Mp = sin  since sin ( +  ) = − sin 
1−  2


−

174
 %M p = e 1− 2
 100% Mp is independent of natural frequency
2/1/2021
 Settling time (Ts):

The settling time is determined when the response is within the 2%tolerance of its final vlaue

This occurs when

The speed of decay of the transient response

depends on time constant 1
n
For a given n the settling time is inversely
proportional to damping ratio  .

175 2/1/2021
 Impulse response to second order system;
For the unit impulse, the output of second order system is

For under damping case,

dc(t )
since  (t ) =
dt

Impulse response

176 2/1/2021
 Lecture_14

Steady state Error, Error constants of different types of

control systems, type-0,type-1,type-2, Numerical

177 2/1/2021
 Steady State Error
The difference between the actual output and desired output is known as error. The error at t → 
is called steady state error

Error E(s) = R(s) − B( s)

= R(s) − C(s) H (s)
= R(s) − E (s)G( s)
1
 E(s) = R( s )
1 + G (s) H(s)

Steady state error is

178 2/1/2021
 Steady state error depends on two factors:

➢Type and magnitude R(s)

➢Open loop T.F. G(s)H(s)

Static position error constant:

Usually H(s)=1 unity feedback system
A
Step Input R(s) =
s

sR( s ) A A
ess = lim sE ( s ) = lim = =
s →0 s →0 1 + G ( s ) 1 + lim G (s) 1 + K p
s →0

Where, K p = lim G (s) Positional error coefficient or

s →0 static position error constant
A
ess =
179 1+ K p 2/1/2021
 While for type 1 or higher Kp is infinite.

180 2/1/2021
 Static velocity error constant:

Ramp input

Type-1 to
ramp input

The steady state error is

181 2/1/2021
182 2/1/2021
This analysis indicates that, a type 0 system is incapable of following a ramp input in the steady State.
The type 1 with unity feedback can follow the ramp input with a finite error.
The type 2 or higher system can follow a ramp input with zero error at steady state.

Static acceleration error constant:

For acceleration input

183 2/1/2021
184 2/1/2021
 Note:
Both type 0 and type 1 systems are incapable of following input in the steady state.

The type 2 with unity feedback follows a parabolic input with a finite error signal.

The type 3 or higher system follows the parabolic input with zero steady state error.

185 2/1/2021
 Conclusion

Type 0 system

A
K p = lim G (s) H(s) = K ess =
Step input s →0 1+ K

1
ramp input K v = lim sG (s) H(s) = 0 ess = =
s →0 Kv

1
Parabolic input K a = lim s 2 G (s) H(s) = 0 ess = =
s →0 Ka

186 2/1/2021
 Type 1 System

A
K p = lim G (s) H(s) =  ess = =0
Step input 1+ 
s →0

A
K v = lim sG (s) H(s) = K ess =
ramp input s →0
K

1
ess = =
ramp input K a = lim s 2 G (s) H(s) = 0 Ka
s →0

Type 2 System
A
Step input K p = lim G (s) H(s) =  ess = =0
s →0 1+ 
ramp input K v = lim sG (s) H(s) =  ess =
1
=0
s →0
K
Parabolic
K a = lim s 2 G (s) H(s) = K A
input
187 s →0 ess = 2/1/2021
K
 Steady-state error and error constant for different types of input are summarized as
follows
Type Step input Ramp input Parabolic input

Kp ess Kv ess Ka ess

Type 0 A
K 0  0 
1+ K
Type 1
 0 K
A

0
K
Type 2  A
 0 0 K K

Note:
▪ If the order of the input is same as type of system, then the error is finite.
▪If order of input is greater than the type of system, then the steady state error is infinite.
▪If type of system is greater than order of input , then error is zero

The steady state error for impulse response is zero for all type of system.
188 2/1/2021
 Advantages of static error coefficient method:
Simple calculation

Limitations:
Applicable only to stable system
Applicable only to three standard input signals
Cannot give exact value of error. It gives only mathematical value i.e. 0 or infinite

189 2/1/2021
 Mod_2

Lecture_15

Generalized error series method, Relation between

static and dynamic error coefficient, Numerical

190 2/1/2021
 Generalized Error coefficient Method/Dynamic error coefficient method
In type 0, 1,and 2 systems, only one of the static error constants kp, kv and ka is non-zero and finite
and the other two are either zero or infinity. The dynamic error coefficient method is more
generalized approach to estimate the steady state error. This method is used to find the at any instant
of time.
1
Consider the error in closed loop system E (s) = R( s) (1)
1 + G ( s) H ( s)

1
= F1 (s) F2 (s) Where, F1 (s) = F2 (s) = R( s)
1 + G (s) H(s)

Using convolution integral

t
e(t ) = 
0
F1 ( ) F2 (t −  )d

t
e(t ) =  0
F1 ( ) R(t −  )d (2)

By Taylor series
2 3
R (t −  ) = R (t ) −  R (t ) + '
R (t ) −
''
R ''' + ... (3)
191 2! 3! 2/1/2021
 Substituting (3) in (2) we get,
t t t
2
e(t ) =  F1 ( ) R(t )d −   R (t ) F1 ( )d + 
'
R '' (t ) F1 ( )d − ... Neglecting higher order terms
0 0 0
2!

  
2
ess = lim e(t ) = R(t )  F1 ( )d − R (t )   F1 ( )d + R (t ) 
' ''
F1 ( )d
t → 2!
0 0 0

define Calculation of k0

k0 =  F1 ( )d
0


k1 = −   F1 ( )d  k0 e − s = F1 ( s )
0

Taking limit as s → 0 both sides

k0 = lim F1 ( s )
s →0

ess = k0 R (t ) + k1 R ' (t ) + k 2 R '' (t )

Where
Where k0, k1 and k2 are known as dynamic error coefficient. 1
F1 ( s) =
G( s) H (s)
192 2/1/2021
 Calculation of k1 d
 k1e − s = F1 ( s ) Where
ds

since k0 e − s = F1 ( s ) k1 =  − F1 ( )d
0
d d
 k0e− s = F1 ( s)
ds ds Taking limit

 k0 ( − e − s ) =
d d
ds
F1 ( s ) k1 = lim F1 ( s)
s →0 ds

Substituting k0
similarly
 k0 ( − e − s ) =
d
F1 ( s )
ds
Putting k0 d2
k2 = lim 2 F1 ( s)
s →0 ds

d
 1
− s
F ( )d ( − ) e = F1 ( s)
0
ds

d

− s
− F1 ( ) d e = F1 ( s)
0
ds
193 2/1/2021
 Ex:
For the system shown, find the steady state error using dynamic error coefficient method
for the input given by r (t ) = 4 + 3t + 4t 2

Sol:
60
G ( s) =
( s + 3)( s + 4)
where
r (t ) = 4 + 3t + 4t 2

ess (t ) = k0 r (t ) + k1r ' (t ) + k2 r '' (t )

1
F1 ( s) =
60
1+
( s + 3)( s + 4)

s 2 + 7 s + 12
F1 ( s ) = 2
194 s + 7 s + 72 2/1/2021
 s 2 + 7 s + 12 12
k0 = lim 2 = = 0.1667
s →0 s + 7 s + 72 72
d  s 2 + 7 s + 12 
k1 = lim  2  = 0.0810
s →0 ds s + 7 s + 72
 

d 2  s 2 + 7 s + 12 
k2 = lim 2  2  = 7.39*10−3
s →0 ds
 s + 7 s + 72 

ess (t ) = 0.1667(4 + 3t + 4t 2 ) + 0.0810(3 + 8t ) + 7.39*10 −3 *8

ess (t ) = 0.9 + 1.14t + 0.66t 2

195 2/1/2021
 Relation between static and dynamic error coefficient
KN ( s )
Since the open loop transfer function for unity feedback system is expressed as G(s) =
D( s)
E ( s) 1
As error is =
R( s) 1 + G ( s)
E (s) D(s)
 =
R( s ) D( s ) + KN ( s )

Dividing the numerator and denominator and arranging the result in ascending order of
S , we obtain E ( s) = k + k s + k s 2 + ...
0 1 2
R( s)

E ( s ) = (k0 + k1s + k2 s 2 + ...) R( s )

Taking the Laplace inverse , we get

e(t ) = k0 r (t ) + k1r ' (t ) + k 2 r '' (t ) + ... Alternative way to write the error series.

