& Units and Measurements

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DIMENSIONS AND ERRORS
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SECTION [A]: UNITS&

1.0 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
SL

1.1 Physical Quantitles

called physical quantitles.
Allquantities which can be measured are
physics are known as physlcal quarntitles.
These are used to describe the laws ofcan be classified on the following bases :
Classification :Physical quantities quantities.
1. Based on ther directional propertles have onlymanitude but no direction are called scalar
quantities which
. Scalars : The physicalvolume,time, etc. laws of vector
e.g. mass, density,
which have both magnitude and direction and obey
quantities
II. Vectors : The physical quantities.
algebra are called vector
displacement, force, velocity,etc.
e.g. quantities for their
2. Based on their dependency
The quantities which do not depend upon other
quantities :
I. Fundamental or baseknown asfundamental or base quantities.
complete definition are are
length, mass, time, etc. be expressed in terms of
thefundamental quantities
e.g.
quantities:The quantities which can
II. Derived
known as derived quantities volume, accelaration, force, pressure, etc.
e.g. Speed (=distance/time),
Illustrations accelaration, morment of
displacement, mass, force, time, speed, velocity,
Illustration 1. Classify the quantities following categories :
intertia, pressure and work under the (b) base and vector
(a)base and scalar (d)derived and vector
(c) derived and scalar (b)displacement
(a)mass, time accelaration
Solution. (d) force, velocity,
(c) speed, pressure, work
called
Units of Physical
Quantities
multiples of which, a physical quantity is expressed is
1.2 standard of measurement in
Thechosen reference
the unit of that quantity.
taken as fundamental
System of Units :
system - In this system length, mass and time are
Engineering respectively.
1. FPS or British
base units are foot (ft), pound (b) and second (s)
quantities and their units are centimetre
2. CGS or Gaussian systemn: quantitiesare length, mass and time and their respective
fundamental
In this systerm the second (s).
(cm), gram (g) and
furndamental units are
MKS system : quantities are length, mass and time but their
3. fundamental
In this system also the and second (s) respectively.
metre (m), kilogram (kg) units: Rationalised MKS system.
International system (SI) of system and so it is also known as
4. over the MKS supplementary units are also
This system is modification of MKS system four fundamental and two
Besides the three base units
included in this system.
AND THEIR UNITS
SI BASE QUANTITIES
Physical quantity Unlt Symbol
S. No.
metre m
1 Length
2 Mass kilogram kg
second S
3 Time
kelvin K
4 Temperature
Electric curent ampere A
5
Luminous intensity candela cd
6

7 Amount of substance mole mol

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must be considered:
While defining a base unit or standard for a physical quantity the following characteristics
(i) Well defined () Invariability (constancy)
(v) Reproducibility (v) Convenience in use
(ii) Accessibility (easy availability)
1.3 Classification of Unlts
The units of physical quantities can be classified as follows:
(1) Fundamental or bae units
units.
The units of fundamentalquantities are called base units. In SI there are seven base
(11) Derlved units
the base units are called
The units of derived quantities or the units that can be expressed in terms of
derived units.

unitof distance metre

e.g. unit of speed = unit of time second

Some derived units arenamed in honour of great scientists.

e.g. unit of force -newton (N), unit of frequency - hertz (Hz), etc.
(1) Supplementary units
In SI two supplementary units are also defined viz. radian (rad) for plane angle and steradian (sr) for solid
angle.
radian : 1adian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius
of the circle.

()
arc
Plane angle = radius

steradian :1steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere, by that surface of the
sphere which is equal in area to the square of the radius of the sphere.
area
Solid angle = (radius)?

area,

radius

sphere

(iv) Practical units

Due to the fixed sizes of SI units,some practical units are also defined for both
fundamental and derived
quantities. e.g. light year (ly) is a practical unit of distance (a fundamental quantity) ard
is a practical unit of power (a horse power (hp)
derived quantity).

