TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Chapter 7
 TRENDS IN ATOMIC RADII

• The atomic radius (covalent radius) of an atom is

defined as half the distance between the nuclei of two
atoms of the same element that are joined together by a
single covalent bond.
The values of the atomic radius increase down the groups in the
Periodic Table for two reasons:
1. The additional electrons are going into a new energy level (shell) which is further
from the nucleus.

2. Screening effect of inner electrons.

The values of the atomic radius decrease across a period in the
Periodic table for two reasons:
1. Increase in effective nuclear charge

2. No increase in the screening effect

 TRENDS IN IONISATION ENERGY

• The first ionisation energy of an atom is the minimum energy required to completely
remove the most loosely bound electron from a neutral gaseous atom in its ground state.
The values of the first ionisation energy decrease down a
group in the Periodic table for two reasons:
1. Increasing atomic radius, which makes it easier to remove an electron from
an atom despite the increased nuclear charge.

2. Screening effect of inner electrons

The values of the first ionisation energy increase across a period in
the Periodic Table for two reasons:

1. Increasing effective nuclear charge

2. Decreasing atomic radius

 EXCEPTIONS TO A TREND ACROSS A PERIOD

On going across the second period from left to right, first ionisation values generally
increase.
• However, beryllium (electronic configuration 1s2 2s2) has a higher first ionisation energy
value than the next element, boron (1s2 2s2 2px1).
• The beryllium atom, having a full outer sublevel, is particularly stable.
Another exception in the second period to the general trend occurs between nitrogen
and oxygen.
• The first ionisation energy of nitrogen (1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1) is greater than that of
oxygen (1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1).
• The nitrogen atom, having a half-full outer sublevel, is particularly stable.
Similar exceptions to the general trend occur between Groups II and III and between
Groups V and VI in other periods, for similar reasons.
 IONISATION ENERGIES AND ENERGY LEVELS

• The second ionisation energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an ion
with one positive charge in the gaseous state, i.e. the energy required to carry out the
following: X+(g) → X2+(g) + e-
• When all the successive ionisation energy values for an element, for example magnesium,
are measured, it is found that the first ionisation energy is less than the second ionisation
energy, which in turn is less that the third ionisation energy, and so on.
• This trend is due to the increasing positive charge and decreasing radius of the
species losing the electron.
• The values do not increase in a regular manner, however, and this gives evidence for the
existence of energy levels in the magnesium atom.
 MAGNESIUM

• The magnesium atom has 12 electrons, with 2 in the n = 3 level, 8 in the n = 2 level,
and 2 in the n = 1 level.
• There is a very large difference between the second ionisation energy, when the
second electron is removed from the outer (n = 3) level, and the third ionisation
energy, when the third electron is removed from an inner level (n = 2).
• A similar ‘jump’ occurs between the 10th ionisation energy, where the electron is in
the n = 2 level, and the 11th ionisation energy, where the electron removed is in the n
= 1 level.
 TRENDS IN ELECTRONEGATIVITY

• Electronegativity is the relative attraction that an atom in a molecule has for the shared
pair of electrons in a covalent bond.
The values of electronegativity decrease down the groups in the Periodic Table
for two reasons:
1. Increasing atomic radius

2. Screening effect of inner electrons

The values of electronegativity increase across the periods in the Periodic Table
for two reasons:
1. Increasing effective nuclear charge

2. Decreasing atomic radius

 TRENDS WITHIN GROUPS

• The chemical properties of elements are largely determined by the number of

electrons in the outermost energy level.
 TRENDS IN CHEMICAL REACTIVITY OF ALKALI METALS

• All of the alkali metals are very reactive elements because they all have low first ionisation
energy values.
• They are so reactive that none of them occur free in nature as the metal itself.
• Since the alkali metals have low first ionisation energies and low electronegativity values,
they readily form ionic compounds by losing their single outer electron.
• The reactivity of the alkali metals increase down the group because the increasing atomic
radius and the screening effect of inner shells of electrons cause the first ionisation energy
to decrease down the group and so the electron in the outermost energy level is more
easily lost.
a) Reaction with oxygen: All of the alkali metals react with oxygen to form
oxides.
1
2K + O2 → K2O
2
The alkali metals must be stored under oil to prevent them reacting with oxygen in
the air.

b) Reaction with water: The reaction of the alkali metals with water illustrates
very nicely the trend of increasing reactivity down the group.
All of the alkali metals react with water to form the hydroxide of the metal and
hydrogen gas
1
Na + H2O → NaOH + H2
2
 TRENDS IN CHEMICAL REACTIVITY OF HALOGENS

• The halogens are the most electronegative elements in the Periodic Table.
• Fluorine is the most electronegative element in the Periodic Table, which makes it the
most reactive of the halogens.
• Since the halogens have such a great attraction for electrons, they are quite reactive.
• The halogens do not exist free in nature, e.g. chlorine is extracted from one of its
compounds sodium chloride.
• The halogens tend to remove electrons easily from other substances. A substance that
removes the electrons from other substances is called an ‘oxidising agent’.
• If chlorine gas is bubbled through a solution containing bromide ions, the chlorine
takes electrons from the bromide ions, converting them into bromine.
• The more reactive halogen displaces the less reactive halogen from the solution.
• The boiling points of the noble gases increases down the group from helium to
radon.
• The increase is related to the size of the atoms.
• The increase in atomic radius means that the electron clouds are getting bigger and
so temporary dipoles are more easily formed giving rise to stronger van der Waals
forces.
• These stronger forces are more energy is required to break
• This means that more energy is required to separate the atoms from each other
and this causes the increase in boiling points.
• Fluorine and chlorine are gases at room temperature,
bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid.
• The van der Waals forces between the individual molecules increase down the
group due to the increasing size of the atoms in the molecules.