For type 0 system, the error is given by E ( s ) = (k0 + k1s + k2 s 2 + ...) R( s )

1
For step input, R(s) =
s
196 2/1/2021
 The steady state error is given by ess = lim sE ( s) = k0
s →0

But the steady state error of a type 0 system due to unit step input is found during static error
coefficient is 1
e = Where Kp is the positional error coefficient
1+ K p
ss

Comparing the two equations , we obtain

1
k0 = For type 0 system
1+ K p

Similarly for type 1 system, the error equation is

E ( s ) = ( k1s + k2 s 2 + ...) R ( s )
1
For a unit ramp function R( s) =
s2
ess = lim sE ( s ) = k1 Type-1
The steady state error is s →0

1 1
Since , we obtained in static error coefficient method, ess = So, k1 = k0 = 0
197 Kv Kv 2/1/2021
 For type -2 system, the error is E ( s ) = (k2 s 2 + k3 s 3 + ...) R ( s )
1
For a unit parabolic input, R( s) =
s3
The steady state error is

ess = lim sE ( s) = k2
s →0
1
But it is found that, the acceleration error constant is ess =
Ka

So, for type -2 system,

ess = lim sE ( s) = k2
s →0

1
k2 = k1 = 0 k0 = 0
Ka

198 2/1/2021
 Hence the other way of representation of steady state error for composite input is

R1 R R
ess = + 2+ 3
1 + K p Kv Ka

R1, R2 and R3 are the magnitude of step, ramp and parabolic input

Ex Assuming r(t)=(0.1t ) and it is desired that ess  0.005

Find the range of K for error to be within the specified limit for the given system

Solution:
G(s) =
1 H ( s) = 1 r (t ) = 0.1t
s ( s + 1)

K
For the ramp input, type 1 system, K v = lim sG ( s ) H ( s ) K v = lim s =K
199
s →0 s →0 s ( s + 1)
2/1/2021
 Steady state error is A 0.1 0.1
ess = =  0.005 =  K = 20
Kv K K

So for any value of K, greater than 20 , ess will be less than 0.005. Hence, the range of K is

20  K  

200
Ex: For a unity feedback system G (s) = and r (t ) = 2t
s ( s + 8)
Determine the steady state error if it is desired to reduce this existing error by 5%. Find the
new value of the gain of the system

Solu: For the given input R( s) =

2 200
 K v = lim sG ( s) H ( s) = lim s
s2 s →0 s →0 s( s + 8)
A 2
 ess = = = 0.08
K v 25

Now, the error to be reduced by 5% of the existing value, with new of G(s)of gain K2 instead of 200

 5 
ess1 = ess −  ess  = ess − ( 0.05*0.08) = 0.0796
 100 
200 2/1/2021
 A
 0.0796 = K v = lim sG ( s )
Kv s →0

K2
Where G (s) = K2
s ( s + 8) So, Kv =
8

Now, 0.0796 =
A
=
2
=
16
Kv K 2 / 8 K 2 K2 = 201 New gain

201 2/1/2021
 Mod_2

Lecture_16

time domain specification numerical, steady state error on non-unity feed

back system, numerical

202 2/1/2021
 Numerical on time domain specifications

Ex: A second order servo-system is governed by the following differential

equation.
d 20 d0
2
+ 6 + 200 = 100i
dt dt

Where 0 and i are the output and input respectively. For this system find the

(i) Peak overshoot (ii) rise time (iii ) peak time (iv) delay time (v) settling time (5%)
Solution:

d 20 d0 0 ( s) C ( s) 100

+ 6 + 200 = 100i  = = 2 Given Closed loop system
dt 2 dt i ( s) R( s) s + 6s + 20

The characteristic equation s 2 + 6s + 20 = 0

Comparing this with standard form s + 2n s + n = 0

2 2

We get, n2 = 20 n = 4.47 rad/sec 2n = 6   = 0.67

203 2/1/2021
 − /( 1− 2 )
(i) Peak overshoot %M p = e *100 = 5.57%

 − cos −1 
(ii) Rise time tr = = 0.694 sec
n 1 −  2


(iii) Peak time (tp) tp = = 0.946 sec
n 1 −  2

1 + 0.7
(iv) Delay time (td) td = = 0.328 sec
n

3
(v) Settling (ts) ts = = 1.000 sec
n

204 2/1/2021
 Ex: Determine the value of K such that the damping ratio  = 0.5 for the following system
Find (i) tr (ii) tp (iii) Mp (iv) ts

Sol: Take off point to be shifted to the right of integrator

205 2/1/2021
 The characteristic equation gives s 2 + (0.8 + 16K )s + 16 = 0

Comparing with standard equation s 2 + 2n s + n2 = 0

2n = 0.8 + 16 K  K = 0.2

So, n 2 = 16  n = 4 rad/sec
For  = 0.5

 − cos 
−1
 − 60  − 60
(i) tr = = = 180 = 0.605 sec
n 1 −  2 4 1 − 0.52 4 1 − 0.52
  (iv) ts =
4
= 2 sec
(ii) tp = = = 0.906 sec n
n 1 −  2 4 1 − 0.52

(iii) − /( 1− 2 )

206 %M p = e = 16.3% 2/1/2021
 Ex:

Sol:

207 2/1/2021
 Ex:

Sol:

208 2/1/2021
 steady state error on non-unity feed back system
Consider a non-unity feedback system. To get the steady state error, this non-unity must be
converted into unity feedback system.

209 2/1/2021
 Ex: Given the non-unity feedback system and step input function is applied.

Find the steady state error

210 2/1/2021
 We fine the equivalent T.F. Ge

211 2/1/2021
 Ex:

A second order servomechanism with unity feedback, has the open-loop T.F. K
G ( s) =
s ( s + 4)
Find the gain K so that, the steady state error shall not exceed 0.4 degree when the input shaft is
rotated at 3 rpm

Solution:
 2  
Input speed is 3 rpm   = 3 
 = rad/sec
 60  10

t 
Hence the input r (t ) = t = R( s) =
10 10s 2

since K
G ( s) = Velocity error constant K
s ( s + 4) K v = lim sG ( s) =
s →0 4
A  /10 4
Steady state error is ess = = =
Kv Kv 10 K


Given steady state limit is 0.40  ess = 0.4
180
4 0.4
Hence, =  K = 180
212 10 K 180 2/1/2021
 Lecture_17

Application of MATLAB and its Tool Box for time response analysis

213 2/1/2021
 Basics of MATLAB:

Some command

214 2/1/2021
 Online help:

215 2/1/2021
 Relational operator

line style option

216 2/1/2021
 Basics of MATLAB:
The MATLAB is an interactive programme for engineering and scientific calculation which
includes base programme and variety of tool boxes.

The tool boxes are collection of special files, called M-files, which extends the functionality of
the base programme.

A variety of objects such as statement, matrices, graphics and scripts are allowed to interact with
the programme.

Statement has the form as shown

A typical statement is

217 2/1/2021
 I f the statement is followed by a semicolon (;)
the output is not displayed.

When the variable name and (=) are omitted from an expression,
the result is assigned by a generic variable by ans

The user guide has complete list of available

trigonometric and elementary math functions.

218 2/1/2021
 With decreasing power of s

219 2/1/2021
 MATLAB Application in control system:

Closed loop system

Feedback function

220 2/1/2021
 Application of Step function:

221 2/1/2021
222 2/1/2021
223 2/1/2021
 MATLAB in Time domain specifications:

For step input

224 2/1/2021
225 2/1/2021
226 2/1/2021
 Model conversion

Ex:

227 2/1/2021
228 2/1/2021
 Eigen values and eigen vectors

229 2/1/2021
 Laplace and inverse Lapalce transform

Using MATLAB

Ex

230 2/1/2021
231 2/1/2021
232 2/1/2021
 and

233 2/1/2021
234 2/1/2021
235 2/1/2021
 Mod_2

Lecture_18

Effect of poles and zeros on system response.

236 2/1/2021
 The time domain specification were found for a second order, two complex poles and no zeros

For more than two poles and presence of zeros can not be accounted for the finding of time domain
specifications.

The system for such are considered to be approximate as second order system by locating the
dominant poles.

237 2/1/2021
  (1)

Larger is imaginary line i.e. less peak time, the more is overshoot.
So, the damping ratio is more. Hence, rise time
decreases and the settling time is less.

(2)

Settling time is inversely proportional to real part of the pole

The vertical lines represents the real part of pole

corresponding to its settling time.
238 2/1/2021
 Effect of step response by changing the position of poles
at different location
of s-plane.
Fig-a: Moving the pole
on vertical axis. Settling time
is same with different natural
frequency.

Fig-b: Moving the pole

on horizontal axis.
The natural frequency is same.
As the pole moves to the left,
The response is very fast
and damps more quickly.

Fig-c: Moving the pole

along the constant radial line.
The percentage overshoot
remains same.
The farther the pole,
fast is the response.
239 2/1/2021
 Consideration of only one additional pole with complex pole:

The time domain output is

240 2/1/2021
 Case_II

The pure exponential will die out much more rapidly than the second order under damped step
response. Thus , the total response will be the response duet to second order response.

Case_I The exponential decay is significant and the system

can not be represented by second order system. The third pole has the effect to the overall
the response.

