Power Electronics for Electrical Vehicle

(115AL01)
B.E. Semester 5th
Manual for Laboratory Work

Department of Electrical Engineering

Vishwakarma Government Engineering
College, Chandkheda -Ahmedabad
 Vishwakarma Government Engineering
College, Chandkheda -Ahmedabad

Certificate
This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ________________________________________,
Enrollment No.___________________________, Student of B.E. Semester 5 th
of ________________________ branch has satisfactorily completed laboratory
work in the subject Power Electronics for Electrical Vehicle (115AL01) within
four walls of Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda-
Ahmedabad during the academic year 2023-2024. He / She is eligible for the
University Examination.

Faculty in-charge: HOD

Date: (EE Department)
 Course Outcomes:
At the end of the course, student should be able to:

Sr. CO statement Topics Marks %

No. Mapped weightage

CO-1 Discuss the configuration and performance of Electric & 1, 2, 3, 4 35%

hybrid vehicles.
CO-2 Select appropriate Motor drive systems for electrical and 3, 4 30%
hybrid vehicle.
CO-3 Choose proper energy storage systems with its charging 5 20%
topology for electrical and hybrid vehicle applications.
CO-4 Discuss energy storage devices and its management system 6 15%
for hybrid and electrical vehicle.
 Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda
B.E. in Electrical Engineering, Semester – 5th
Subject: Power Electronics for Electrical Vehicle

INDEX

Sr. Title CO Page Date Marks Sign

No. From To
1. To study the basics of Electric
and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
and their performance.
2. To study Series and Parallel hybrid
electric drive trains.

3. To study PMDC Motor.

4. To study PMDC Motor drives.

5. To perform PWM enable in PMDC.

6. To study PWM operation in

PMDC drive.
7. To study Switched Reluctant
motor drive for electric
vehicles.
8. To study AC-DC
converter operation with
motor load
9. To analyze and simulate the
AC voltage controller for
induction motor drives.
10. To analyze the DC to DC converter
(Chopper) performance for electric
drive application using
PSIM/MATLAB.
11. Study of Battery Management
System (BMS) Operation and
Display Setting.
 EXPERIMENT NO.1
Date:

AIM: To study the basics of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles and their
performance.

INTRODUCTION:

An electric vehicle is powered by an electric motor rather than a traditional petrol/diesel

engine. This electric motor is powered by rechargeable batteries that can be charged by
common household electricity. HEVs are also known as series hybrid or parallel hybrid. HEVs
have both engines and electric motors. The engine gets energy from fuel, and the motor gets
electricity from batteries. The transmission is rotated simultaneously by both the engine and
electric motor. This then drives the wheels.

History Of Electric Vehicles:

1900S
Electric cars are nothing new. Interest in motor vehicles increased greatly around the 1900s
and at that time there were about twice as many electric cars on the road than petrol/diesel cars.
It wasn’t until the 1920s that interest in electric cars dwindled. The reason was that electric
cars were limited by their low top speeds and low range (just a few miles). In addition, in 1912
the electric starter motor was developed for petrol cars, eliminating the traditional drawback
of petrol cars: having to use a hand crank to get the car moving!
It was Henry Ford who put the nail in the electric car coffin when his company began to mass
produce the Model T. This slashed the price of petrol cars to about half that of an electric car
and so in the early 1900s almost all electric car manufacturers began to cease making them.

The limited maximum speed of electric cars (up to 30mph) limited their practicality. For most
of the 20th century, British milk floats made up most of the world’s number of electric vehicles.

Interest in electric cars returned following the energy crises of the 1970s and 80s; with the
availability and price of oil being shown to be increasingly volatile, people could see the
potential benefits of battery-powered cars. A few big car companies brought out models and
some were sold to environmentally-minded members of the public. However, General Electric
vehicles were still losing out to the style and lower price of their petrol-fuelled cousins.

2000S
In the 2000s, the development of hybrid vehicles, plus another fuel crisis, saw the technology
adopted by larger numbers than ever before. Tesla’s Roadster, which went on sale in 2008,
was a game changer for the industry. The attractive design and extended range of the Roadster
appealed to a larger market than ever before and encouraged competitors such as Nissan and

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Chevrolet to launch their models. As of September 2016, more than one million pure electric
cars and vans are owned globally.

BASICS

Electric Vehicles
EVs are powered by electric motors, which draw electricity from rechargeable batteries. These
batteries, typically lithium-ion, store and provide the energy needed to drive the electric motor.
Charging infrastructure and methods vary, encompassing standard household outlets,
dedicated charging stations, and rapid charging systems.
Key components of an electric vehicle include the power electronics that manage the flow of
electricity between the battery and the electric motor, ensuring optimal performance and
efficiency. Additionally, regenerative braking systems capture and convert kinetic energy back
into electrical energy, replenishing the battery and enhancing overall energy efficiency.
The driving experience in an EV is characterized by smooth and quiet operation, as electric
motors deliver instantaneous torque. Range, or the distance an EV can travel on a single charge,
is a crucial metric influenced by factors like battery capacity and efficiency.
As the automotive industry increasingly embraces electrification, understanding these
fundamental aspects of electric vehicles is essential for enthusiasts, engineers, and
policymakers alike, contributing to a more sustainable and environmentally conscious future
of transportation. The block diagram of the Electric Vehicle is given below:

Figure 1. 1 Block diagram of Electric Vehicle

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Hybrid Electric Vehicle

HEVs integrate an internal combustion engine with an electric motor and a high-capacity
battery. The internal combustion engine can operate independently or in conjunction with the
electric motor, allowing for enhanced fuel efficiency and reduced emissions. The key
distinguishing feature of HEVs is their ability to optimize power sources based on driving
conditions.
During low-speed or idling situations, the electric motor takes precedence, reducing fuel
consumption and emissions. Conversely, at higher speeds or when additional power is
required, the internal combustion engine engages, providing a seamless transition between the
two power sources. Regenerative braking is another fundamental aspect of HEV technology.
When the vehicle decelerates, the electric motor functions as a generator, converting kinetic
energy into electrical energy to recharge the battery. This regenerative process enhances
overall energy efficiency and contributes to extended driving range.
In summary, the basics of Hybrid Electric Vehicles revolve around the harmonious integration
of internal combustion engines and electric propulsion, optimizing power sources for improved
fuel efficiency, reduced emissions, and a more sustainable approach to modern transportation.
The block diagram of the Hybrid Electric Vehicle is given below:

Figure 1. 2 Block diagram of Hybrid Electric Vehicle

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Performance Comparison of Pure EV and Hybrid EV
Studying the performance of both Pure Electric Vehicles (PEVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(HEVs) involves a comprehensive analysis of various factors influencing their efficiency,
range, and overall functionality.

1. Energy Storage and Propulsion Systems:

Evaluate the design and performance of the energy storage systems in PEVs (typically
large batteries) and HEVs (which combine batteries and traditional engines). Examine
the efficiency of electric motors in converting stored energy to mechanical power.

2. Range and Charging Infrastructure:

Investigate the driving range of PEVs on a single charge and how it may vary based on
driving conditions. For HEVs, assess how the combined propulsion systems impact the
overall range. Explore the availability and efficiency of charging infrastructure for
PEVs.

3. Fuel Efficiency and Emissions:

Analyze the fuel efficiency of HEVs under different driving scenarios, considering the
dual power sources. Assess the impact of PEVs on reducing greenhouse gas emissions
compared to traditional internal combustion engines.

4. Cost Considerations:
Examine the initial costs, maintenance expenses, and operational costs associated with
PEVs and HEVs. Consider factors such as government incentives, subsidies, and total
cost of ownership over the vehicle's lifespan.

5. Performance Metrics:
Evaluate acceleration, speed, and handling characteristics of both PEVs and HEVs.
Consider how the electric components contribute to instant torque and responsive
acceleration in both vehicle types.

6. Environmental Impact:
Assess the life cycle analysis of both types of vehicles, considering the environmental
impact of manufacturing, usage, and end-of-life disposal.

7. User Experience and Adoption:

Study user perceptions, preferences, and adoption trends for PEVs and HEVs.
Investigate factors influencing consumer decisions, including driving habits,
infrastructure concerns, and attitudes toward environmental sustainability.

By examining these aspects, a comprehensive understanding of the performance of Pure

Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles can be attained, providing valuable insights into their
strengths, limitations, and potential for widespread adoption in the evolving landscape of
sustainable transportation.

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Conclusion:

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 EXPERIMENT NO.2
Date:
AIM: To study Series and Parallel hybrid electric drive trains.

INTRODUCTION:

To study Series and Parallel hybrid electric drive trains, first we need to know about drive
trains.