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system
Practical units may or may not belong to a particular system of units but can be expressed in any
of units.
e.g. 1mile = l.6 km = 1.6 x 10° m = 1.6 × 10 cm.
(v) Improper units
These are the units which are not of the same nature as that of the physical quantitles for which they are
used.
weight
e.g. kg - wt is an improper unit of weight. Here kg is a unit of mass but it is used to measure the
(force).
UNITS OF SOME PHYSICAL QUANTITIES IN DIFPERENT SYSTEMS
Type of Physical CGS MKS PPS
Physical Quantity (Originated in (Orginated in (Orgneted in
France) Prence) Brltaln)
Quantity
Length cm m
Fundamental
Mass kg b

Time
newton (N) poundal
Derived Force dyne
joule (J) ft - poundal
Work or Energy erg

Power erg's watt (W) ft -poundals

Conversion factors
factor is called
units to the other, the required mutiplication
To convert a physical quantity from one set of
conversion factor.
unit (u)
Magnitude of a physical quantity = numeric value (n) X of the quantity must rermain same. Therefore
magnitude
While conversion from one set of units to the other the
1
or nu =constant noc

is inversely proportional to the base unit.

That is the numeric value of a physical quantity
e.g. Im = 100cm = 3.28 ft = 39.4 inch
(SI) (CGS) (FPS)

1.4 Dimensions
quantities are raised to
physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which the base
Dimensions of a
represent that quantity.
Dimensonalformula how and which of the base
fomula of any physical quantity is that expression which represents
The dimensional
quantities are incuded in that quantity. brackets i.e. []
by encdosng the symbols for basequantities with appropriate powers in square
Itis writern (M°L'T-}
[ML° T°]and that of speed (= distance/time) is
e. g. Dimensional formula of mass is
Dimensional equation
equating a physical quantity with its dimensional fomula is called a dimensional
The equationobtained by
equation. e.g. [v] = (MLIT)
dimensional equation, MLT] is the dimensional formula of the force and the
For example [F] = [MLT] is a time
dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and-2 in

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Appllcattone of dimenslonal analysls

(0) To convert a physical quantity from one system of units to
the other :
This is based on a fact that maqgnitude of a physical quantity
remains sarme whatever systern is used for
measurement i.e.
magnitude = numeric value (n) X unit (u) constant n numerical value in ll systerm
n = numeriícal value inisystem
or n,u, = n,u, unit of mass in Isystem
M unit of mass in ll systerm
So if a quantity is represented by L unit of length in Isysten
[MLT] then
unitof length in II systern
T unit of tirme in Isystem
T, unit of time in lI systen

(ü) To check the dimensional correctness of a

given physical relation:
If in a given relation, the tems on both the sides
have the same dimensions, then the relation is
corect. This is known as the principle of homogeneity of dirnensionally
dimensions.
(ii) To derive relationship between
differentphysical quantities:
Using the same principle of homogeneity of dimensions new relations among
derived if the dependent quarntities are known. physical quantities can be
1.5 Limitations of this method
This method can be used only if the dependency is of
multiplication type. The fomulae containing
exponential, trignometrical and logarithmic functions can't be derived using this method. Formulae
containing more than one term which are added or subtracted like s = ut +at /2 also can't be derived.
" The relation derived frorm this method gives no infomation about
the dimensionless constants.
SETS OFQUANTITIES HAVINGSAME DIMENSIONS
S.No. Quantities Dimensions
1. Strain, refractive index, relative density, angle, solid angle, phase, ( M° L°T°)
distance gradient, relative permeability, relative permittivity, angle of contact,
Reynolds number, coefficient of friction, mechanical equivalent of heat,
electric susceptibility, etc.
2. Mass and inertia [M LO TU)
3 Momentum and impulse. [M LI T]
4 Thrust, force, weight, tension, energy gradient. ( M' L' T2]
5. Pressure, stress, Young's modulus, bulk modulus, shear modulus, [ M' L T
modulus of rigidity, energy density.
6. Angular momentum and Planck's constant (h). (M' L² T-)
7. Accelaration, gand gravitational field intensity. [M°L' T)
8. Surface tension, free surface energy (energy per unit area), force gradient, [M'L° T)
spring constant.
9. Latent heat and gravitational potential.
[M°L? T]
10. Thermal capacity, Boltzman constant, entropy. [ML? T-2K-1]
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11. Work, torque, internal energy. potentialenergy. kinetic energy, moment of (M' L2 T

AT)
force, (q/C), (LI),(qV),. (VC), (PR).(V), (PV), (KT), (mL), (me
rodioactivity. (M LO T"]
12. Frequency, angular frequency, angular velocty,velocity gradient,