Case _III Thus , the total response will be the response duet to second order response.
241 2/1/2021
 If the real pole is 5 times father than the dominant pole, the system response is represented by
second order system.

Consider a second order system. A zero is added to the left half of s-plane in the transfer function.

C ( s) ( s + a)
T ( s) = =
R( s) ( s + b)( s + c)
Adding a zero to the response C(s), we have
242 2/1/2021
If “a” is very small, then the derivative term sC (s) contributes more to the response and has greater
effect. For step response, the derivative is typically positive at the start of the response.

For small value of “a” , there is a more overshoot in the second order system because the derivative
Term will contribute more positive to the first overshoot of the response.

Where a= -3, -5, -10

243 2/1/2021
 If “a” is positive small and is placed right side of s-plane, then the response will initially
follow derivative action sC(s) in opposite direction.

A system which exhibits this type of response is called non-minimum phase system.

Example: A motor cycle initially steers left when commanded to the right.

244 2/1/2021
 Ex: Nonmimum phase electronic system, where step input is given

(1)

(2)

(3)

Putting the value of (1) in (3) we get (4)

(5)

Using (4) and (5) in (2)

After simplifying and rearranging (6)

245 2/1/2021
 For step input
where

By partial fraction expansion, with zero

246 2/1/2021
 Module_3

Lecture_19

Concepts of stability: Necessary conditions of stability

247 2/1/2021
 Stability Criterion
Concept of stability: As we know that, the response of the system is given by

Using these concepts, we present the following definitions of stability, instability, and
marginal stability:
A linear, time-invariant system (LTI) is stable if the natural response approaches zero as
time approaches infinity.

A linear, time-invariant system is unstable if the natural response grows without bound as
time approaches infinity.

A linear, time-invariant system is marginally stable if the natural response neither decays
nor grows but remains constant or oscillates as time approaches infinity.

Thus, the definition of stability implies that only the forced response remains as the
natural response approaches zero.

248 2/1/2021
 Using the natural response:
1. A system is stable if the natural response approaches zero as time approaches infinity.
2. A system is unstable if the natural response approaches infinity as time approaches
infinity.
3. A system is marginally stable if the natural response neither decays nor grows but
remains constant or oscillates.

Using the total response (BIBO):

1. A system is stable if every bounded input yields a bounded output.
2. A system is unstable if any bounded input yields an unbounded output.
Three circular cone resting on its base on a horizontal surface(equilibrium positions ) . Slightly tilted
from their position gives the information of stability as follows.

249 2/1/2021
 stable

stable

unstable

unstable

250 2/1/2021
 Considering two notions of stability, i.e. natural response and total response, we define
a SISO system such that the closed loop T.F. can be given by,
Total Response:

With initial conditions assumed zero, the output of the system is given by

the forcing function output c(t) due to input r(t) is known as convolution integral, and is given by

where g(t) is the impulse response. When the impulse response g(t) is bounded and satisfies the
additional condition

then the integral will be finite for a bounded input |r (t)|. i.e. For stable, the response of the
system is based on the bounded input. i.e. Less than some finite value for all time.
251 2/1/2021
 How do we determine if a system is stable?
If the closed-loop system poles are in the left half of the plane and hence have a negative real
part, the system is stable. That is, stable systems have closed-loop transfer functions with
poles only in the left half-plane.

Poles in the right half-plane (rhp) yield either pure exponentially increasing or exponentially
increasing sinusoidal natural responses. These natural responses approach infinity as time
approaches infinity.
Thus, unstable systems have closed loop transfer functions with at least one pole in the right
half-plane and/or poles of multiplicity greater than 1 on the imaginary axis.
The marginally stable systems have closed-loop transfer functions with only imaginary axis
poles of multiplicity 1. When the pole is at origin, it is said to be limitedly stable.
Whether the linear system is stable or unstable does not depend on the input or driving
function of the system.The poles of the input do not affect the property of the stability but
they contribute only the steady state response.

The control system should not have closed loop poles on the imaginary axis since in practical
cases, in the present of noise, the amplitude of oscillations may increases determined by
the noise power level.
252 2/1/2021
 It is to be noted that, all closed loop poles lie in the left half of s-plane does not guarantee
satisfactory transient characteristics. If the dominant complex conjugate closed loop pole lies close
to origin or jw axis, the transient response may exhibit excessive oscillations or may be very slow.

To guarantee fast, well damped, transient response characteristics, it is necessary that, the closed loop
poles lie in a particular region in the complex plane, such region is bounded by the shaded area.

The closed loop poles are found from the

characteristic equation of the closed loop system

253 2/1/2021
 By factorization,

For R(s) as step input

The magnitude of the relative residues depends on the location of the closed loop pole in left half
of s-plane.
254 2/1/2021
If a pole is located far away from the origin in left half of s-plane, then the residue for this pole is small.
The transient for such a remote pole is small and last for a short time.

If there is a closed loop zero closed to a closed loop pole, then the residue at this pole is small.

A pair of closely located closed loop pole and zero will be effectively cancel each other.

The characteristic equation for second order system is given by

The higher order system can be approximated to second order system for the transient response analysis.
255 2/1/2021
 Module_3

Lecture_20

Testing for stability, Hurwitz stability criterion,

Routh stability criterion

256 2/1/2021
 Testing for stability: (Necessary condition for stability)
• All the coefficients of the characteristic equation in s be real and positive.
•None of the coefficients should be zero.
If some of the coefficients are zero or negative it can be concluded that, the system is unstable.

Let the characteristic equation is

Where all coefficients are real and positive and

Hurwitz Criterion: (Necessary and Sufficient conditions)

The Hurwitz criterion is in terms determinants which is developed from the coefficients from the
Characteristics equation.

Let the characteristic equation is

For the stability of the system, it is necessary that the n determinant s formed from the coefficients
of the characteristic equation be positive, where these determinants are

taken as the principal minors of the following arrangement called Hurwitz determinant

257 2/1/2021
 Method I

The coefficients are arranged as

Here, the element of the determinant decreases by two along the row by one down the column.
For stability, the following conditions must satisfy

258 2/1/2021
 Example:

Find stability of the following system given by and

using Hurwitz stability criterion

Solution:

Here, n=2

259 2/1/2021
 Example_2:
CLTF

260 2/1/2021
Routh’s /Routh-Hurwitz Table: (Necessary and Sufficient Conditions)
We first create the Routh table in array form. Begin by labeling the rows with powers of s from the
highest power of the denominator of the closed-loop transfer function to s°. Next start with the
coefficient of the highest power of s in the denominator and list, horizontally in the first row, every
other coefficient. In the second row, list horizontally, starting with the next highest power of s,
every coefficient that was skipped in the first row.

For the system to be stable, all the first column elements must be nonzero and positive.
261 2/1/2021
 Example:

The complete array is

262 2/1/2021
 Example: Let us now shift one of the poles at origin

So the previous system becomes

The characteristic polynomial becomes

Note: If the last element of first column contains zero, one pole is at origin.
263 2/1/2021
 While preparing the table, we may encounter four different cases which require some modifications
of the procedure for computing the elements of the array. The distinct special cases are:

(1) a zero in the first column, but other elements in the row containing the zero are
nonzero;
(2) a zero in the first column and the other elements of the row containing the zero
are also zero, and
(3) as in case (2) plus repeated roots on the jω-axis.

In presence of the cases mentioned above, we will face difficulties in completing the table. We
shall consider examples to illustrate the procedure for overcoming the difficulties in.
Case 1: A zero in the first column.
If a first column in any row is zero, but the remaining terms are not zero, or thee is no remaining
terms, then the zero term is replaced by a small positive number and the rest array are evaluated.

Test the stability using Routh-Hurwitz criterion.

264 2/1/2021
 Here, the criterion fails. To remove the
above difficulty, the following two
methods can be used.

Method-1
(i) Replace 0 by ε (very small number) and complete the array with ε.
(ii) Examine the sign change by taking 0

There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is unstable.
265 2/1/2021
 Method_2 for a zero appears in the first column of the Routh array

The original characteristic polynomial should then be multiplied by a factor (s + a) in which the real
constant a > 0, say a=1

266 2/1/2021
Case-2 All elements in a row is zero
A second special case exists when all the elements in a row of the Routh array are zero.
This is caused when the polynomial contains singularities that are symmetrical located about the
origin in s-plane.

267 2/1/2021
 Method-1 By method of differential of auxiliary equation
Fined the range of K of the following system such that, the system will be stable , unstable and
marginal stable.