A drivetrain is a collection of components that deliver power from a vehicle’s engine

or motor to the vehicle’s wheels. In hybrid-electric cars, the drivetrain’s design determines how
the electric motor works with the conventional engine. The drivetrain affects the vehicle’s
mechanical efficiency, fuel consumption, and purchasing price.

o Hybrids that use a series drivetrain only receive mechanical power from the electric motor
run by either a battery or a gasoline-powered generator.
o While in hybrids with parallel drivetrains, the electric motor and internal combustion
engine can provide mechanical power simultaneously.
o Series/parallel drivetrains enable the engine and electric motor to provide power
independently or in conjunction. Both conventional hybrids and plug-in hybrids have
models with series, parallel, and series/parallel drivetrains.

➢ Key components of hybrid electric drive trains –

Hybrid electric drivetrains combine an internal combustion engine (usually fuelled by

gasoline or diesel) with one or more electric motors to power a vehicle. The integration of
both power sources aims to enhance fuel efficiency, reduce emissions, and improve overall
performance. Here are the key components of hybrid electric drivetrains:

1) Internal Combustion Engine (ICE):

Function: The traditional internal combustion engine provides power to the vehicle
by burning fuel (fossil fuels like gasoline) to produce mechanical energy.
Role in Hybrid: In hybrid electric drivetrains, the internal combustion engine works
in conjunction with electric motors to optimize fuel efficiency and power delivery.

2) Electric Motor(s):
Function: Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy to drive
the vehicle.
Role in Hybrid: Hybrid vehicles have one or more electric motors that work
alongside the internal combustion engine. Electric motors can assist the engine
during acceleration, provide additional power, and operate independently in certain
driving conditions (as in electric-only or low-speed modes).

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3) Generator (or Motor Generator):
Function: This component can function as both a motor and a generator. As a motor,
it assists the engine and provides additional torque during acceleration. As a
generator, it converts kinetic energy from braking into electrical energy for storage
or immediate use.
Role in Hybrid: The generator plays a crucial role in regenerative braking, capturing
energy during deceleration and storing it for later use. This contributes to improved
fuel efficiency.

4) Battery Pack:
Function: The battery pack stores electrical energy for use by the electric motor(s)
and other auxiliary systems.
Role in Hybrid: The battery is a key component for storing energy recovered during
regenerative braking or generated by the internal combustion engine. It provides
power to the electric motor(s) and allows the vehicle to operate in electric-only
mode for short distances.

5) Power Electronics and Inverter:

Function: Power electronics manage the flow of electrical energy between the
battery, electric motor(s), and internal combustion engine. The inverter converts
direct current (DC) from the battery to alternating current (AC) for the electric
motor(s).
Role in Hybrid: These components control the distribution of power, ensuring
optimal performance and efficiency in various driving conditions.

6) Transmission:
Function: The transmission controls the distribution of power from the internal
combustion engine, electric motor(s), or both to the wheels.
Role in Hybrid: Hybrid vehicles often feature specialized transmissions that allow
seamless integration of power from both the internal combustion engine and electric
motor(s). This facilitates smooth transitions between electric and hybrid modes.

7) Control Unit/ Hybrid Control System:

Function: The control unit or hybrid control system manages the coordination and
interaction between the internal combustion engine, electric motor(s), and other
components.
Role in Hybrid: This system optimizes the overall performance of the hybrid
drivetrain by deciding when to use electric-only mode and when to engage the
internal combustion engine, and how to balance power distribution for maximum
efficiency.

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➢ Series drivetrains -
Series drivetrains are the simplest hybrid configuration. In a series hybrid, the electric
motor is the only means of providing power to the wheels. The motor receives electric power
from either the battery pack or from a generator run by a gasoline engine. A computer
determines how much of the power comes from the battery or the engine/generator. Both the
engine/generator and the use of regenerative braking recharges the battery pack.

Figure 2.1 Series Hybrid drivetrain

Series hybrids perform at their best during stop-and-go traffic, where gasoline and
diesel engines are inefficient. The vehicle’s computer can opt to power the motor with the
battery pack only, saving the engine for situations where it’s more efficient.
The engine is typically smaller in a series drivetrain because it only has to meet certain
power demands; the battery pack is generally more powerful than the one in parallel hybrids to
provide the remaining power needs. This larger battery and motor, along with the generator,
add to the vehicle’s cost, making series hybrids more expensive than parallel hybrids.

Advantages:
Series hybrids have the advantage of offering an all-electric driving experience. They are very
efficient in city driving conditions due to their ability to run solely on the electric motor.
Moreover, the ICE can be smaller and optimized for efficiency since it doesn't need to directly
drive the wheels.

Drawbacks:
Series hybrids often suffer from energy conversion losses since the energy generated by the
ICE must first be converted to electricity before it can drive the motor. They can also feel
different to drive because the vehicle speed doesn't directly relate to the ICE speed.

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➢ Parallel drivetrains -
In vehicles with parallel hybrid drivetrains, the engine and electric motor work in
tandem to generate the power that drives the wheels. Parallel hybrids tend to use a smaller
battery pack than series drivetrains, relying on regenerative braking to keep it recharged. When
power demands are low, parallel hybrids also utilize the motor as a generator for supplemental
recharging, much like an alternator in conventional cars.

Figure 1.2 Parallel Hybrid drivetrain

Since the engine is connected directly to the wheels in parallel drivetrains, the
inefficiency of converting mechanical power to electricity and back is eliminated, increasing
the efficiency of these hybrids on the highway. This reduces, but does not eliminate, the
efficiency benefits of having an electric motor and battery in stop-and-go traffic.

Advantages:
Parallel hybrids often excel in highway conditions where they utilize the ICE, which is more
efficient at higher speeds. They offer better fuel efficiency than conventional vehicles without
significant changes in driving dynamics. Also, because the ICE can directly drive the wheels,
it can be more efficient in certain situations.

Drawbacks:
Despite their benefits, parallel hybrids can be complex due to the dual mechanical linkage. The
ICE needs to be running for the vehicle to move at high speeds, which could result in higher
emissions compared to series hybrids.

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➢ Series/parallel drivetrains -
Series/parallel drivetrains merge the advantages and complications of the parallel and
series drivetrains. By combining the two designs, the engine can both drive the wheels directly
(as in the parallel drivetrain), and be effectively disconnected, with only the electric motor
providing power (as in the series drivetrain).

Figure 2.2 Series-Parallel Hybrid drivetrain

The Toyota Prius helped make series/parallel drivetrains a popular design.

With gas-only and electric-only options, the engine operates at near-optimum
efficiency more often. At lower speeds, it operates more as a series vehicle, while at high
speeds, where the series drivetrain is less efficient, the engine takes over and energy loss is
minimized.
This system incurs higher costs than a pure parallel hybrid since it requires a generator,
a larger battery pack, and more computing power to control the dual system. Yet its efficiencies
mean that the series/parallel drivetrain can perform better—and use less fuel—than either the
series or parallel systems alone.

Conclusion:

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 EXPERIMENT NO.3
Date:
AIM: To study PMDC Motor.

Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC)

The permanent magnet de motor can be defined as a motor that includes a permanent magnet
pole called a Permanent Magnet DC Motor. In this motor, the magnet can be used to make the
flux work within the air gap in its place of the field winding. The rotor structure is similar to
the straight DC Motor. PMDC Motor’s rotor includes an armature core, commutator &
armature winding. Normally, in a conventional DC motor, there are two kinds of winding such
as armature as well as Filed.

Figure 3. 1 Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC)

The main function of field winding is to produce the functioning magnetic flux within the air
gap as well as wound on the stator of the motor while armature winding can be wound on the
rotor. Inactive carbon brushes are pushed on the commutator like in a conventional DC motor.
The operating voltage of the PMDC motor is 6 volts, 12 volts otherwise 230 volts DC supply
attained from the voltage sources.

Construction of PMDC Motor

The PMDC motor’s permanent magnets are maintained with a cylindrical-steel stator and these
supplies like a return lane for the magnetic flux. The rotor supplies like an armature, and it
includes commutator segments, winding slots, & brushes like in conventional de machines.
The permanent magnets used in this motor are classified into three namely Alnico magnets,
Ceramic (ferrite) magnets, and Rare-earth magnets.

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 Figure 3. 2 Construction of PMDC motor

PMDC motors are made of the same basic components:

a Stator, a Rotor, a Brushes, and a Commutator.

Stator
The stator generates a stationary magnetic field that surrounds the rotor. This field is generated
by either permanent magnets or electromagnetic windings.

Rotor
The rotor, also called the armature, is made up of one or more windings.