(ML° TI
13.
( (T. (). (RC), (/LC), time
(ML' T
14. (VI),(T'R), (V²/R),Power

QUANTITIES
DIMENSIONSOF IMPORTANT PHYSICAL
Physlcal quantity Dimensions
Dimensions
Physical quantity
Capacitance Mi LT' A
Momentum
M'L' T-l
M L1 T2
M'L' T2 Modulus of rigidity
Calorie
Magnetic permeabillity M LITA2
MO L2 T2
Latent heat
M L2 TA2 Pressure
M' L T
Self inductance
M'L'TK-1 Planck's constant M' L² T
Coefficient of thermal conductivity
M LO T3
M' L T3 Solar constant
Power
Magnetic flux ML? T² A-!
ML'T1
Impulse
Current density MPL²TQ
M1 LO T²A1
Hole mobility in a semi conductor
M' L-1 T
ML T Young modulus
Bulk modulus of elasticity
Magnetic field intensity M°L TA'
ML? T2
Potential energy
M°L' TO
M- L3 T2 Light year
Gravitational constant
Permittivity i
M-! L TA²
Thermal resistance
M L T0

1 M' L-' T2
M! L-1 T = pemittivity
Coefficient of viscosity

ML2 TA2 of free space and E

Resistance
= electric field)

QUANTITIES
UNITSOF IMPORTANT PHYSICAL
Physical quantity Unit
Physical quantity Unit
hertz
Angular acceleration rad s2 Frequency
Resistance
kg m² A2 s
Moment of inertia kg - m²
Surface ternsion newton/m
Self inductance henry

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Magnetic flx weber Universal gns constant joule K-' mot-!
Pole strength A-m Dipole moment coulornb-meter
Viscosity polse Stefan constant watt m2 K4
Reactance ohm Permnitvity of free space coulornb?/Nm?
Specific heat JkgC
Strength of magnetic field newton A- m-! Planck's constant joule sec
Astronomical distance parsec

Illustrations
lluetraton 3. Convert 1newton (SI unit of force) into dyne (CGS unitof force)
Sotion The dimensional equation of force is (F] = (M' L' T
Therefore if n, u, and n, 4, corresponds to Sl &CGS units respectvely, then
2

nn= =1x 1000 x 100 >x = 10

.:. 1newton = 1O dyne.

Mlustration 4. Check the accuracy of the relation T = for a simple pendulum using dimensional analysis.
Sotion Thedimensions of LHS = the dimension of T = [M° LO T']

Thedimensions of RHS = dimensions of length

dimensions of acceleration (:: 2r isa dimensionless const.)

\/2

-l - (T2 = (T]= (M L° T')

Since the dimensions are same on both the sides, the relation is correct.
Mustration 5. Find relationship between speed of sound in a medium (v), the elastic constant (E) and the
density
of the medium (p).
Solution Let the speed depends upon elastic constant &density according to the relation
Vc Ep or v= KEp K=a dimensionless constant of proportionality
Considering dimensions of the quantities (v] = MOLT1
9T (forcel ML'T)

(E] = stress (areal L1 :. (E] = [M L T2a]

(strain]

" lpl= (massIvolume] = (MV[L]= [M'LT)

.:. lp] = (M L TO]
Equating the dimensions of theLHS and RHS quantities of equation (1), weget
[ML'T) (M "T](ML3 T"] or [MP L' T-]=(M+o L* T)
.:. a + b=0, -a-3b =1 and 2a= -1

1
On soing a-5.b= - so therequired relation isy= K
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BEGINNERS BOX-1
QUESTION BASED ON UNITS & DIMENSIONS
N-nk.What will be its value in CCS
1. The value of Gravitational constant G in MKS system is 6.67 x 10!"
systern ?
2. Name the smallest and largest units of length.
3. Match the type of unit (column A) with its coresponding example (column B)
(A) (B)
(a) Base unit (1) N
(b) Derived unit (ii) hp
(c) Improper unit (ii) kg - wt
(d) Practical unit (iv) rad
(e) Supplementary unit (v) kg