Solution:

Since K is assumed positive, we see that all elements in the first column are always positive except the
s1 row. This entry can be positive, zero, or negative, depending upon the value of K. If K < 1386, all
terms in the first column will be positive, and since there are no sign changes, the system will have
three poles in the left half-plane and be stable.
268 2/1/2021
 If K > 1386, the s1 term in the first column is negative. There are two sign changes, indicating
that the system has two right-half-plane poles and one left half- plane pole, which makes the
system unstable.
If K = 1386, we have an entire row of zeros, which could signify jw poles. Returning to the s2 row
and replacing K with 1386, we form the even polynomial

(1)

(2)

(2) we obtain the Routh-Hurwitz

Table for K=1386

Since there are no sign changes from the even polynomial (s2 row) down to the bottom of the
table, the remaining root is in the left half-plane. Therefore the system is marginally stable.
269 2/1/2021
 Method-2 The procedure to be carried out when a row of zeros occurs is (a) form the auxiliary
Polynomial (b) divide the original polynomial by the auxiliary polynomial and (c) test the remaining
Polynomial by means of the Routh array.
The Routh-Hurwitz criterion is often used in limited applications to factor polynomials containing
even factors.

270 2/1/2021
271 2/1/2021
 Case 3: Repeated roots of the characteristics equation on the imaginary axis.
If the jω-axis roots of the characteristics equation are simple, it is neither stable nor unstable, it is
marginally stable and its response contains an undamped sinusoidal mode. However, if the jω-axis
has more than a pair of roots, the impulse response will be of the form tsin (ωt + ϕ) and is
unbounded as time approaches infinity. Routh-Hurwitz criteria will not reveal this type of
instability.

Consider the transfer function:

where ε → 0. It is to be noted that the absence of any sign-change misleads to the conclusion about
the marginally stable nature of the system.

The terms in the row corresponding to s3 are all zero in the above table, which has been completed
by replacing 0 by ε. Now the auxiliary polynomial F(s) is found as

272 2/1/2021
 which indicates that there are two pairs of roots of equal magnitude and opposite sign on the
imaginary axis.The derivative of F(s) with respect to s is

The terms in the s3 row are replaced by the coefficients of the last equation, that is, 16 and 40. The
array of coefficients then becomes

We see that there is no change in sign in the first column of the new array. Thus, the original
equation has no root with a positive real part. By solving for roots of the auxiliary polynomial
equation,

we obtain or

These two pairs of roots are a part of the roots of the original equation. As a matter of fact, the
original equation can be written in factored form as follows:

273 Clearly, the original equation has no root with a positive real part. 2/1/2021
 Module_3

Lecture_21

Advantages and disadvantages of Routh-Hurwitz , Relative

stability Analysis, Application of Routh stability criterion to
linear feedback systems,

274 2/1/2021
 Advantages and disadvantages of Routh-Hurwitz
Advantages of Routh-Hurwitz stability

(i) Stability can be judged without solving the characteristic equation

(ii) Less calculation time
(iii) The number of roots in RHP can be found in case of unstable condition
(iv) Range of value of K for system stability can be calculated
(v) Intersection point with the jw-axis can be calculated
(vi) Frequency of oscillation at steady-state is calculated

Dis-advantages of Routh-Hurwitz stability

(i) It is valid for only real coefficient of the characteristic equation

(ii) Unable to give exact locations of closed-loop poles
(iii) Does not suggest methods for stabilizing an unstable system
(iv) Applicable only to the linear system
(v) Higher order system is not easily factorized.
275 2/1/2021
 Relative Stability Analysis:
Routh_Hurwitz stability criterion provides information whether all roots lie in the left-hand side
of the s-plane or not. Sometimes, the engineer is interested to know information about relative
stability, specially in presence of parameter variation in the process due to environmental changes or
change in operating conditions, which will affect one or more of the coefficients in the characteristic
equation.
The relative stability may be found by shifting the imaginary axis to the left by some constant
amount σ
This can be easily done by replacing s by s + σ in the characteristic equation and applying the
Routh-Hurwitz criteria.

In this case, the number of changes of sign in the first column of the array developed for the
polynomial in s corresponds to the number of roots that are located to the right of the vertical
line s = – σ.

Thus, this test reveals the number of roots that lie to the right of the vertical line s = – σ.

So, a large value of σ on the negative axis indicates that the system has high relative stability and is
less prone to be unstable due to small parameter variation.

276 2/1/2021
 Introducing the constant real value , the concept of relative stability can be viewed as one in which
the characteristic equation is tested to find out whether or not any roots lie to the right of an
imaginary axis which passes through the point s = - σ , where,

Example: How many roots of the characteristics equation

Lie to the right of s=-1 in the s-plane.

277 2/1/2021
 Solution:

A system with such a denominator polynomial is therefore a stable system because there are no
changes of sign in the first column of the Routh array.

The imaginary axis is now shifted from s=0 to s= - 1 by making the substitution s = r - 1, the new
polynomial equation is

and although it is now apparent by the negative sign in the polynomial that at least one root of this
polynomial lies to the right of the point r = 0, the Routh array will be formed for completeness.

278 2/1/2021
From the Routh array it is apparent that as only one change of sign occurs in the first column, so
only one root of the polynomial lies to the right of the r = 0 (s = - 1) point. Also, from the
previous Routh array it was shown that no roots exist to the right of the s = 0 point, thus the root
in question must lie between the s = - 1 and s = 0 points. Hence , no root of the characteristic
equation lie to the right of s= - 1 in the s-plane.

Application of Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion to Linear feedback system

Routh-array is
The characteristic equation is

We require for stability

279 2/1/2021
 MATLAB Code:

As K increases, the roots of the characteristic equation moves towards the right-half of s-plane.

When K=8, the two roots lie on the imaginary axis and one root on negative half of real axis. So,
It results marginal stable

When K>8, the roots migrate towards right half of s-plane. It results unstable.

280 2/1/2021
 Module_3

Lecture_22

Root locus techniques: Evan condition,

Properties of root locus

281 2/1/2021
 Root locus techniques: (Time domain design tool)
The root locus technique is used to analyze and design the effect of loop gain (K) upon the system's
transient performance and stability.
By varying only the system gain or amplifier gain keeping all other parameters constant, the closed-
loop poles migrates in s-plane and the locus of the migration points is called root locus. The
system behavior is associated with the closed loop poles.
This plot give absolute stability and relative stability information.

Example: The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is,

Determine the location of its closed loop poles for increasing values of K from 0 to . Also
determine the limiting value of K beyond which the closed loop system with unity feedback
becomes unstable.
Solution:
All the three poles of the plant, S1 = - 1, S2 = - 2 and S3 = - 3, are negative. Hence, the plant, i.e.,
the uncontrolled system (without feedback) is stable. To find the closed loop poles we need to do
feedback system and the effect of system gain K on the closed loop poles.
282 2/1/2021
 The transfer function of the closed loop system is,

The characteristic equation of the closed loop system is,

So,

In order to obtain the roots or the poles of the closed loop system, we must factorise the above
closed loop characteristic equation for different values of K.

( 1 ) K = 0: The closed loop characteristic equation becomes the plant characteristic equation.
Hence, the closed loop poles will be the same as the open loop poles. That is,
S1 = - 1, S2 = - 2, S3 == - 3.

(2) K = 6: The characteristic equation is

Thai is,

(3) K=24: Thus,

283 2/1/2021
 (4) K=60:

That is,

The locus of the closed loop poles for increasing values of K is shown

Such a diagram, showing the movement of the roots of the closed loop characteristic equation, is
also called a root locus diagram. This figure shows that for values of gain K greater than 60, the
closed loop poles will enter the r.h.s. of the , s -plane.The system will then become unstable.

An unstable system cannot perform any useful

function. It is dangerous and may damage to the plant.
Therefore, it is necessary that the feedback control
system be so designed that it does not become
unstable under any condition of operation.

284 2/1/2021
 Evan Conditions (Magnitude and Angle conditions) :
For constructing root locus Evan conditions must be satisfied.

The closed loop transfer function given by Equation

The roots of the characteristic equation is made by

A pole, “s” exists when the characteristic polynomial in the denominator becomes zero.

Alternately, a value of “s” (a complex number) is a closed-loop pole if

The complex of may be represented by polar form as magnitude and angle form

where
Angle condition:

For any value of “s” a complex number , if the angle is an odd multiple of 180°, that value of
285 “s” is a system pole for some particular value of K. 2/1/2021
Magnitude condition
Since the angle criterion is satisfied, all that remains is to satisfy the magnitude criterion,
Scalar value

Example:

The open loop pole-zero location of the system is

The closed-loop transfer function, T(s), is

If point “s” is a closed-loop system pole for some value of gain K, then “s” must satisfy the
magnitude and angle conditions.

Consider the point s= -2 + j 3 in s-plane. If this point is a closed-loop pole for some value of
gain K, then the angles of the zeros minus the angles of the poles must equal an odd multiple of
180°.
286 2/1/2021
 The closed-loop system is

The location of the closed loop pint s= -2+j3 is located in s-plane to find the angle criterion.