Figure 3. 3 Rotor (Armature)

The rotor, also called the armature, is made up of one or more windings. When these windings
are energized, they produce a magnetic field. The magnetic poles of this rotor field will be
attracted to the opposite poles generated by the stator, causing the rotor to turn. As the motor
turns, the windings are constantly being energized in a different sequence so that the magnetic
poles generated by the rotor do not overrun the poles generated in the stator. This switching of
the field in the rotor windings is called commutation.

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Brush and Commutator

Figure 3.5 Commutator

Figure 3.4 Brushes

Unlike other electric motor types (i.e.,

brushless DC, AC induction), BDC motors do not
require a controller to switch current in the motor
windings. Instead, the commutation of the windings of
a BDC motor is done mechanically. A segmented
copper sleeve, called a commutator, resides on the axle
of a BDC motor. As the motor turns, carbon brushes
(ride on the side of the commutator to provide supply
voltage to the motor) slide over the commutator, Figure 3. 6 Segmented Copper Sleeve
coming in contact with different segments of the
commutator. The segments are attached to different rotor windings; therefore, a dynamic
magnetic field is generated inside the motor when a voltage is applied across the brushes of the
motor. It is important to note that the brushes and commutator are the parts of a BDC motor
that are most prone to wear because they are sliding past each other.

How the Commutator Works

As the rotor turns, the commutator terminals also turn and continuously reverse the polarity of
the current it gets from the stationary brushes attached to the battery.

Figure 3.7 PMDC Figure 3.8 Working of Commutator

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A permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor is a motor whose poles are made out of permanent
magnets to produce the stator field.

PMDC Motor construction

• Alnico magnets are used within motors which have the ratings in the range of 1kW-
150kW.
• Ferrite or Ceramic magnets are much cheap within fractional kw (kilowatt) motors.
• Rare-earth magnets are made with samarium cobalt as well as neodymium iron cobalt.

Operation of PMDC Motor

In this motor, a permanent magnetic field can be generated with the permanent magnets which
communicate by the perpendicular field stimulated by the flow of currents within the rotor
windings, therefore a mechanical torque can be created.
When the rotor rotates in response to the created torque, then the position among the stator as
well as rotor fields can be reduced, and the torque would be reversed in a 90-degree rotation.
To maintain the torque performing on the rotor, PMDC motors include a commutator, set to
the rotor shaft.
The commutator activates the current supply toward the stator thus as to continue a steady
angle- 90, among two fields. As the flow of current is frequently activated among windings
like the rotor twists, then the current within every stator winding is truly exchanging at a
frequency comparative to the no. of motor magnetic poles as well as the speed.

Circuit Diagram of PMDC Motor

The circuit diagram of the PMDC motor is shown below. As in permanent magnet DC motor
the field can be generated with the permanent magnet, then there is no requirement of drawing
field coils within the PMDC motor equivalent circuit.

Figure 3.9 Circuit Diagram of PMDC Motor

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The voltage supply toward the armature will contain fall of armature resistance as well as break
of the voltage supply can be countered with the motor’s back EMF Therefore the voltage
equation of the motor is given by,

V = IR + Eb
In the above equation,
I-Armature Current, R = I Armature Resistance, Eb = j Back EMF, V = supply voltage.

Characteristics of PMDC Motor

The characteristics of PMDC Motor include the following.

Figure 3.10 Characteristics of PMDC Motor

The PMDC Motor characteristics are related to the de shunt motor characteristic in terms of
speed, torque, as well as armature current. However, the characteristics of speed-torque are
more linear as well as conventional in these types of motors.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the PMDC Motor

• The size of these motors is smaller
• These motors are cheaper
• These motors do not need field windings, and they don’t have copper losses in the field
circuit.
• The major drawback of this motor is, the generating capacity of working flux within
the air gap is limited. But, due to the expansion of some latest magnetic materials such
as Samarium Cobalt and neodymium Iron Boron, this trouble has been determined to
some level.

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Applications of the PMDC Motor
• These motors are in several applications varying from fractions to numerous
horsepower. These are designed with 200 kW to use in various industries.
• These are applicable in automobiles for operating windshield wipers as well as washers,
to move up the lower windows, to drive blowers for air conditioners as well as heaters.
• These are used in computer drives, toy industries.
• These motors are applicable in food mixers, electric toothbrushes, and moveable
vacuum cleaners.
• These are used in a handy electric tool like hedge trimmers, drilling machines, etc.
Thus, this is all about the PMDC motor. From the above information finally, we can conclude
that this motor can be widely used where minute motors are necessary & also extremely
efficient con is not necessary, like toys, washers, automobiles starter, wipers, air conditioners,
computer c drives, hot blowers, etc.

Conclusion:

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 EXPERIMENT NO.4
Date:
AIM: To study PMDC Motor drives.

INTRODUCTION
Vehicles equipped with internal combustion engine (ICE) have been in existence for over a
hundred years. Although ICE vehicles (ICEVs) are being improved by modern automotive
electronics technology, they need a major change to significantly improve the fuel economy
and reduce the emissions.
Electric vehicles (EVs) and Hybrid EVs (HEVs) have been identified to be the most viable
solutions to fundamentally solve the problems associated with ICEVs.

Electric Drives
Electric drives are the core technology for EVs and HEVs. The basic characteristics of an
electric drive for EVs are the following:
1) High torque density and power density;
2) Very wide speed range, covering low-speed crawling and high-speed cruising;
3) High efficiency over wide torque and speed ranges;
4) Wide constant-power operating capability;
5) High torque capability for electric launch and hill climbing;
6) High intermittent overload capability for overtaking;
7) High reliability and robustness for vehicular environment
8) Low acoustic noise
9) Reasonable cost

On top of the aforementioned characteristics, the electric drive for HEVS needs additional ones
as follows
1) High-efficiency generation over a wide speed range
2) Good voltage regulation over wide-speed generation

With the advent of high-energy permanent-magnet (PM) materials, PM motors are becoming
more and more attractive. Being continually fuelled by new machine topologies and control
strategies, PM brushless (BL) drives have been identified to be the most promising to provide
the aforementioned characteristics for modern EVS and HEVS [10].
The purpose of this paper Is to give an overview of the PM BL drives for EVs and HEVS.
Thus, the state-of-the-art technology of PM BL drive systems, including their machine
topologies, drive operations, control strategies, and emerging research directions, will be
reviewed and discussed.

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In PMBL, there are many topologies or types are the following
A. PM BL Machine Morphologies
B. Rotor PM BL Machine Topologies
C. Stator PM BL Machine Topologies
D. Hybrid PM BL Machine Topologies
E. Memory PM BL Machine Topologies

A. PM BL Machine Morphologies

Figure 4. 1 PM BL machine morphologies. (a) Radial field. (b) Axial field. (c) Linear field. (d) Transverse flux.

According to the directions of magnetic flux paths and current-carrying conductors,

all electric machine topologies can generally be represented as radial-field, axial-field, and
linear-field morphologies. Thus, all PM BL machine topologies can have different
morphological representations, as shown in Fig. 4.1(a)-(c). In the following, the discussion
will be based on the radial-field morphology, which can readily be extended to other
morphologies.

It should be noted that some machine topologies, such as the transverse-flux PM

BL drive, cannot be classified into the aforementioned three basic morphologies. Its flux
path is 3 D, involving radial, axial, and circumferential directions, as shown in Fig. 4.1(d).

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B. Rotor PM BL Machine Topologies

Figure 4. 2 Rotor PM BL machine topologies. (a) Surface mounted. (b) Surface inset. (c) Interior radial.
(d) Interior circumferential

The rotor PM BL topologies are the most popular. According to the position of PMs
in the rotor, they can further be classified as surface-mounted, surface-inset, interior-radial,
and interior-circumferential topologies, as shown in Fig. 4.2.

The generated torque of these rotor PM BL machines consists of two components,

namely, the PM torque and the reluctance torque, which are given by

T = 3/2 * p [ψm*Iq - (Lq - Ld) * Id*Iq] ……… (1)

Where;
p is the number of pole pairs,
ψm is the stator winding flux linkage due to the PMs.
Ld and Lq are the d- and q-axis stator winding inductances respectively,
and Id and Iq are the d- and y-axis currents respectively.