4. Match the following :

(i) Dimensional variable (a) TU

(iü) Dimensionless variable (b) Force

(iü) Dimensional constant () Angle

(d) Gravitational constant
(iv) Dimensionless constant
5. Find the dimensions of the following quantities :
(b) Kinetic energy (c) Pressure (d) Angular speed
(a) Temperature
6. Find the dimensions of Planck's constant (h).
speed (v) in a circle of radius (r) depends upon
7. Centripetal force (F) on a body of mass (m) moving with unifom
force using theory of dimensions.
m, vandr. Derive a formula for the centripetal

2.0 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

SL

2.1 Significant Figures or Digits

certainity plus one that
the figures or digits that are known with
The significant figures (SF) ina measurement are
is uncertain.
quantity tell the number of digits in which we have confidence.
Significant figures ina measured value ofa physical vice versa.
a measurerment, greater is its accuracy and
Larger the number of significant figures obtained in
Rules to find out the number of significant figures
e.g. 1984 has 4 SF.
IRule All the non-zero digits are significant
significant. e.g. 10806 has 5 SF.
IIRule All the zeros between two non-zero digits are
significant. e.g.O0108 has3 SF.
IIIRule Allthe zeros to the left of first non-zero digit are not
decimal point but to the left of the first
IVRule If the number is less than 1, zeros on the right of the
SF.
non-zero digit are not significant. e.g. 0.002308 has 4
in a number with a decimal point
V Rule The trailing zeros (zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit)
are significant. e.g. 01.080 has 4 SF.
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The trailing zeros in a number without adecimal point are not significant e.g. 010100 has 3SF
But if the number comes from some actual measurement then the trailing zeros become
significant. e.g. m = 100 kq has 3SF.
VIIRule : When the number is expressed in exponentialfon, the exponential ten does not affect the
number of S.F For example in x = 12.3 1.23 x 10' .123 x 10
= 0.0123 x 10 = 123 x 10 - each term has 3 SF only.
Rules for arithmeticaloperatlons with significant figures
IRule
In addition or subtraction the number of decimal places in the result should be equal to the
number of decimal places of that ten in the operation which contain lesser nurmber of decimal
places. e.g. 12.587 - 12.5 = 0.087 = 0.1 (.: second tern contain lesser i.e. one decimal
place)
II Rule In multiplication or division, the number of SF in the product or quotient is sarne as the
smallest number of SF in anyof the factors. e.g. 5.0 x 0.125 = 0.625 = 0.62

Illustrations
Illustration 6. Write down the number of significant fiqures in the following.
(a) 165 (b) 2.05 (c) 34.000m
(d) 0.005 (e) 0.02340 Nm-1 () 26900 (g) 26900 kg
Solution (a) 165 3SF (following rule I)
(b) 2.05 3SF (following rules I &II)
(c) 34.000m 5 SF (following rules I&V)
(d) 0.005 1SF (following rules I & IV)
(e) 0.02340 Nm-! 4 SF (following rules I, IV & V)
() 26900 3 SF (see rule VI)
(g) 26900 kg 5 SF (see rule VI)
Illustration 7. The length, breadth and thickness of a metal sheet are 4.234 m, 1.005 m and
2.01 cm respectively.
Give the area and volume of the sheet to conrect number of
significant figures.
Solution length (e) = 4.234 m breadth (b) = 1.005 m
thickness (t) = 2.01 cm = 2.01 x 10² m
Therefore area of the sheet = 2( >xb + bx t + tx e)
=2(4.234 × 1.005 + 1.005 x 0.0201 + 0,0201 x 4.234) m²
=8.7209478 m²
Since area can contain a max" of 3 SF (Rule Il of article 4.2) therefore, rounding off, we get
Area = 8.72 m²
Like wise volume =lx bxt
= 4.234 x 1.005 x 0.0201 m³ = 0.0855289 m
Since volume can contain 3 SF, therefore, rounding off, we get
Volume =0.0855 m3

2.2 Rounding off

To represent the result of any
computation
appropriate number of significant figures. containing more than one uncertain digit, it is rounded off to
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Rules for rounding off the numbere :
diqit is increased by one. eg
I Rule : Ifthe digit to be rounded off is more than 5, then the proceding
6.87> 6.9
preceding digót is unaffected and is let
II Rule: If the digit to be rounded off is less than 5, than the
unchanged. e.g. 3.94 3.9
one if it is odd and is left
IIRule : If the digit to be rounded off is 5 then the precedingq digit is incrensed by
unchanged if it is even.e.g. 14.35 14,4 and 14 45 144
Ex. The following values can be rounded off to four signiflcant ficquros as follows
(a) 36.879 36.88 (::9>5.7 is increased by one i.e.l Rule)
(b) 1.0084 ~1.008 (:: 4 <5.:.8is left unchanged i.e. II Rule)
(c) 11.115 s11.12 (: last 1 is odd it is increased by one i.e. IIl Rule)
(d) 11.1250 11.12 (: 2is even it is left unchanged i.e. II Rule)
(e) 11.1251 ~11.13 (': 51 > 50.. 2 is incresed by one i.e. IRule)