From the figure angle condition at the point

s= -2 + j 3 in s-plane

Therefore, - 2 +j 3 is not a point on the root locus, or

alternatively, - 2 +j3 is not a closed-loop pole for any gain.
So, magnitude condition also not satisfied. If the pole is
replaced by —2 + j (2/2), the angle do add upto 180
degree
We now proceed to evaluate that value of gain.

287 2/1/2021
288 2/1/2021
 Alternate Method

289 2/1/2021
 Example :

The characteristic equation

For K = 0 the two loci will therefore start at the open-loop poles, i.e. s = - 1 and -3. If we are just
considering K > 0, then the two loci will end at s= - 2 and s=

Consider the point

The angle criterion is satisfied because the angle to that point from both the zero at s = - 2 and the
pole at s = -3 is , whereas the angle from the pole at s= - 1 is .
Clockwise direction =
We then have
Anti-clockwise direction =

and from the magnitude criterion

290 2/1/2021
in which 0.6 is the magnitude to the point at s = - 1.4 from the zero at s = - 2, and 0.4 is the
magnitude from the pole at s = - 1 whereas 1.6 is the magnitude from the pole at s = - 3.

Hence, that a value of K = 32/3 will result in a root on the locus at s = - 1.4

Properties of Root locus plot: The following properties to be followed for construction of R-L
➢The root locus starts at open loop poles of G(s)H(s) at K = 0

Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system

For K=0,

Open-loop poles are also closed-loop poles for K=0. A root-locus starts from every open-loop pole.
291 2/1/2021
➢The root locus ends at open loop zeros of G(s)H(s) at

Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system

Root-locus ends at an open-loop zero or at infinity.

➢ Number of branches of root loci

The number of root loci is equal to the number of finite poles or zeros of G(s)H(s) whichever is
greater. B=P, if P>Z

=Z if Z>P

292 If P=Z, then B=P=Z 2/1/2021

 ➢ Number of Root Locus Branches

293 2/1/2021
➢ Existence of Root loci on real axis
Root loci are found on a given section of the real axis of the s-plane only if the total number of real
poles and real zeros of G(s)H(s) to the right of the section is odd for K > 0.

➢ Number of Asymptotes

294 2/1/2021
 ➢ Angle of Asymptotes:

the root locus branches are approximated by asymptotic lines with angles
given by

where q = 0, 1, 2, ... (P– Z) – 1; n is the number of finite poles of G(s)H(s), and m is the number
of finite zeros of G(s)H(s).

However, the angle of asymptotes are drawn from the

centroid point of root locus

295 2/1/2021
 ➢ Centroids of RL

Note: Center may or may not be a part of the root locus

90% of RL having centroid on RL

296 2/1/2021
➢ Breakaway point (bap)/break in points (bip)
The root locus between two open loop poles move towards each other as the gain factor K is
increased till they are coincident. At the coincident the value of K is maximum. Any further increased
in K break the root locus into two parts.
The break away/break in points are found by writing the characteristic equation and there form
solving the value of s by

Break away point appears between two adjacent poles and break in point occurs between two adjacent
zeros.

Breakaway points on the real axis Breakin points on the real axis
297 2/1/2021
298 2/1/2021
 BAP:

299 2/1/2021
➢ Intersection points with imaginary axis.

The value of K and the point at which the root locus branch crosses the imaginary axis is determined
by applying Routh criterion to the characteristic equation. The roots at the intersection point are
imaginary. This is called K marginal value.

Also, for 3rd order system only

300 2/1/2021
 When the closed loop poles lie on the imaginary axis, the system gives sustained oscillation. The
Frequency of oscillation is found from auxiliay equation from Routh array as

301 2/1/2021
 ➢ Angles of departure from complex poles and angles of arrival at complex
zeros
The root locus begins to departs from at an angle called departure angle when there is complex
pole in s-plane. Similarly, The root locus arrives to at an angle called arrival angle when there is
complex zeros in s-plane.

302 2/1/2021
303 2/1/2021
304 2/1/2021
 Angle of
Departure:

305 2/1/2021
 Root Locus Plot

306 2/1/2021
307 2/1/2021
308 2/1/2021
309 2/1/2021
310 2/1/2021
311 2/1/2021
 Module_3

Lecture_23

Root locus, Numerical

312 2/1/2021
 Step by Step Procedure to draw the Root Locus diagram:

Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given by

Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros

Number of open-loop poles n=3

Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0, s=-2 and s=-4

Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

313 2/1/2021
 Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation,

Breakaway point as σb=-0.85 and –3.15 σb = –3.15 is not on the root-locus and therefore not a
breakaway or break-in point. Gain at the breakaway point

314 2/1/2021
Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival
need not be computed
315 2/1/2021
 Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

A system with such a denominator is therefore stable as long as K > 0

Hence when K =48 roots will exist on the imaginary axis, and these are the points we are looking
for. Substituting K = 48 into the characteristic polynomial equation, results in

rad/sec
316 2/1/2021
 For K=48

317 2/1/2021
 Equating both real and imaginary parts of last equation, we get,

and

Hence , we get

Substituting in ,we get in

K=48
318 2/1/2021
 Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given by

Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros

Number of open-loop poles n=3
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0, s=0 and s=-1

Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

319 2/1/2021
 Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis
Test points on the positive real axis

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

320 2/1/2021
 Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus
Angle of asymptotes:

321 2/1/2021
 Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival
need not be computed.

Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

322 2/1/2021
 Ex:

Solution:

323 2/1/2021
324 2/1/2021
325 2/1/2021
326 2/1/2021
 -2.61 is the valid BIP point which lies on the root locus.

The break in point lies in between the adjacent zeros

327 2/1/2021
 Module_3

Lecture_24

GATE problem and solution, +ve feedback system

solution, complementary RL, Root Contour

328 2/1/2021
329 2/1/2021
330 2/1/2021
331 2/1/2021
 Difference between +ve and –ve feedback system

332 2/1/2021
 Ex:

333 2/1/2021
 bap and bip

334 2/1/2021
 B=P=3
335 2/1/2021
 Asymptote angle

336 2/1/2021
337 2/1/2021
 Complementary Root Locus

Proper form

When K is negative, this signifies the complementary root locus

CRL, the sum of P+Z to the right of any point on CRL is even

338 2/1/2021
339 2/1/2021
340 2/1/2021
 Root contour

341 2/1/2021
342 2/1/2021
343 2/1/2021
344 2/1/2021
345 2/1/2021
 Root Locus for Transportation Lag System

346 2/1/2021
347 2/1/2021
348 2/1/2021
349 2/1/2021
 Module_3

Lecture_25

Plots with MATLAB, Numerical

350 2/1/2021
351 2/1/2021
352 2/1/2021
353 2/1/2021
354 2/1/2021
355 2/1/2021
 Plot of Root Contour

The system involves two variables, parameter a and K.

The closed loop system is

356 2/1/2021
357 2/1/2021
358 2/1/2021
 Frequency domain analysis: Introduction, Polar
plots, Bode plots, determination of stability from
Bode plots, Nyquist stability criterion, application of
Nyquist stability criterion to linear feedback systems,
Log magnitude versus phase plots, Use of MATLAB
for plotting Bode &amp; Nyquist diagram. Closed
loop frequency response: Constant M circles,
constant N circles, use of Nichols chart.

359 2/1/2021
 Module _4

Lecture_26

Frequency Domain Analysis, Introduction, Bode plots

360 2/1/2021
 Frequency Response Analysis

361 2/1/2021
 The response may be leading or lagging depends on the system components.

362 2/1/2021
 The following plots are used in frequency response.

➢ Polar/Nyquist plot
➢ Bode plot or Logarithm Plot
➢ Nicholos Method/Magnitude-Phase angle plot

Frequency domain specifications

The performance measure of a feedback control system is also described in terms of frequency-
domain parameters.

The common frequency-domain specifications are

• peak frequency response, Mp,
Closed loop
• resonant frequency ωr , stability
• bandwidth specification

• phase margin and Relative stability

• gain margin specifications

363 2/1/2021
 Advantages
➢ Good accuracy
➢ Can be used to obtain transfer function
➢ Easy to design open-loop transfer function from closed-loop performance in frequency
domain
➢ It is very easy to visualize the effect of disturbance and parameter variations.

Disadvantages
• Applied only to linear systems
• Time consuming procedure
This plot is only valid for minimum phase system. The bode plot requires the
Bode-Plot:
open loop transfer function in time constant form. The magnitude in db is

Kb (1 + jwT1 )(1 + jwT2 )...

20 log G( jw) = 20 log
s n (1 + jwTa )(1 + jwTb )..(( jw)2 + j 2 wn w + wn2 )
Q
 20 log G ( jw) = 20 log K b + 20  log 1 + jwT
i =1
i

2
2 k  jw 
M R
−20 log ( jw ) n
− 20  log 1 + jwT
m =1
m − 20k =1
log 1 +
wnk
jw + 
 wnk



The multiplication of magnitudes are converted into addition.