For the surface-mounted PM BL machine topology, as shown in Fig. 4.2(a), the

PMs are simply mounted on the rotor surface by using epoxy adhesives. Since the
permeability of PMs is near to that of air, the effective air gap is the sum of the actual air
gap length and the radial thickness of the PMs. Hence, the corresponding armature-reaction
field is small, and the stator winding inductance is low. In addition, since the d- and q-axis
stator winding inductances are nearly the same, its reluctance torque is almost zero. For the
surface-inset PM BL machine topology, as shown in Fig. 4.2(b), the PMs are inset into the
rotor surface. Thus, the q-axis inductance becomes higher than the d-axis inductance, hence

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 producing the reluctance torque. For the interior-radial PM BL machine topology, as shown
in Fig. 4.2(c), the PMs are radially magnetized and buried inside the rotor. Since the PMs
are mechanically protected, it allows for a high-speed operation. In addition, because of its
d-q saliency, a reluctance torque exists. For the interior-circumferential PMBL machine
topology, as shown in Fig. 4.2(d), the PMs are circumferentially magnetized and buried
inside the rotor. It takes the definite advantage that the airgap flux density can be higher
than the PM flux density, which is the so-called flux focusing.

C. Stator PM BL Machine Topologies

Figure 4. 3 Stator PM BL machine topologies. (a) Yoke linear magnet. (b) Yoke curved magnet.
(c) Tooth surface magnet. (d) Tooth interior magnet.

The stator PM BL machine topologies are with PMs located in the stator and
generally with salient poles in both the stator and the rotor. Thus, they are usually termed
as doubly salient PM (DSPM) machines. Since the rotor has neither PMs nor windings,
these DSPM machines are mechanically simple and robust, hence very suitable for high-
speed operation. According to the shape and location of the PMs, they can be classified as
the yoke-linear-magnet, yoke-curved-magnet, tooth-surface-magnet, and tooth-interior-
magnet machines, as shown in Fig. 4.3.

As shown in Fig. 4.3(a), the yoke-linear-magnet machine topology is commonly

adopted in the DSPM machines. Although they are salient poles in the stator and the rotor, the
PM torque significantly dominates the reluctance torque, hence exhibiting low cogging torque.
Since the variation of the flux linkage with each coil as the rotor rotates is unipolar, it is very
suitable for the BLDC operation. On the other hand, al when the rotor is skewed, it can offer

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the BLAC operation. The e major disadvantage of this topology is the relatively low torque or
density, as resulted from its unipolar flux linkage.
As shown in Fig. 4.3(b), the yoke-curved-magnet machine topology is very similar to
the previous one, except the shape of e PMs. Since there is more space to accommodate the
PMs, this DSPM machine can achieve a higher airgap flux density. Its major drawback is the
difficulty in machining the curved PMs.
The tooth-surface-magnet machine topology shown in Fig. 4.3(c) is commonly termed
as the flux-reversal PM machine since the flux linkage with each coil reverses polarity as the
A rotor rotates. Each stator tooth has a pair of PMs of different polarities mounted onto the
surface. Hence, the flux linkage variation is bipolar so that the torque density is higher than
that of the conventional DSPM machine. However, since the PMs are on the surface of stator
teeth, they are more prone to partial demagnetization. In addition, significant eddy current.
Loss in the PMs may be resulted.
The tooth-interior-magnet machine topology shown in Fig. 4.3(d) is commonly termed
as the flux-switching PM ma- chine. In this topology, each stator tooth consists of two adjacent
laminated segments and a PM, and each of these segments is sandwiched by two
circumferentially magnetized PMs. Hence, it enables flux focusing. Compared with the rotor
PM topologies, this flux-switching machine has less armature reaction, hence offering higher
electric loading. Since its back EMF waveform is essentially sinusoidal, this machine is more
suitable for the BLAC operation.

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D. Hybrid PM BL Machine Topologies

Figure 4. 4 Hybrid PM BL machine topologies. (a) Double-stator doubly fed.

(b) Stator doubly fed doubly salient

In general, these hybrid PM BL machine topologies are referred to the machines

that the PM excitation is hybridized with the de field winding excitation to produce a
magnetic field. There are many attractive features due to the presence of the hybrid PM
field.

1) By varying the polarity and magnitude of the dc field winding current, the air
gap flux density becomes easily controllable.

2) By realizing flux strengthening, the machine can offer the exceptionally high-
torque feature, which is very essential for cold cranking HEVS or providing temporary
power for vehicular overtaking and hill climbing.

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 3) By realizing flux weakening, the machine can offer the exceptionally wide-speed
constant-power feature, which is very essential for EV cruising.

4) By online tuning the air gap flux density, the machine can maintain a constant
voltage output under generation or regeneration over a very wide speed range, which is
very essential for battery charging various EVs.

5) By online tuning the air gap flux density, the machine can also offer EOC, which
is highly desirable for EVs.

Fig. 4.4(a) shows the configuration of a double-stator claw- type-rotor doubly fed
hybrid PM machine which is specially designed for EVs. This machine topology takes the
ad- vantages of compact structure and effective flux control. By tuning the de field winding
current in the inner stator, it can achieve a very wide speed range of constant-power
operation and online efficiency optimization. On the other hand, Fig. 4.4(b) shows another
type of hybrid PM machines, in which both the PMs and the dc field Windings are located
in the same stator. Hence, this stator doubly fed doubly salient con- figuration is relatively
simpler, but with the trade-off of higher leakage flux.

E. Memory PM BL Machine Topologies

The memory PM BL machine is a new class of flux- controllable PM machines,

which has the distinct ability to change the intensity of magnetization and also memorize
the flux-density level in the PMs. As shown in Fig. 4.5, this topology consists of Alnico
PMs sandwiched by soft iron. which are then mechanically fixed to a nonmagnetic shaft.
The online magnetization is achieved by properly applying a short de current pulse flowing
through the stator armature.

Figure 4. 5 Memory PM BL machine topology

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 BLAC and BLDC Operations

As aforementioned, the PM BL drives have two basic operations, namely, the BLAC and
the BLDC, as shown in Fig. 4.6. Each PM BL machine can operate at both modes if the
torque density, torque smoothness, and efficiency are not highly concerned. For the PM
BLAC drives, they operate with sinusoidal current and sinusoidal airgap flux so that they
need a high-resolution position signal for closed-loop control, hence desiring a costly
position encoder or resolver. On the other hand, for the PM BLDC drives, they operate with
a rectangular current and a trapezoidal airgap flux so that they just need a low-cost sensor
for phase-current commutation.

Figure 4. 6 Theoretically waveforms of PM BL operations (a) BL AC (b) BL DC

Figure 4. 7 Torque-Speed characteristics of the PM BL Drives (a) With and without control and
(b) BL AC vs BL DC

Conclusion:

24 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT NO.5
Date:
AIM: To perform PWM enable in PMDC.

INTRODUCTION
This explores Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) enablement in Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC)
motors, a crucial aspect of electric motors. Pulse Width Modulation, a versatile control
technique, is pivotal in optimizing motor performance, efficiency, and speed regulation. By
investigating PWM implementation in PMDC motors, this study seeks to enhance
understanding of the intricate dynamics between modulation parameters and motor response.

Apparatus Required
• PMDC Machine Trainer (MI-EV13)
• Patch Cords
• Power Cable

Theory
Some of the important characteristics of PMDC motors are,
▪ Speed-Torque characteristics (N vs T)
As explained in Brushless Motor Structure", the stator and rotor positions in brushless
motors are the opposite of those in DC motors. For this reason, the fundamental speed-torque
characteristics for brushless motors exhibit the same sloping characteristics as brushed DC
motors, as shown in Fig, and the motor rotates at a rotation speed that matches the load torque.
If the speed slows down, the torque generated by the motor increases, and a current
proportional to the torque flows. If a large current flows, the magnetic force of the permanent
magnet in the motor may decrease (demagnetization), and the windings may overheat and
experience burnout. In addition, the output element and converter on the drive circuit must be
able to handle large currents, which causes the drive circuit to be large and expensive.

Figure 5. 1 Speed Torque characteristics of Brushed DC motor

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 If the speed increases, the torque generated by the motor decreases, and the load torque
required for driving decreases, making it unsuitable for use. Operating it at a higher speed
increases the noise emitted by the gearhead combined with the motor, and it also causes
insufficient gearhead lubrication, which affects the life span.
For the above reasons with brushless motors, the drive circuit limits the maximum
current that flows through the motor and the maximum rotation speed. Thus, the speed-torque
characteristics printed in Oriental Motor's product catalogue are similar to Fig. 5.2.

Figure 5. 2 Speed Torque characteristics of PMDC motor

A torque is a momentary force developed when force is applied to the motor. The unit
of torque is N⋅m (Newton-meter). In other words, Torque T(N⋅m) is equal to the ratio between
the electrical power P in watts (W) to the acceleration.
The total power rating of the motor details can be found in the motor's nameplate
details. In the absence of the power details, the power is equal to the product of the voltage and
current for the DC motor, and for the AC motor, the product of the voltage, current, and power
factor.

