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Periodic table and periodicity

The document provides an overview of the periodic table, detailing its structure, the classification of elements into metals and non-metals, and trends in properties across periods and groups. It discusses the unique characteristics of hydrogen and noble gases, as well as concepts such as electronegativity, ionization energy, and electron affinity. Key historical contributions to the development of the periodic table are also highlighted, including the work of Mendeleev and Pauling.

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14 views

Periodic table and periodicity

The document provides an overview of the periodic table, detailing its structure, the classification of elements into metals and non-metals, and trends in properties across periods and groups. It discusses the unique characteristics of hydrogen and noble gases, as well as concepts such as electronegativity, ionization energy, and electron affinity. Key historical contributions to the development of the periodic table are also highlighted, including the work of Mendeleev and Pauling.

Uploaded by

bankoleboluwatife204
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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CHM 101 (GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1)

PERIODIC TABLE AND PERIODICITY

1. Introduction: The most important step in developing a periodic


classification of elements was taken in 1869, when Mendeleeff studied the
relationship between the atomic weights of elements and their properties
with special emphasis on their valencies. He concluded that the properties of
elements are in periodic dependence on their atomic weights. A conclusion
that Newlands (1864) noted but never developed. Proof that one quantitative
property of atoms really was periodic was provided by Lothar Meyer in
1870.
2. The periodic table: There are 18 groups and 7 periods in the periodic table.
There are also diagonal relationships as follows

Li Be B C N

Mg Al Si P

The periodic table also comprises of four blocks, s-block (valence electrons
in the s orbital); p-block (valence electrons in the s and p orbitals); d-block
(valence electrons in the s and orbitals) and f-block (valence electrons in the
s and f orbitals). The s and p blocks are the main group elements, while the d
and f blocks are the transition elements.

3. Writing electronic configurations using the noble gases: Conventionally,


electronic configurations are written in a simplified manner using the noble
gas cores of the respective preceding periods. For example the elements in
period 4 from K to Br have their electronic configurations using the argon
core; Zn= [Ar]3d104s2 etc.
4. Position of metals and non-metals in the periodic table: Metals are
characterized by several distinctive properties e.g. high electrical and
thermal conductivities, metallic lustre, malleability and ductility. Whereas,
non-metals usually do not exhibit such behaviour. Like all generalizations in
chemistry however, the borderline between the two classes of elements is far
from rigid. Perhaps the best distinguishing feature between metals and non-

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metals is the tendency of the former to form predominantly basic oxides,
whereas, the latter favour predominantly acidic oxides. The greatest
proportion of elements of elements are classified as metals – groups 1, 2, 3,
d and f block elements. Metallic properties are more pronounced in the
lower left-hand corner of the periodic table; non-metallic properties are more
obvious in the upper right-hand corner of the table.
5. Trends across a period and down a group: There is a gradual change from
metallic to non-metallic character in passing from left to right across a
particular period:

Na2O MgO Al2O3 (SiO2)x P4O10 SO3 Cl2O7


← Basic → Amphoteric ← Acidic →
However, metallic character increases down a particular group:

N2O3 P4O6 As4O6 Sb4O6 Bi2O3


Decreasingly acidic → Amphoteric Essentially basic

6. The differences between the first and second members of a group: There
are often significant differences between the first and second members of a
group in the periodic table. For instance lithium differs more from sodium
than does sodium from potassium. The first members form many compounds
that the other heavier members don’t.
7. Valencies of elements: The main group elements generally exhibit their
group valency or 8 minus group valencies. Whereas, transition metals
exhibit variable valencies corresponding theoretically to the number of
valence electrons they possess.
8. The position of hydrogen: Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic
table and is unique in the sense that the properties of hydrogen cannot be
correlated with any of the main groups in the periodic table, and hydrogen is
best considered on its own. Hydrogen cannot be placed with the alkali
metals because it will not readily lose its only one electron. Though one
electron short from the noble gas structure it will not typically form a
negative ion by gaining an electron like the halogens (Group 17).
9. The position of the noble gases: They occupy Group 18/0, a position that
implies zero valency. The heavier members, krypton and xenon form well
established chemical compounds (especially fluorides and oxides). Helium

2
and argon have so far resisted attempts to induce them to participate in
chemical reactions. Argon, krypton and xenon are also known to form
clathrate compounds. The gases are trapped in cavities in the crystal lattice
of other compounds. Though the gases are trapped, they do not form bonds.
In an aqueous solution of quinol (1,4-dihydoxybenzene) is crystallized under
pressure of 10-40 atmospheres of Ar, Kr or Xe, the gas becomes trapped in
cavities of about 4 Å diameter in the ꞵ-quinol structure. When the clathrate
is dissolved, the hydrogen bonded arrangement of ꞵ-quinol breaks down and
the noble gas escapes. Moreover, the position they occupy in the periodic
table is interesting in that they immediately follow a very reactive non-metal
(halogen) and precede a very reactive metal (alkali metal).
10.Transition elements: Dense metals, high melting points and display of
variable valencies with marked catalytic activities. Many of their salts are
coloured both as solids and in solution. There are three rows, 1st, 2nd and 3rd
rows. The respective ten groups are called triads or congeners. The f-block
consists of the lanthanides and actinides.
11.Electronegativity: In 1931, Pauling defined the electronegativity of an atom
as the tendency of the atom to attract electrons to itself when combined in a
compound. Generally, small atoms attract electrons more strongly than
larger ones, and hence small atoms are more electronegative.

Pauling’s electronegativity coefficients

Li (1.0) Be (1.5) B (2.0) C (2.5) N (3.0) O (3.5) F (4.0)


Na (0.9) Cl (3.0)
K (0.8) Br (2.8)
Rb (0.8) I (2.5)
Cs (0.7)

Electronegativity increases across a particular period but decreases down a


particular group.

12.Ionization energy: The energy required to remove an electron completely


from an atom of an element is known as the first ionization energy. The
second ionization energy is similarly the energy needed to remove the
second electron from a singly charged ion and so on.

3
K →K+ + e- 1st I.E = 418.4 kJ/mol

K+ → K2+ + e- 2nd I.E = 3068 kJ/mol

Ionization energies are determined spectroscopically.

13.Electron Affinity: The energy released when an extra electron is added to a


neutral gaseous atom is termed the electron affinity. Generally, only one
electron is added forming a uni-negative ion. Since energy is evolved it has a
negative sign. They cannot be determined directly, but are obtained
indirectly from the Born-Haber cycle.

Cl → Cl- E.A = -348 kJ/mol

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