364 2/1/2021
Phase angle

So, four different kinds of factors encounter during bode plot

Bode plot for constant gain Kb

M = 20log Kb
When Kb>0, M=+ve dB

When Kb<0, M=-ve dB

When Kb=1, M=0dB

The varying of constant gain Kb does not affect phase angle. So the phase angle is zero2/1/2021
365
Pole at origin 1 1 j
G( s) = = =−
s jw w

1
M = G ( jw) =
w

In dB

For w=0.1, M=20 dB

w=1, M=0dB
w=10, M=-20dB
w=100, M=- 40 dB

In bode plot, the frequency ratio are expressed in term of decades or octaves. An octave is a
frequency band from w1 to 2w1 and decade is a frequency band of w1 to 10 w1 where w1 is
the frequency of any value.

366 2/1/2021
367 2/1/2021
Zero at origin

368 2/1/2021
 Module _4

Lecture_27

First order pole, quadratic factor, Exact plot, Asymptotic Plot

369 2/1/2021
 1st order pole
1
G ( jw) =
1 + jwT M = 20 log
1
(
= −10 log 1 + w2T 2 )
1+ w T2 2

M = 0dB

M = −20log wT

M = 0dB

M = −20dB
370 2/1/2021
371 2/1/2021
372 2/1/2021
 Exact Plot:

373 2/1/2021
374 2/1/2021
375 2/1/2021
 1st order zero

376 2/1/2021
377 2/1/2021
 Numerator Quadratic factor

378 2/1/2021
379 2/1/2021
 Approximate magnitude plot

Actual magnitude plot

380 2/1/2021
381 2/1/2021
 Example:

Pole-zero form

382 2/1/2021
383 2/1/2021
 Step 3 At each corner frequency the slope is changed.
1 st corner frequency is Wc=2 rad/sec . So magnitude plot will be starting from any frequency
less than wc=2. Let it is wc=0.1

The magnitude plot will change at next corner frequency and the procedures repeats

384 2/1/2021
385 2/1/2021
 Step 4
since

Step 5 Angle Calculation

386 2/1/2021
387 2/1/2021
 Module _4

Lecture_28

Study of Relative Stability (GM,PM)

388 2/1/2021
 Study of Relative Stability (GM,PM)
Gain Margin: Gain margin is defined as the margin in gain allowable by which gain can be increased
till the system reaches on the verge of instability.
Mathematically, it is the reciprocal of the magnitude of G(jw) H(jw) at phase cross over frequency W pc.

Wpc the phase angle at which -180 deg is obtained.

Thus, the gain margin is a factor by which the open loop gain G(jw)H(jw) can be multiplied to make
The product unity.

Phase Margin (PM): The amount of additional phase lag which can be introduced in the system
Till the system reaches on the verge of instability is called phase margin.

389 2/1/2021
390 2/1/2021
 (a) and (b) stable;

391 2/1/2021
 (c) and (d) unstable.

392 2/1/2021
393 2/1/2021
394 2/1/2021
395 2/1/2021
396 2/1/2021
 Module _4

Lecture_29

Numerical (GATE Paper), Bode plot, Finding TF

from plot

397 2/1/2021
 GATE-2006

398 2/1/2021
399 2/1/2021
400 2/1/2021
401 2/1/2021
402
K=10^1.6=39.8 2/1/2021
403 2/1/2021
404 2/1/2021
405 2/1/2021
406 2/1/2021
407 2/1/2021
408 2/1/2021
409 2/1/2021
410 2/1/2021
411 2/1/2021
 Module _4

Lecture_30

Frequency response analysis for Closed Loop TF,

Frequency domain specifications

412 2/1/2021
 Frequency response analysis for Closed Loop TF
The resonant peak, bandwidth and resonant frequency are studied in a closed loop system
in the frequency domain and co-related with the time domain specifications as well.

The phase margin (PM) and gain margin (GM) are also frequency domain specifications which
gives the information relative stability of closed loop system and studied from open loop transfer
function of a system.
Consider a closed loop system of a second order system

413 2/1/2021
414 2/1/2021
 Magnitude and phase angle

415 2/1/2021
416 2/1/2021
417 2/1/2021
 All control system elements behaves as low pass filter. Since ideal low pass filter is not realizable,
the typical low pass filter for 2nd order closed loop system is

Bandwidth Wb separates
From low frequency range
to high frequency range .

When Wb is large, tracking is good, and rise time tr is less, but more noise will be entered into the system.

418To realize a large Wb, the characteristic is to be kept flat, nearly equal to unity. 2/1/2021
419 2/1/2021
 The complete realized characteristic is obtained from a system by knowing the Wr, Mr, and
band width Wb.

420 2/1/2021
421 2/1/2021
 More is the band width, less is the settling time. since

422 2/1/2021
 Module _4

Lecture_31

Introduction to polar plot, construction, Relative stability

423 2/1/2021
424 2/1/2021
425 2/1/2021
426 2/1/2021
427 2/1/2021
428 2/1/2021
429 2/1/2021
430 2/1/2021
431 2/1/2021
432 2/1/2021
433 2/1/2021
434 2/1/2021
435 2/1/2021
436 2/1/2021
437 2/1/2021
438 2/1/2021
439 2/1/2021
440 2/1/2021
441 2/1/2021
442 2/1/2021
443 2/1/2021
 Relative Stability:

444 2/1/2021
445 2/1/2021
446 2/1/2021
 Module _4

Lecture_31

Nyquist Plot, Mapping, Principle of Arguments,

Construction for no pole at origin

447 2/1/2021
 Stability in Frequency domain

448 2/1/2021
449 2/1/2021
450 2/1/2021
Principle of Arguments

According to this principle, if the s-plane contains Z zeros and P

poles of q(s)= 1+G(s)H(s) within it, then, the mapped q(s)plane contour encircles the origin N=P-Z
times in in anticlockwise direction when P>Z. So N=-ve. If Z>P, N= +ve . If P=Z, N=0
no encircle. Here, P= no. of open loop poles or poles of q(s) lying rt. Half s-plane and Z= zeros of q(s).
Nyquist Stability Criterion

451 2/1/2021
452 2/1/2021
453 2/1/2021
454 2/1/2021
 A general construction procedure is outlined for continuous systems in the following steps.

Step 1: Check p( s ) for poles on the jw-axis and at the origin. Since, no pole at origin, the
Nuquist path will be

Nyquist contour or path

Step 1: Draw the polar plot for the path ad in p(s) plane.
Step 2 : Draw the polar plot for the path fa, that is the mirror image of ad.
Step 3: Plot the image of path def. This path at infinity usually plots into a point in the p(s)-plane.
Step 4: Connect all curves drawn in the previous steps
Step: Find the Nyquist plot
455 2/1/2021
Ex: Nyquist plot for type 0 system

S-plane
Since no pole at origin, the Nyquist counter will be

For the path ad, the polar plot is drawn where the frequency is varying from zero to infinity.

Where the magnitude is zero and the angle varies from

456 2/1/2021
For the path fa, the polar plot is drawn which is the mirror image of path ad.

The complete Nyquist plot is shown on p(s) plane

p(s) plane
Here, P=0, N=0
So, N=Z-P=0
Hence, closed loop
system is stable.

Ex:

Since no pole at the origin, the Nyquist contour is

457 2/1/2021
458 2/1/2021
 Here, P=0, N=0
Since N=Z-P

Z=0

So, no zeros of p(s) in right half of s- plane.

Hence, closed loop system is stable.
2/1/2021
459
 EX:
Open loop system is unstable.

460 2/1/2021
 Since P=1, the encirclement about -1+j0 is clockwise , So N=1

Hence N=Z-P Z= N+P Z=1+1=2 Which is not equal to zero

Hence, the closed loop system is unstable

461 2/1/2021
 Ex: Open loop system is unstable

462 2/1/2021
463 2/1/2021
464 2/1/2021
465 2/1/2021
 Module _4

Lecture_32

Effect of Poles at the Origin

466 2/1/2021
 Effect of Poles at the Origin

467 2/1/2021
468 2/1/2021
469 2/1/2021
470 2/1/2021
 Ex:

471 2/1/2021
472 2/1/2021
473 2/1/2021
 Ex:

the entire Nyquist Path is broken up as before

(a) Semicircle abc (b) imaginary axis cd (c) semicircle deg

and (d) imaginary axis ga

Let us now evaluate the mappings for these segments of

Nyquist Path .