The speed of the motor can be found by using Speedmeasurement devices.

Hence motor torque T = P/ ω

Here,
omega ω is equal to 2×pi×N(rpm)/ 60

For DC Motor torque formula:

For Calculating the torque for the DC motor;

T= V × I / (2 × pi × N(rpm) / 60)

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Where,
N(rpm) is the speed of the motor
V = Input DC Voltage
I = Input DC Current

Precaution
• Please make sure your power cable is connected properly to the trainer.
• Please make connections properly as mentioned.
• Do not apply any external high voltage or current source by which the trainer gets
damaged.
• Do not touch the motor pulley when the motor is running condition.
• Make sure the loading arrangement is on no load condition when the motor starts.

Connection Diagram

Figure 5. 3 Connection Diagram

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 Figure 5. 4 PMDC Machine Trainer

Procedure
• Follow the previous connection diagram shown in Fig. 5.3.
• Additionally, Connect the CRO +Ve & -Ve probe to the P3 & P4 terminal of PWM
section. After connecting the above connections, connect the mains AC plug ON and
MCB switch ON for supply.
• We can control the speed of the PMDC Motor by PWM to get speed-torque
characteristics we will apply a constant PWM signal to the motor will run at a constant
speed on no load condition.
• Now note the Speed in the RPM meter, as well as the Voltage and current read by DC
Voltmeter and DC Ammeter.
• After that apply the load by tightening the load belt by rotating the dial on the motor
setup and taking the reading of both balances connected to the load. (PWM knob is in
the fully clockwise direction).

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Calculation

Figure 5. 5 Reference for Calculation

How to Calculate Torque from Applied Load

Torque = Force × Perpendicular Distance = [(mass × g) × Perpendicular Distance]

Torque (T) = (W1 - W2) × R × 9.81 Nm

… Equation (1)

W1 = Weight at Balance 1
W2 = Weight at Balance 2
R = Radius
R=0.065 Meter (common for all)
G = 9.81N/𝑚2
W1=2.2, W2=1.5
R=0.065 Meter, G-9.81N/𝑚2
Put the above values in the Torque formula in Equation (1).
Torque (T) = (2.2-1.5) × 0.065 × 9.81 Nm
T = 0.7 × 0.065 × 9.81
Torque (T) = 0.446 Input Power (Pi) = VI Watts
V = Input Voltage =192 v
I = Input Current = 0.8 amp
Input Power (Pi) = 192 × 0.8 = 153.6 Watts
Output Power (Pm) = 2 × 3.14 × 1657 × 0.446 60 = 77.35 Watt
Output Power
Efficiency = × 100%
Input Power
153.6
= 77.35 × 100% = 50.35%

Losses = Input - Output = 153.6 -77.35 = 76.25 Watts

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 Calculation Table

Sr. Voltage V Current Springs Speed Torque Output Input Efficiency

No. (Volts) I (Amps.) Balance (rpm) T(Nm) Power Power %
Reading Pm Pi
(Watts) (Watts)

Conclusion:

30 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT NO.6
Date:
AIM: To study PWM operation in PMDC drive.

Apparatus Required:
• PMDC Motor Trainer-(MI-EV13)
• Patch Cords.
• Power Cable.

Theory:
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a method for encoding an analog signal into a single digital
bit. A PWM signal consists of two main components that define its behaviour: a duty cycle and
a frequency.
The use of pulse width modulation to control a motor has the advantage that the power loss in
the switching transistor is small because the transistor is either fully "ON" or fully "OFF". As
a result the switching transistor has a much reduced power dissipation giving it a linear type of
control which results in better speed stability.

Figure 6. 1 PWM

Also, the amplitude of the motor voltage remains constant so the motor is always at full
strength. The result is that the motor can be rotated much more slowly without it stalling. So
how can we produce a pulse width modulation signal to control the motor
An analog circuit that requires a voltage source of more than 5V or 12V can be controlled using
the PWM principle. The use of this PWM can be used to control motor rotation through changes
in the PWM duty cycle or PWM pulse width. When the duty cycle is 0%, the motor will stop
completely because there is no voltage difference. When the duty cycle is 50%, the motor will

31 | P a g e
rotate at half the speed of the maximum speed because the voltage is half the full voltage. When
PWM is at 100% rotates with maximum speed because of the continuous output of PWM.

Precaution:
• Please make sure your power cable is connected properly to the trainer.
• Please make connections properly as mentioned.
• Do not apply any external high voltage or current source by which the trainer gets
damaged.
• Do not touch the motor pulley when the motor is running condition.
• Make sure the loading arrangement is on no load condition when the motor starts.

Figure 6. 2 Connection diagram pf PWM enable in PMDC Motor

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Procedure:
• First of all, make sure all toggle fault switches are in OFF condition.
• Connect the DC Voltmeter +V1 (Red) to the +D1 (Red) from the variable DC output.
• Connect the DC Voltmeter -V1 (Black) to the -D2 (Black) from variable DC output.
• Connect +Ve terminal of PWM to the P1 terminal of PWM (in).
• Connect -Ve terminal of PWM to the P2 terminal of PWM (in).
• After connecting the above connections, connect the mains AC plug ON and MCB
switch ON for supply.
• For open condition output voltage is from 0-180VDC.
• Using of PWM knob for controlling the speed of the motor.
• You can observe the speed control of the Motor using PWM.
• Also, the motor is running as per PWM knob movement.
• Now moves the PWM knob, it is varying (clockwise & anticlockwise) from "0" to
maximum
• (180V), see the output voltage as per the movement of the knob shown on DC
Voltmeter.
• By default, when the motor is not connected, the minimum output voltage is 75V, If
the Motor is connected so initial voltage, is OV.
• Now PWM section is enabled.

Conclusion:

33 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT NO.7
Date:
AIM: To study Switched Reluctant motor drive for electric vehicles.

INTRODUCTION

The switched reluctance motor is a low-cost electric motor with reluctance torque.
Power is delivered to the stator (case) windings rather than the rotor. This greatly simplifies
mechanical design as power does not have to be delivered to a moving part, but it complicates
the electrical design as some sort of switching system needs to be used to deliver power to the
different windings.
Switched reluctance motor manufacturers claim they offer better performance and
reliability, higher efficiency, and lower prices than standard induction or other adjustable speed
motors.

Switched Reluctance Motors for Electric Vehicles

Due to the high volume of mainstream vehicles with internal combustion engines (ICEs),
environmental pollution and energy shortages are now a concern. Electric vehicles (EVs) can
restrict the energy source and are the ideal method to save resources and provide zero-emission
vehicles.

Switched Reluctance Motor and Its Operating Principle

A switched reluctance motor produces torque by changing its magnetic reluctance. Its
stator has salient poles and windings identical to a brushless DC motor, but the rotor is steel
cut into salient poles without magnets or windings. The power is supplied to its stator windings
instead of the rotor, unlike the standard brushed DC motors. SRM works by alternating currents
in the stator when the magnetic field developed by the stator and rotor changes. To prevent a
condition where both rotor and stator poles align up together and no torque is produced,
switched reluctance motors have fewer rotor poles than the stator.
The magnetic circuit developed between the rotor and stator has high reluctance when
they both are out of alignment. At this time, the stator pole pairs get energized, and the rotor
tries to get in line with the powered stator poles, which decreases the magnetic reluctance. This
ability of the rotor to reach the minimum point of reluctance produces a torque, known as
reluctance torque. Excitation of the stator poles must be accurately timed to make sure that it
happens only when the rotor is trying to be aligned with the excited pole. For this purpose,
SRM may need positive feedback from Hall effect sensors or encoders to control the excitation
of the stator based on an accurate rotor position.

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 Figure 7. 1 Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM)

Control Methods
Switched reluctance motors suffer from high torque ripple because of discrete torque
production and independent phases. Thus, it is its major drawback and may restrict its use in
EVs. However, many control strategies are currently being used to solve this problem. Broadly
speaking, there are two main torque control methods for SRM: direct and indirect torque
control.
Direct torque control strategy includes a simple control system with a hysteresis
controller. The non-linear characteristics of SRM are taken into account to compensate for the
output torque ripple based on current and rotor position. Its main benefits are simplicity, high
performance, and fast torque response. In many advanced strategies, these characteristics are
utilized to fluctuate the reference current depending upon rotor position and reference torque.
This type of torque control is also subdivided into advanced direct instantaneous torque control
(ADITC) and direct instantaneous torque control (DITC).
In DITC, the average torque may be controlled within a certain bandwidth using an
estimation of the instantaneous torque. However, it is not possible to control the instantaneous
torque and performance is dependent upon sampling time. In the ADITC method, the different
phase currents in a single sample time are controlled by regulating the average phase voltage.
Compared with DITC, it can get a smaller torque ripple by increasing the sampling time. But,
if the sampling time is the same, ADITC switching frequency will be almost double, and thus
there will be more electromagnetic emissions and switching losses than DITC.
There are three types of indirect torque control: nonlinear, cosine, and linear logical
torque-sharing functions. The nonlinear TSF method has given promising performance in
comparison to the other two. The torque is controlled by directly controlling the phase currents,
which in turn control the torque. The torque reference is converted into a corresponding phase
current reference. However, this conversion is complicated as the torque is dependent upon the
rotor position. The relationship between rotor position, torque, and current is nonlinear, and
thus it cannot be expressed as an analytical expression. However, it can be formulated using
artificial neural networks or a lookup table.