Order of Magnitude
2.3
represernt that quantity. This power is determined
Order of magnitude of a quantity is the power of 10 required to
off, the last digit is sirnply ignored if it is less
after rounding off the value of the quantity properly. For rounding
than 5.
than 5 and, is increased by one if it is 5 or more
determined as follows:
Ex. Order of magnitude of the following values can be
(a) 49 4.9 x 10 101
Order of magnitude = 1
(b) 51 = 5.1 X 10' = 51×102
Order of magnitude = 2
(c) 0.049 = 4.9 x 10 102
Order of magnitude = -2
(d) 0.050 = 5.0 x 1O2 =5x10-1
Order of magnitude = -1
.051 = 5.1 x 10 =51× 101
(e)
Order of magnitude =-1

2.4 Definition and Classification of Errors

measurement.
measured value of a quantity is known as the eror of
The difference between the true value and the
usuallyclassified as follows :
Errors mayarise from different sources and are
Systematic or Controllable Errors Due to the
erors are the erors whose causes are known. They can be either positive or negative.
Systematic categories :
Systematic erors can further be classified into three
known causes these errors can be minimised. manufacture or misuse of
Instrumental erors :- These erors are due to imperfect design or eroneous
(1
by using more accurate instruments.
the measuring instrument. These can be reduced body,
Imferfect technique and Environmental errors :-To detemine the temperature of a human
(i) temperature lower than the actual value of the
a thenometer placed under the ampit will always give a
changes in extermal environmental conditions
body themperature. Environmental erors are due to the
magnetic and electrostatic fields.
such as temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or
due to improper settingof the apparatus
(i1) Observational errorsor personal errors :-These enors arise
or carelessness in taking observations.

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temperature, voltage etc. Personal

ios are due to unknown causes like unpredicatable fluctuations in in magnitude
unolased) erors by the observer taking readings etc. Therefore they occur iregularty and are varlable
be eliminated completely. For
aid sign. Since the causes of these errors ane not known precisely they can notconditions, he may get different
GAanple, when the same person repeats the same observatlon in the sarme
readings at different times.
times and taking the arithmetic
handom erros can be reduced by repeating the observaton to a large number of reading.
mean of all the obervations. This mean value would be veryclose to the most accurate

Note :- If the number of observations is made n times then the random eror reduces to times.

'x' then the random error in the

Example :- If the random emor in the arithmetic mean of 100observations is
X
arithmetic mean of 500 observations will be
5
instruments or
Gross Errors: Gross errors arise due to human carelessness and mistakes in readingthe
calculating and recording the measurement results.
For example :
) Reading instrument without proper initial settings.
(1) Taking the observations wrongy without taking necessary precautions.
(iü) Exhibiting mistakes in recording the observations.
(iv) Putting improper values of the observations in calculations.
These errors can be minimised by increasing the sincerity and alertrness of the observer.
2.5 Representation of Errors
Erors can be expressed in the following ways :
of thequantity
Absolute Error (Aa): The difference between the true value and the individual measured value
is called the absolute emor of the measurement.
arithmetic
Suppose a physical quantity is measured n times and the measured values are a,,a,, a, ....a,. The
mean (a_)m of these values is
n
aj + a, +ag t............ .a, ...(1)
am
taken as the true value. Then the
If the true value of the quantity is not given then mean value (a ) can be
m

absolute erors in the individual measured values are

Aa, = a, - a, A

Aa, = an -a,
absolute error (Aa),,m or Aa of the
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is defined as the final or mean
value of the physical quantity a