474 2/1/2021
475 2/1/2021
 This operation can be performed using this MATLAB command: nyquist

[real, imag, omega] = nyquist(NUM, DEN, omega);

Ex:

476 2/1/2021
477 2/1/2021
478 2/1/2021
 Here, P=0
N=0
Since N=Z-P
Z=N+P=0

No encirclement about -1+j0

479 Hence, closed loop stable.

2/1/2021
480 2/1/2021
481 2/1/2021
482 2/1/2021
483 2/1/2021
484 2/1/2021
485 2/1/2021
486 2/1/2021
487 2/1/2021
 Module _4

Lecture_33
Application on Dead time system, Plotting of M and N
circles

488 2/1/2021
 NYQUIST’S STABILITY CRITERION APPLIED TO SYSTEM HAVING DEAD TIME

489 2/1/2021
 M- Circle (Constant Magnitude of CLTF loci)
The closed loop frequency response specifications are studied in this M and N circles.
Such specifications are Mr, Wr and band width Wb.
➢ M-Circle determines the magnitude of CLTF from the information of OLTF
➢Applicable on feedback system only
➢Gives the information of resonant peak (Mr), resonant frequency (wr)and
bandwidth (wb) of CLTF

Mr: This is the maximum value of M, the magnitude of the closed loop system. A large resonant peak
Corresponds to large overshoot in transient response.

Wr: This is the frequency at which the resonance peak Mr occurs. This frequency is related to
the frequency of oscillations in step response and is indicative of speed of transient response.

Wr: Bandwidth: It measures the the ability of a feedback system to reproduce the input signal
and measures the noise rejection characteristics. The closed loop system filters out the signal
Whose frequencies are greater than cut off (-3db).This range of frequency is the BW frequency.

490 2/1/2021
491 2/1/2021
492 2/1/2021
 Equation of a circle

Where center is

493 2/1/2021
494 2/1/2021
 Constant M-Circle

495 2/1/2021
496 2/1/2021
497 2/1/2021
 The polar plot of G(s)H(s) is done on the M-circle. The largest of M-circle for which the M-circle
is tangent to the polar plot is known as Mr and the corresponding frequency is known as Wr.

N-Circles or Constant Phase angle Loci

498 2/1/2021
499 2/1/2021
500 2/1/2021
 the equation of a circle with N as a parameter. It has its center at

Inserting a given value of into the equation of circle. Various N-circles are obtained
By considering various N. All N-circles pass through origin and -1+j0 point regardless of the value N.

The tangent of angles in the first and third quadrant is positive. Therefore, the yq coordinate is the
same for an angle in the first quadrant and for the negative of its supplement, which is in the third
quadrant. As a result, the constant contour is only an arc of the circle.

After constructing the M and N circles, draw the G(jw)H(jw)plot which passes through M and N
circle. Note down the intersection points on M and N circles. Plot the closed frequency response curve
501 2/1/2021
To know the Mr and Wr.
502 2/1/2021
503 2/1/2021
504 2/1/2021
 Module _4

Lecture_34
Nichols Chart, Application of Nichols chart

505 2/1/2021
 Nichols Chart

The resonant peak, resonant frequency and bandwidth of closed loop system are known from
Nichols Chart

506 2/1/2021
507 2/1/2021
 Procedure to plot Nichols Chart
Step 1 Draw the bode plot selecting the frequency such that the phase angle lies between 0 to 180
Step 2 The Bode plot follows the Table-1

508 2/1/2021
 Bode Plot

db
Phase angle

frequency
509 2/1/2021
 Step 3 Draw the Nichols plot from bode plot, take each unit of magnitude as 4db on Y axis

Step 4 Corresponding to this magnitude at 0db,4 db 8db etc and -4db,-8db…..Find the corresponding
Frequencies from X-axes for the same Bode plot. Then Find the phase angle corresponding to these
Frequencies.

510 2/1/2021
Step 5 Table 2 is drawn getting the various values of phase angle from the corresponding g frequencies

511 2/1/2021
512 2/1/2021
 Available Nichols Chart

The thick line represents the magnitude in db and dotted represents the phase angle
513 2/1/2021
 Step 6 : Draw the Nichols Chart from the Table 2 from the supplied Nichols Chart

For ex: For 20db with

-98 degree phase angle
gives w=0.2rad/sec
and so on.

Join all the frequency

Points.

514 2/1/2021
 Step-7 From different values of magnitude of supplied Nichols chart which intersecting the our
G(s)H(s) plot, find the various frequencies and the phase angle as well. This is shown in Table 3.

515 2/1/2021
 Step 8 Draw the magnitude and phase plot versus frequencies from Table 3 taking another
semilog graph paper . This is the required plot that determines the Mr, Wr and Wb

Magnitude Plot

516 2/1/2021
 Both Magnitude and
Phase Angle Vs frequency plot

degree

So we get, Resonant peak Mr= 4db rad/sec

Resonat frequency Wr= 1.68 rad/sec

Band width Wb= 2.5 rad/sec

517 2/1/2021
 Module 5
Lecture_35

Introduction to Controller, types of classical controller, P

and I Controller, PI Contyroller

518 2/1/2021
 Classical Controller
Control system designed may not able to meet the design goals such as time domain specifications
and frequency domain specifications.

Approach is made to force the system to meet the design goal using the controllers.

A controller is the combination of both error detector and amplifier with adjustable gain.

The classical controller used in industrial applications are proportional controller, derivative
controller , integral controller and their combinations as well.

The most common use of classical controller is PID controller.

The adjustable gain is done through PID controllers which is placed ahead of the amplifier.

Almost all industries use PID and modification of PID as controller in applications.

Analog PID mostly available hydraulic, pneumatic, electric and electronics or combination of both.

519 2/1/2021
 The controller parameters (gain, time constant) of PID are tuned in such a manner that, the
transient and steady state error are minimized in closed loop system. The are called performance
specifications.

For plant model simple----- analytical approach required for gain calculation

For plant model complex------ Experimental approach is done

However, the PID control action has been brought from basic three control action such as P, I and D
Control action.
520 2/1/2021
 Proportional Control
The proportional controller in true sense, an amplifier with an adjustable gain.
In a proportional control scheme, the controller output is proportional to the actuating signal.

Consider a second order system

521 2/1/2021
However, the gain Kv can not be increased beyond the certain limit which brings instability to the system

Since, the SS error depends on the increase of natural frequency, this creates the unstable of the system.

Thus, a sluggish over damped system response can be made faster by increasing the forward path
gain of the system. This increase in gain reduces the steady state error but at the overshoot is
increases and gives more oscillations and approaches towards instability

522 2/1/2021
 Integral Control

In integral action , the control signal or the output of the controller is proportional to the integral
of the actuating signal.Thus,

523 2/1/2021
 Effect of Integral action:

Consider a plant With integral action as

524 2/1/2021
525 2/1/2021
526 2/1/2021
 If the system shown in Figure is asymptotically stable, and the inputs r and d (disturbances)
are constant, it follows that all signals in the closed loop will tend to constant values.

In particular the integrator output v(t) tends to a constant value. It follows that the integrator
input e(t ) tends to zero.

Since we have arranged that this input is the tracking error it follows that e(t) = r − y(t) tends
to zero and hence y(t) tracks r as t → ∞.

So, the integrator input is forced to become tracking error to zero.

527 2/1/2021
 P-I Controller:

528 2/1/2021
529 2/1/2021
530 2/1/2021
 PI controller

➢It increases the order of the system

➢ It increases the type of the system
➢Steady state error reduces tremendously for same type of input but not affecting the
transient response
➢Decreases the bandwidth
➢Increases the rise time
➢Acts as a low pass filter

531 2/1/2021
 Module 5

Lecture_36

Derivative Controller, PD controller, Feed forward and

feedback derivative controller

532 2/1/2021
 Derivative Control
In derivative control action, the output of the controller or control signal is the derivative
of the actuating signal

533 2/1/2021
 Effect of derivative action:
Consider a second order system with derivative controller

When the actuating signal is constant, the derivative controller does not produce any control
signal. Hence, the steady-state error is effective only during ne transient period of the output
response. Because of this reason, a derivative control is usually not used alone. It is always used
along with other types of controllers.

If the actuating signal is time varying, the derivative controller produces a proper control signal that
is proportional to the rate of change of the actuating signal. This controls the error from becoming
to large.
If the plant transfer function does not contain an integrator then the addition of a derivative
controller improves the damping ratio. In the absence of the controller, the characteristic
equation of the system
534 2/1/2021
 The addition of derivative controller with the plant, improves the damping ratio.