35 | P a g e
 Construction of SRM
The construction of an SRM is relatively simple compared to other electric motor
types, making it an attractive choice for electric vehicles. It consists of the following key
components.
1. Stator:
The stator of an SRM is typically made of laminated iron cores with stator windings or
coils wound around the poles. These coils are often distributed around the stator’s
circumference.

2. Rotor:
The rotor of an SRM is typically a cylindrical piece with salient (protruding) poles. These
poles are not magnetized, and there are no permanent magnets or windings on the rotor.

3. Position Sensors (optional):

Some SRM designs may incorporate position sensors for accurate rotor position feedback.
However, modern control strategies often aim for sensor-less operation to reduce
complexity.

Working Principles of SRM

The operation of an SRM is based on the principle of magnetic reluctance, which means
the motor seeks to minimize the reluctance in its magnetic circuit to generate torque.

1. Phases and Excitation: The stator windings are organized into phases. Each phase
consists of multiple coils grouped around the stator poles. These coils are energized
sequentially in a specific order.

2. Rotor Positioning: When a phase is energized, the rotor poles are drawn towards
alignment with the energized stator poles. This alignment minimizes the magnetic
reluctance, creating a path of least resistance for magnetic flux.

3. Sequential Switching: The key to SRM operation is the sequential switching of phases.
By de-energizing one phase and energizing the next in the appropriate sequence, the
rotor is continuously pushed towards the next stator pole, thereby producing rotation.

4. Variable Speed Control: The speed and direction of the SRM are controlled by adjusting
the timing and sequence of phase switching. By changing the order and duration of
phase excitation, you can vary the motor’s speed and direction.

5. Energy Efficiency: SRMs are known for their high energy efficiency, as precise control
of the current in the windings allows for optimal power consumption. This makes them
well-suited for electric vehicles where efficiency directly impacts range.

36 | P a g e
 6. Sensor-less Control: Many modern SRM systems utilize sensor-less control methods,
which estimate rotor position based on back electromotive force (EMF) or other
parameters, reducing the need for position sensors.

The SRM drive for electric vehicles operates by sequentially energizing stator
phases to attract the rotor poles and generate motion. Its unique characteristics, such as
simplicity, high power density, and wide speed range, make it a compelling choice for
electric vehicle propulsion systems. To maximize the performance of SRM drives,
advanced control strategies, and power electronics are often employed to optimize
efficiency and power output.

Conclusion:

37 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT NO.8
Date:
AIM: To study AC-DC converter operation with motor load.
APPARATUS: PSIM/MATLAB (Demo version)

THEORY

1. Phase Controlled Rectifier

An uncontrolled Rectifier/phase-controlled converter is a circuit that converts AC
voltage input to the DC output voltage. A semiconductor diode is extensively used for
uncontrolled rectifiers, and for controlled rectifiers, either SCR or MOSFET is to be
employed for energy conversion. Many industries make use of controlled DC voltage.
Examples of such applications are: still rolling mills, paper mills, traction systems working
on DC, magnet power supply, HVDC, textile mills, etc.

Principle of Phase controlled rectifier:

The simplest form of controlled rectifier circuit consists of a single thyristor fed a DC power
to resistive load R (Single phase half wave-controlled rectifier with R load). The source voltage
is Vs = Vm sinωt. An SCR can conduct only when the anode voltage is positive and a gating
signal is applied. As some delay angle or firing angle α, a positive gate signal applied between
the gate and cathode terminal turns on the SCR. Immediately full supply voltage is applied to
the load as Vo. At the instant of delay angle α, Vo rises from zero to Vm sinα.

Figure 8. 1 Circuit made in PSIM software (Half-wave controlled rectifier)

38 | P a g e
 Figure 8. 2 Circuit made in MATLAB Software (Half-wave controlled rectifier)

Input Voltage Waveform

Gate Triggering Voltage Waveform (Firing Angle=30)

Load Voltage Waveform

39 | P a g e
Voltage Waveform Across SCR

Gate Triggering Voltage Waveform (firing angle=60)

Load Voltage Waveform

Voltage Waveform Across SCR

Figure 8.1 and 8.2 Single phase half-wave controlled rectifier with R load and different
waveforms

The average output voltage Vo across R load for single phase half-wave controlled rectifier is
1 𝜋
𝑉𝑜 = ∫ 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 ∙ 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
2𝜋 𝛼 𝑚
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 = (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)
2𝜋
𝑉𝑜
Average load current 𝐼𝑜 = 𝑅

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RMS value of load voltage Vor is
1 𝜋 2 2
𝑉𝑜𝑟 = √[ ∫ 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 ∙ 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)]
2𝜋 𝛼

𝑉𝑚 1
𝑉𝑜𝑟 = √[(𝜋 − 𝛼) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼]
2√𝜋 2

𝑉
The rms value of load current is 𝐼𝑜𝑟 = 𝑅𝑜𝑟
The power delivers to the resistive load = (rms value of load voltage) *(rms load current)
Input Volt-amperes = (rms source voltage) *(total line current)
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Input power factor =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐴

Similarly, students can go for single phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RL load and RLE
load also.

Readings For different firing angle:

Input Voltage =………..V Peak Value, Load Resistance= ……….. Ω

Sr. Firing AVG RMS AVG RMS Simulated

No. angle in Calculated Calculated Simulated Output voltage
Degree Output voltage Output voltage Output voltage across load in
across load in across load in across load in volt.
volt. volt. volt.

Below figure shows circuit and result analysis of single phase full-wave controlled rectifier
with R load.

Figure 8. 3 Circuit made in PSIM Software (Full-wave controlled rectifier)

41 | P a g e
 Figure 8. 4 Circuit made in MATLAB Software (Full-wave controlled rectifier)

Input Voltage Waveform

Gate Triggering Voltage Waveform (Firing angle=30)

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Load Voltage Waveform (With capacitor)

Load Voltage Waveform (Without Capacitor)

Gate Triggering Voltage Waveform (Firing angle=30)

43 | P a g e
Load Voltage Waveform (With Capacitor)

Load Voltage Waveform (Without Capacitor)

Readings for different values of Firing Angle

Input Voltage =………………. V Peak Value, Load Resistance= …………..Ω

Analysis and parameters for single phase full-bridge controlled rectifier is similar to single
phase half-bridge controlled rectifier.

Sr. Firing AVG RMS AVG RMS THD

No. angle in Calculated Calculated Simulated Simulated
Degree Output Output Output Output
voltage voltage voltage voltage across
across load across load across load load in volt.
in volt. in volt. in volt.

Conclusion:

44 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT NO.9
Date:
AIM: To analyze and simulate the AC voltage controller for induction motor
drives.

APPARATUS: PSIM/MATLAB (Demo version)

THEORY
Introduction to Induction Motor
Induction Motors account for more than 85% of all motors used in industry and domestic
applications. In the past they have been used as constant-speed motors as traditional speed
control methods have been less efficient than speed control methods for DC motors. However,
DC Motors requires commentators and brushes which are hazardous and require maintenance.
Thus, Induction Motors are preferred.

Construction
The Induction Motor has a stator and a rotor. The stator is wound for three phases and a fixed
number of poles. It has stampings with evenly spaced slots to carry the three-phase windings.
The number of poles is inversely proportional to the speed of the rotor. When the stator is
energized, a moving magnetic field is produced and currents are formed in the rotor winding
via electromagnetic induction. Based on rotor construction, Induction Motors are divided into
two categories.

In Wound-Rotor Induction Motors, the ends of the rotor are connected to rings on which the
three brushes make sliding contact. As the rotor rotates, the brushes slip over the rings and
provide a connection with the external circuit.
In Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors, a “cage” of copper or aluminium bars encases the stator.
These bars are then shorted by brazing a ring at the end connecting all the bars. This model is
the more rugged and robust variant of the Induction Motor.