(Aa) = ...2)
n

Soif the measured value of aquantity be 'a' and the eror in measurement be Aa, then the true value (a) can be
written as
a, =a t Aa ...(3)
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thetrue
(Aa or sa)to
Relattve or Fractlonal Error : It is defined as the ratio of the mean absolute error
value or the mean value (a, or ) of the quantity mensured.
Mean absolute error(Aa) Aa
..(4)
Relative or fractional eror = Mean value
When the relative error is expressed in percentage, it is known as percentage error,
percentage eror = relative eror x 100

mean absolute error hax 100% ...5)

-x 100%
or percentage eror true value a

Operations
2.6 Propagation of Errors in Mathematical
quantities is equal to the sum of the
Rule I: The maximum absolute eror in the sum or difference of the two
absolute emors in the individual quantities.
absolute errors in Aand B respectively, then
IfX =A + B or X=A-Band if t 4A and t 4B represent the
the maximum absolute eror in X= X= A+ 4B and

...(6)
Maximum percentage error = 100
(in tens of absolute error)
The result willbe written as (X +AX)

or
x100%) (in tems of percentage enror)
X
the product or division of quantities is equal to the sum of
Rule II:The maximum fractional or relative eror in
quantities.
the fractional or relative erors in the individual
X= AX B X = AB

...(7)
then

to apower(n) is n times the fractional error in

the
quantity raised
Rule III:The maximum fractional eror in a
quantity itself, i.e.
...(8)
X = Ar then

AX
If X = APBA C then X

APB9
If X= then
Cr
enor is small.)
(Rule II& III are applicable only when percentage

Illustrations
while measuring the length of a cylinder.
Illustration 8. Following observations were taken with a vernier callipers
3.28 cm, 3.29 cm, 3.31 cm,
3.29 cm,
3.27 cm, 3.29 cm, 3.30 cm
3.28 cm,
Then find
(a) Most accurate length of the cylinder. (b) Absolute error in each observation.
(c) Mean absolute error (d) Relative eror (e) Percentage eror
Express the result in terms of absolute error and percentage error.

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Soution a) Most accurate length ofthe cylinder will bethe mean length

+3.29 + 3.30
7- 3.29+3.28+3.29 +3.31+3.28+3.27

= 3.28875 cm or =3.29 cm
=3.29-3.29 = 0.00cm
(b) Absolute error in the first reading
=3.29 -3.28 = 0.01 cm
Absolute eror in the second reading
Absolute eror in the third reading = 3.29 -3.29 = 0.00cm
=3.39 -3.31 = 0.08 cm
Absolute eror in the forth reading
=3.29 -3.28 = 0.01cmn
Absolute error in the fifth reading
= 3.29 -3.27 = 0.02 cm
Absolute eror in the sixth reading
=3.29 -3.29 = 0.00 cmn
Absolute emor in the seventh reading
= 3.29 --3.30 = 0.01 cm
Absolute error in the last reading
0.02+0.00+0.01
A00+0.01+0.00+ 0.02 +0.01+
(c) Mean absolute emor =
= 0.01 cm

0.01 =0.0030395 = 0.003

(d) Relative eror inlength=
3.29

(e) Percentage error = zX 100 = 0.003 x 100 = 0.3%

So length l=3.29 cm +0.01 cm (in tems of absolute eror )

or l=3.29 cm +0.30% (in tems percentageeror)
Illustration 9. The inital and final temperatures of water as recorded by an observer are (40.6 t 0.2)°C and
(78.3 + 0.3)°C. Calculate the rise in ternperature with proper eror limits.
Solution Given 0, = (40.6 + 0.2)°C and , = (78.3 ± 0.3)°C

Rise in temp. = 0, - 0, = 78.3 40.6 =37.7°C.

A0 = t(A0, + 40,) = +(0.2 + 0.3) = +0.5°C

.. rise in temperature = (37.7 ± 0.5)°C
Calculate area of the
Illustration 10. The length and breadth of arectangle are (5.7 t 0.1)cm and (3.4 t 0.2) cm.
rectangle with eror limits.
Soution Given l= (5.7 +0.1) cm and b = (3.4 ± 0.2) cm
Area A= ex b= 5.7 x 3.4 = 19.38 cm²

AA 1.48
A - - 7* 3.4 |=19.38

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CAREER INSTTTUTE
Physical World & Units and Measurements
1.48
or AA = t xA-t 1,48 -x 19.38 -t1.48
19.38 19.38

Area = (19.38 ± 1.48) sq. cm

llustration 11. Abody travels unifomly a distance (13.8 + 0.2) m in a time (4.0 +0.3) s. Calculate its velocity
with error limits. What is the percentage error in velocity?
Solution Given distance s = (13.8 + 0.2) m and time t (4.0 + 0.3) s

velocity v==13.8 = 3.45 ms-! 3.5 ms!