Without derivative action,

The characteristic equation of the given system is,

With Derivative controller

535 2/1/2021
 The characteristic equation is

536 2/1/2021
Thus, inclusion of derivative action

➢ improves the damping ratio

➢Reduces the maximum overshoot
➢Reduces the settling time
➢Increases the rise time
➢It acts as lead compensator
➢Improves the GM, PM and stability
➢Increases the band width
➢ SS error remains unchanged

Thus, the derivative controller in the forward path improves the transient performance parameters.
537 2/1/2021
 Derivative Feedback Control
The derivative feedback control is also known control. For derivative feedback control the
actuating signal is obtained as the difference between the proportional error signal and derivative
(rate ) of the output signal.Therefore, the actuating signal for derivative feedback control action is

For a second order unity feedback control system block diagram incorporating derivative
feedback control is shown

538 2/1/2021
 Derivative feedback (tachometer feedback) control

The characteristic equation for the overall transfer function

539 2/1/2021
 The damping ratio for the above characteristic equation is

The damping ratio is increased by using derivative feedback control and therefore, the maximum
overshoot is decreased. However, the rise time is increased.

The forward path transfer function is

540 2/1/2021
 Substituting G(s)and H(s)

541 2/1/2021
 It is noted that using derivative feedback control the steady state error is increased and as the
damping ratio is increased the maximum overshoot is decreased.

In both types of control actions derivative error as well as derivative feedback, the damping
ratio is increased which results in decreasing maximum overshoot but the time response
expression is different.

In case of derivative control the rise time is decreased and the steady state error remains
unchanged whereas in derivative feedback control the rise time is decreased and the steady
state error is increased.
542 2/1/2021
 Ex: The overall transfer function of a control system is given by

It is desired that the damping ratio be 0.8. Determine the derivative rate feedback constant , and
compare rise time, peak time, maximum overshoot and steady state error for unit ramp input
without and with derivative feedback control.

Solution: The characteristic equation is

Comparing with the second order characteristic equation

therefore, the damping ratio for the system without derivative feedback control is

543 2/1/2021
 The damping ratio with derivative feedback control is given by

544 2/1/2021
 (b) With derivative feedback control
The overall transfer function of the system using derivative feedback control is given by

545 2/1/2021
546 2/1/2021
 P-D Controller:
Feed-forward P-D

547 2/1/2021
548 2/1/2021
549 2/1/2021
 However, this can be shown that, the steady state error will not change with and without
using PD controller in the second order system.

Thus, P-D control action has such effects

➢ improves the damping ratio

➢Reduces the maximum overshoot
➢Reduces the settling time
➢Decreases the rise time
➢It acts as lead compensator
➢Improves the GM, PM and stability
➢Increases the band width
➢ SS error remains unchanged

550 2/1/2021
 Module 5

Lecture_37

PID Controller, Z-N Tuning of PID Controller

551 2/1/2021
 PID Control action
P-I improves the steady state response, whereas P-D improves the transient
responses, thus the combination of these two controllers improve the overall
time domain performances by proper tuning the controller gains called
parameters of the controller. This can be achieved by one of the classical method
called Zeigler-Nichols tuning controller method.

552 2/1/2021
553 2/1/2021
554 2/1/2021
555 2/1/2021
 Zeigler-Nicholas Tuning Of PID- An experimental approach (Step response
method )

Z-N approach is used when mathematical model of the plant is not known.

The Ziegler-Nichols step response method is an experimental open-loop tuning method and is
applicable to open-loop stable plants.

This method first characterizes the plant by two parameters K and L obtained from its step
response. K and L can be determined graphically from a measurement of the step response of the
plant.

First, the point on the step response curve with the maximum slope is determined and the tangent is
drawn.

The intersection of the tangent with the vertical axis gives K, while the intersection of the tangent
with the horizontal axis gives L.

Once K and L are determined, the PID controller parameters are then found out following the
table.
556 2/1/2021
 First method of Z-N When Plant has no integrator and dominant conjugate poles

By obtaining step response

Step input S-shaped

557 2/1/2021
 Based on step response

558 2/1/2021
The Ziegler-Nichols 2nd method By evaluating critical gain and critical period

Dynamics of plant is not be known

The Ziegler-Nichols frequency response method is a closed-loop tuning method. This

method first determines the point where the Nyquist curve of the plant G(s) intersects the
negative real axis.

It can be obtained experimentally in the following way:

• Turn the integral and differential actions off i.e. and

• set the controller to be in the proportional mode only and close the loop
• Slowly increase the proportional gain kp until a periodic oscillation in the output is observed. The
value of Kp is called then critical gain.
• Find the period of oscillation Pcr. Knowing the Kcr and Pcr the gain of PID controller are found.

559 2/1/2021
 PID controller T.F.
response

Z-N 2nd method table

560 2/1/2021
 When the plant has an integrator, the Zeigler tuning rule (neither 1st and 2nd ) may not be applied
in some cases.

Example:
H(s)=1

Because of the integrator, 1st method is not applied. Since the step response will not give a S shaped
Rather the response increases with time.

Also, the 2nd method is not valid since, the closed loop system does not give sustained oscillations
at any value of Kp

Hence, the solution for this is analyzed through Routh-Array formulation.

The characteristic equation is

561 2/1/2021
 When the plant has an integrator, the Zeigler tuning rule (2nd method ) may be applied in some
cases.

Example:

562 2/1/2021
563 2/1/2021
 From the 2nd method table, Kp, Td and Ti are to be found as:

564 2/1/2021
 The PID controller has one pole at origin and two no’s of zeros which shows that PID
controller itself is a improper function. So the structure of PID controller is to be
modified by changing its TF to bring into proper function .

565 2/1/2021
Summary:
P-I Control Action:
➢reduces the steady state error.
➢Increases the rise time.
➢Acts as low pass filter
➢decreases the bandwidth.

P-D Control Action:

➢It increases the damping ratio
➢Reduces the peak overshoot
➢Reduces the settling time
➢Improves the transient responses without affecting the steady state response.
➢Increases the B.W.
➢Improves the stability

P-I_D Control Action:

PID control action: Both steady state error and undesired transient occurrences are reduced

566 2/1/2021
 Module 5

Lecture_38

Sensitivity transfer functions (S and T) and their significance,

Open loop and closed loop with unity and non-unity feed
back system

567 2/1/2021
 SENSITIVITY
The environmental conditions to which a control system is subjected affect the accuracy and
stability of the system.

The performance characteristics of most components are affected by their environment and by
aging. Thus, any change in the component characteristics causes a change in the transfer function
and therefore in the controlled quantity. The effect of a parameter change on system performance
can be expressed in terms of a sensitivity function.

This sensitivity function is a measure of the sensitivity of the system’s response to a system
parameter variation and is given by

568 2/1/2021
 To illustrate the effect of changes in the transfer function, four cases are considered for which the
input signal r(t) and its transform R(s) are fixed. Although the response Y(s) is used in these four
cases, the results are the same when M(s) is the control ratio.
569 2/1/2021
 Case 1: Open-Loop System

A change in the transfer function G(s) therefore causes a proportional change in the transform of
the output Yo(s).
570 2/1/2021
 Case 2: Closed-Loop Unity-Feedback System

571 2/1/2021
 Comparing with open loop with closed loop , it is seen that the effect of changes of G(s) upon
the transform of the output of the closed-loop control is reduced by the factor 1/(1+G(s))
compared to the open-loop control. This is an important reason why feedback systems are
used.

Case 3: Closed-Loop Nonunity-Feedback System

[Feedback Function H(s) is Fixed and G(s) is Variable]

572 2/1/2021
 Comparing with unity feedback, it is seen that, the non-unity feedback closed-loop variation is
reduced by the factor 1/(1+G(s)H(s)). Since, the term 1/(1+G(s)H(s)) is larger than the term
1/(1+G(s)). , then there is an advantage to using a non-unity-feedback system. Further, H(s) may
be introduced both to provide an improvement in system performance and to reduce the effect of
parameter variations within G(s).

573 2/1/2021
 Case 4: Closed-Loop Non-unity-Feedback System
[Feedback Function H(s) is Variable and G(s) is Fixed]

Multiplying and dividing the above equation by H(s) and also dividing by equation

results in

574 2/1/2021
 It is seen that a variation in the feedback function has approximately a direct effect upon the
output, the same as for the open-loop case.

Summary: In other words, by use of feedback compensation the performance of the

system can be made to depend more on the feedback term than on the forward term.

575 2/1/2021
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
An important aspect in the design of a control system is the insensitivity of the system outputs to
items such as: sensor noise, parameter uncertainty, cross coupling effects, and external system
disturbances.

The analysis in this section is based upon the control system shown in Figure

Where T(s)= Y(s)/R(s) and where F(s) represents a pre-filter. The plant is described by P(s) and
may include some parameter uncertainties.

In this system G(s) represents a compensator. The pre-filter and compensator are designed to
minimize the effect of the parameter uncertainties. The goal of the design is to satisfy the desired
figures of merit (FOM). In this text it is assumed that F(s)=1. The effect of these items on system
performance can be expressed in terms of the sensitivity function which is defined by
576 2/1/2021
577 2/1/2021
578 2/1/2021
 Based on the magnitude characteristic of Lo for low- and high frequency ranges, then:

Then, becomes

Then

579 2/1/2021
580 2/1/2021