Working
When the stator winding is energized by a three-phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is set
up which rotates around the stator at synchronous speed Ns. This flux cuts the stationary rotor
and induces an electromotive force in the rotor winding. As the rotor windings are short-
circuited a current flow in them. Again, as these conductors are placed in the stator's magnetic
field, this exerts a mechanical force on them by Len's law. Lenz’s law tells us that the direction
of rotor currents will be such that they will try to oppose the cause producing them. Thus, a
torque is produced which tries to reduce the relative speed between the rotor and the magnetic
field. Hence the rotor will rotate in the same direction as the flux. Thus, the relative speed
between the rotor and the speed of the magnetic field is what drives the rotor. Hence the rotor

45 | P a g e
speed Nr always remains less than the synchronous speed Ns. Thus, Induction Motors are also
called Asynchronous Motors.

Torque-Speed Analysis
The equivalent circuit of an Induction Motor can be depicted as shown below:

Figure 9. 1 Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor

Where Xm= Magnetizing Reactance

Xs= Stator Reactance
Xr= Rotor Reactance
Rs= Stator Resistance
Rr= Rotor Resistance
s= slip
In an Induction Motor, the slip is given as
𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁𝑟
𝑠=
𝑁𝑠
Where Ns= Synchronous speed
Nr= Rotor speed

The following expressions can be derived from the above circuit,

Rotor Current:
𝑉𝑜
𝐼2 =
𝑅
(𝑅𝑠 + 𝑠𝑟 ) + 𝑗(𝑋𝑠 + 𝑋)𝑟
Torque:
3𝑉𝑜2 𝑅𝑟 )
(
𝑇= ± 𝑠
𝑅𝑟
𝑤𝑠[(𝑅𝑠 + 𝑠 ) + (𝑋𝑠 + 𝑋𝑟 )]

46 | P a g e
The following are the torque and speed characteristics for an Induction Motor

Figure 9. 2 Torque-Speed characteristics of Induction Motor

Figure 9.2 shows the ideal torque-speed characteristics of an Induction motor. The X-
axis shows speed and slip while the Y-axis shows Torque and Current. When the motor is
started, it draws a very large current to the tune of seven times the rated current, which is a
result of the stator and rotor flux. Also, the starting torque is around 1.5 times the rated value
for the motor. As the speed increases, the current reduces slightly and then drops significantly
when the speed reaches close to 80% of the rated speed. At the base speed, the rated current
flows in the motor and rated torque are delivered. At base speed, if the load is increased beyond
the value for the rated torque, the speed drops, and the slip increases. At a speed of 80% of the
Synchronous speed, the load increases up to 2.5 times the rated torque, this is called the
breakdown torque. Increasing the load further causes the torque to fall rapidly and the motor
stalls.

Single-phase AC to AC Voltage Controller

The basic power circuit of a single-phase AC-AC voltage controller, as shown in Fig. is
composed of a pair of SCRs connected back-to-back (also known as inverse-parallel or
antiparallel) between the AC supply and the load. This connection provides a bidirectional full-
wave symmetrical control and the SCR pair can be replaced by a Triac for low-power
applications. With phase control, the switches conduct the load current for a chosen period of
each input cycle of voltage and with on=off control the switches connect the load either for a
few cycles of input voltage and disconnect it for the next few cycles (integral cycle control) or
the switches are turned on and off several times within alternate half-cycles of input voltage
(AC chopper or PWM ac voltage controller).

47 | P a g e
 Figure 9. 3 AC-AC Converter

Input Voltage Waveform

Gate Triggering Voltage Waveform

Load Voltage Waveform

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Voltage Waveform across Thyristor

Operation with R-load

Figure shows the typical voltage and current waveforms for the single-phase bidirectional
phase-controlled ac voltage controller with resistive load. The output voltage and current
waveforms have half-wave symmetry and thus no dc component.
If 𝑣𝑠 = √2𝑉𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡is the source voltage, then the rms output voltage with T1 triggered at α can
be found from the half-wave symmetry as
1 𝜋 2
𝑉𝑜 = √[ ∫ 2𝑉𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑤𝑡𝑑(𝑤𝑡)]
𝜋 𝛼

𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠 [1 − + ]
𝜋 2𝜋

Note that Vo can be varied from Vs to 0 by varying α from 0 to π. The rms value of load
current:
𝑉𝑜
𝐼𝑜 =
𝑅
The input power factor:
𝑃𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼
= = [1 − + ]
𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝑠 𝜋 2𝜋

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Observation Table:
Resistance = 12Ω Inductance= 1m H

Input Voltage Load Voltage Calculated Firing Angle Load Current

(RMS) (RMS) value of Load (Degree) (Amp)
(Volt) (Volt) Voltage
(Volt)
155.56 153.46 151.32 30 12.27
155.56 148.45 141.44 45 11.73
155.56 139.70 125.31 60 10.85
155.56 110.188 77.78 90 8.17

Conclusion:

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 EXPERIMENT NO.10
Date:
AIM: To analyze the DC to DC converter (Chopper) performance for
electric drive application using PSIM/MATLAB.

APPARATUS: PSIM/MATLAB (Demo version)

THEORY

DC to DC Converter
Many industrial applications require power from DC voltage sources. Several of these
applications, however, perform better in case these are fed from variable dc sources.
DC Chopper: A chopper is a static device that converts fixed DC input voltage to a variable
DC output voltage directly. A chopper may be thought of as a DC equivalent of an AC
transformer since they behave identically. As chopper involves one-stage conversion, these are
more important.
The power semiconductor devices used for a chopper circuit can be power BJT, power
MOSFET, GTO, or force-commutated thyristor. These devices can be represented as switches.
When the switch is off, no current can flow. When the switch is on, current flows toward loads
depending upon circuit configuration.

Principle of chopper operation:

A chopper is a high-speed on/off semiconductor switch. It connects the source to the load and
disconnects the load to the source in a very fast manner. By controlling the on/off period of the
power semiconductor switch. Output voltage and current can be controlled or made variable.
Output voltage Vo can be obtained by
𝑇𝑜𝑛
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉
𝑇𝑜𝑛 + 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑠
Where Vs is the source voltage and Ton and Toff is the on/off period of Switch.

Figure 10. 1 Elementary Chopper Circuit (PSIM)

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Control strategies

There are two types of control strategies used for DC chopper. The first one is constant
frequency control and the second one is variable frequency control.
1) Constant frequency control:
In this scheme, the on-time Ton is varied but chopping frequency f is constant.
Variation of Ton means adjustment of pulse width only. This scheme is also known as
the time ration control scheme.

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 2) Variable frequency control:

In this scheme, the chopping frequency f is to be varied and either (i) on time
Ton is kept constant or (ii) off time Toff is kept constant. This method of controlling α
is known as the frequency modulation scheme.

Different Types of Chopper Circuit Configuration

A) Buck Converter (step-down converter)
B) Boost Converter (step-up Converter)
C) Buck-Boost Converter (step down/up converter)

A) Buck Converter (step-down converter):

A buck converter is a DC-to-DC power converter that steps down the voltage
from its input to its output. It is a class of switched-mode power supply (SMPS)

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typically containing at least two semiconductors and at least one energy storage
element, a capacitor, inductor, or two in combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters
made of capacitors are normally added to such a converter's output and input.

Figure 10. 2 Buck Converter (PSIM)

Figure 10. 3 Buck Converter (MATLAB)

Input Voltage Waveform

Gate Triggering Voltage Waveform

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Load Voltage waveform

To analyze the voltage of this circuit let us consider the change in inductor current over
a one cycle. From the relation
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Now the change of current satisfies

𝑑𝑖 = ∫ (𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉𝑜 )𝑑𝑡 + ∫ (𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉𝑜 )𝑑𝑡

𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
For the steady state operation current at the start and end of a period T will not change.
To get a simple relation between voltage, we assumed no voltage drop across MOSFET
or diode while ON and a perfect switch change. Thus during ON time Vx = Vin and in
off time Vx = 0.
𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑛 +𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓
0 = 𝑑𝑖 = ∫ (𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑜 )𝑑𝑡 + ∫ (−𝑉𝑜 )𝑑𝑡
0 𝑡𝑜𝑛
This simplifies to
(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑜 )𝑡𝑜𝑛 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 0
or
𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑜𝑛
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑇
𝑇𝑜𝑛
Where = 𝐷 = Duty ratio
𝑇

No. Input Voltage Duty Cycle Voltage Across Voltage

(Volt) Load (Volt) Across Load.
Calculated
value (Volt)
1 100 25% 24.97 25
2 100 50% 49.99 50
3 100 75% 75.021 75
4 100 100% 100 100

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B) Boost Converter (Step up Converter):
This configuration is used when higher output voltage is needed compared to
input voltage (Vo > Vin). In this chopper, a large inductor L in series with source
voltage Vs is essential. When Chopper is on, inductor stored energy during Ton period.
When chopper is off, inductor current cannot die instantaneously, this current is force
to flow through diode and load for time Toff.
While MOSFET is ON, Vx = Vin and in OFF state the inductor current flow through
diode giving Vx = Vo.

Figure 10. 4 Boost Converter (PSIM)

Figure 10. 5 Boost Converter (MATLAB)

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Input Voltage Waveform

Gate Triggering Voltage Waveform

Load Voltage Waveform

No. Input Voltage Duty Cycle Voltage Across Voltage Across

(Volt) Load (Volt) Load. Calculated
value (Volt)
1 100 25% 133.959 133.33
2 100 50% 200.855 200
3 100 75% 402.177 400

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑛 + (𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑜 )𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 0

This can be rearranged as
𝑉𝑜 𝑇 1
= =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓 1 − 𝐷

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 C) Buck-Boost Converter (Step up/Step down Converter):
With continuous conduction for the buck boost converter Vx = Vin when
transistor is ON and Vx = Vo when transistor is OFF. For zero net current change over
a period the average voltage across inductor is zero.
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑛 + 𝑉𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 0
This gives voltage ratio

𝑉𝑜 𝐷
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝐷

Figure 10. 6 Buck-Boost Converter (PSIM)

Figure 10. 7 Buck-Boost Converter (MATLAB)

Conclusion:

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 EXPERIMENT NO.11
Date:
AIM: Study of Battery Management System (BMS) Operation and Display Setting.
APPARATUS:
• Electric Vehicle Trainer-(MI-EV15)
• Patch Cords.
• Power Cable.

THEORY
BMS (Battery Management System) -Lithium-ion batteries have a lot of advantages over their lead-acid
counterparts. They're lighter, more efficient, charge faster, and have a longer lifespan. However, they're
susceptible to conditions that can damage the battery pack. Tapping into all of this potential requires
lithium-ion batteries to be more complex and include components to help avoid these damaging
conditions. This is the primary purpose of the BMS, which means a battery management system.
A battery management system (BMS) is said to be the brain of a battery pack. The BMS is a set of
electronics that monitors and manages all of the battery's performance. Most importantly, it keeps the
battery from operating outside of its safety margins. The battery management system is critical to the
battery's safe operation, overall performance, and longevity. Moreover, it protects whatever the lithium
battery is installed in (boat, RV, etc.) and the people who are using it.

What is the Function of a Battery Management System?

The primary function of the BMS is to protect the battery cells from damage caused by being overcharged
or over-discharged. Additionally, the BMS calculates the remaining charge, monitors the battery's
temperature, and monitors the battery's health and safety by checking for loose connections and internal
shorts. The BMS also balances the charge across the cells to keep each cell functioning at maximum
capacity.
If it detects any unsafe conditions, the BMS shuts the battery down to protect the lithium-ion cells and
the user.

The Importance of Battery Management System

Battery Management System is the chief in command for performing critical operations in a battery pack
and provides the following functionality:
• Voltage, Current, and Temperature control and measurement
• SOC and SOH assessment
• Detection of fault
• Passive cell balancing
• Data storage

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 Figure 11. 1 BMS connection and functional diagram

Mainly, there are 6 components of the battery management system,

1. Battery cell monitor
2. Cut off FETs
3. Monitoring of Temperature
4. Cell voltage balance
5. BMS Algorithms
6. Real-Time Clock (RTC)

Let's look at the significance and the application of each component of the battery management
system:

1. Battery cell monitor

A battery cell monitor primarily monitors the voltages for battery systems. It is a high-speed
system that offers a low overall cost for high-voltage measurements.
• The easiest way to determine the battery pack's charge is to monitor individual cell voltage
regarding the set voltage level.
• When the voltage of the first cell reaches the voltage limit, the charging automatically trips. It
indicates that the battery charging limit has been reached.
• If the battery pack has a lesser charge than the average cell, then the least charged cell will reach
the limit first, and the rest of the cells will be left partially charged.

2. Cutoff FETs:
The FET driver is accountable for the connection and isolation between the load and charger
of the battery pack. The behaviour prediction is done through voltage, current measurements, and
real-time detection circuitry.

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 • They can be connected to a battery pack's low or high side.
• NMOS FETS activation is needed to enable a high-side connection and requires a charge
pump driver. A reference for the solid ground is set using a high-side driver for the rest of
the circuitry.
• We use a low-side FET driver to reduce costs in integrated solutions since a charge pump is
not needed. High-voltage devices are not required in such cases.
• The ground connection of the battery pack floats using low-side cut-off FETs. This can
affect the IC performance, making it more sensitive to insinuated noise measurement.

3. Monitoring of Temperature:
With the increase in product requirements, the batteries have been on a constant surge in
delivering currents at fixed voltages. The continuous operation processes may cause a catastrophic
event such as fire or explosion.
• We can identify whether battery charging or discharging is desirable using temperature
measurements.
• Temperature sensors monitor the energy storage system or cell grouping for compact
portable applications.
• The circuit temperature is monitored by the internal ADC voltage-powered thermostat.
Employing the internal voltage reference helps reduce temperature inaccuracies and
improves the overall measurement system.

4. Cell voltage balance

It is crucial to determine the health of the battery pack. That is why cell voltage monitoring
is done to ensure that the cells are in a proper running condition for attaining a long battery life.
• The operating voltage ranges from 2.5V to 4.2V in a lithium-ion battery.
• The battery life is significantly affected while performing battery operations beyond the
voltage range. This reduces the life of a cell, which may even make it unfit for use.
• Connecting the battery pack in parallel increases the overall drive current, whereas series
connection adds the overall voltage.

5. BMS Algorithms
To make quick and effective decisions in real time based on the information received. For
this purpose, a microcontroller for the battery management system is needed to collect, organize,
and assess the information from the sensing circuitry.
• Renesas’ ISL.94203 is the most famous example of employing a battery management
system algorithm. It is a standalone digital solution embedded in a single chip with
programmable capabilities.
• The memory space and microcontroller for battery management system clock cycles can be
cleared using these standalone solutions.

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 6. Real-Time Clock
Allowing the user to know the battery pack's behaviour before any alarming event, the real-
time clock acts as a black box system for time-stamping and memory storage.
• The BMS electronics are kept away from synchronizing with a third-party battery pack
through battery authentication.
• The peripheral power circuitry is used around the components of the battery management
system through a voltage reference/regulator.

How Does a Battery Management System Work?

The battery management system monitors individual cells in the battery pack. It then calculates how much
current can safely go in (charge) and come out (discharge) without damaging the battery.
The current limits prevent the source (usually a battery charger) and the load (such as an inverter) from
overdrawing or overcharging the battery. This protects the battery pack from cell voltages getting too
high or low, which helps increase the battery's longevity. The BMS also monitors the remaining charge
in the battery. It continually tracks the amount of energy entering and exiting the battery pack and
monitors cell voltages. It uses this data to know when the battery is drained and shut the battery down.
This is why lithium-ion batteries don't show signs of dying like a lead-acid but just shut off.
The battery management system tracks the status of each cell in the battery pack. Determining the SOC
(State of Charge) and SOH (State of Health) helps estimate the amount of current needed for a safe charge
and discharge operation without harming the battery.
The current limits act as a cut-off and prevent the battery from overcharging. This safeguards the cell
voltages of the battery pack from high or low fluctuations, which immunizes the battery life.
The battery management system tracks the status of each cell in the battery pack. Determining the SOC
(State of Charge) and SOH (State of Health) helps estimate the amount of current needed for a safe charge
and discharge operation without harming the battery.
The current limits act as a cut-off and prevent the battery from overcharging. This safeguards the cell
voltages of the battery pack from high or low fluctuations, which immunizes the battery life.
The BMS consistently tracks the charge and discharge activities for the battery pack and monitors cell
voltages. This data is useful in deciding if the battery is drained, sustaining passive cell balancing.
The CAN (Controller Area Network) bus is the reliable unit for internal communications, driving most
of the messaging protocols. The IEM (Intelligent Electric Meter) estimates the state parameters of the
battery pack, total current, and battery pack voltage. It transfers the information to the CMU (Central
Monitoring Unit) or the sub-controller unit. The sub-controller unit quickly checks the temperature and
voltage signals and sends data to the CAN bus. The BCU (Battery Control Unit) obtains the signals from
the CAN bus and responds by transmitting back the control signals required in battery pack managing
and modelling.

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Figure 11. 2 Mattery Management System (BMS)

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Conclusion:

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