4.0

4.94 - 0.0895
+
13.8x 4.0

or Av = t0.0895 X y= 0.0895 x 3.45 = t0.3087 = +0.31

V= (3.5 + 0.31) ms-!

Av
percentage error in velocity = X 100 = +0.0895 x 100 = + 8.95%

= t9%

by 2% when heated from T, to T,. If a copper cube

Illustration 12. Athin copper wire of length L increase in length change in
having side 10 L is heated from T, to T, what will be the percentage
and.
(i) area of one face of the cube
(i) volume of the cube.
Solution (i) Area A =10LX 10L= 100 L?.
4A AL
X 100 =2x x 100
Percentage change in area A
=2 x 2% = 4%

A100
(:
AA
A 100 2-02-2
Note :- Constants do not have any error in them.
1000L3
(ü) Volume V = 10 L× 10L× 10L=
AV =3x 2% = 6%
x 100=3
percentage change in volume = V
the least
be observed in volume, lesser in area and
Conclusion - The maximum percentage change will
(minimum)change will be observed in length or radius.
BEGINNERS BOX-2
QUESTION BASED ON ERRORS & SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1. Write the following in scientific notation :
(a) 3256 g (b).0010 g (c) 50000 g (5 SF) (d) 0.3204

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JEE-Physics ALLEN
CARERINSTTUT

Give the number of slgnificant fiqures in the following:

(a) 0.165 (b)4.0026 (c) 0.0256 (d) 165
(e) 0.050 () 2.653 x 10 (g) 6.02 x 102 (h) 0.0006032
3.
Calculate area enclosed byacicle of diameter 1.06 mto correct number of significant figures.
Subtract 2.5 x 10 from 3.9 x 10 andgive the answer to correct number of significant figures.
5.
Lhe mass of a box measured by a grocer's balance is 2.3 kg. Two gold pleces of masses 20.15 g and
2017 gare added to the box. What is (a) total mass of the box (b) the difference in masses of gold pleces to
comect significant figures.
6. Round off the following numbers as indicated:
(a) 25.653 to 3 digits (b) 4.996 x 10 to 3 digits (c) 0.6995 to ldigit
(d) 3.350 to 2 digits (e) 0.03927 kg to 3 digits () 4.085 x 10 s to 3 digits
7. Give the order of the following
(a) 1 (b) 1000
(c) 499 (d)500
(e) 501 () 1 AU (1.496 x 10m)
(g) 1Å(10-10 m) (h)Speed of light (3.00 x 108 m/s)
(1) Gravitational constant (6.67 x 10-11 N m/kg') (6) Avogadro constant (6.02 x 10 mol- )
(k) Planck's constant (6.63 x 104 Js) (|) Charge on electron (1.60 x 10-19 C)
(m) Radius of H- atom (5.29 x 10 -11 m)
(n) Atmospheric presure (1.01 x 10 Pa)
(o) Mass of earth (5.98 x 104 kg) (p) Mean radius of earth (6.37 x 10 m)

8 Two rods have lengths measured as (1.8 + 0.2)m and (2.3 + 0.1)m. Calculate their combined length with error
limits.
9
The original length of wire is (153.7 + 0.6)cm.It is stretched to (155.3 + 0.2) cm. Calculate the elongation
in the wire with error limits.

10. The radius of a sphere is measured to be (2.1 + 0.5) cm. Calculate its surface area with absolute eror limits.
11. Aphysical quantity xis calculated from the relation x=abfcd .Calculate percentage error in x, if a, b, cand
d are measured respectively with an eror of 1%, 3%, 4% and 2%.

SECTION B]: VECTORS

Precise description of laws of physics and physical phenomena requires expressing them in fom of mathematical
equations. In doing so we encounter several physical quantities, some of them have only magnitude and other !
have direction in addition to magnitude. Quantities of the former kind are refered as scalars and the latter as
vectors and mathematical operations with vectors are collectively known as vector analysis.
3.0 VECTORS
Avectorhas both magnitude and sense of direction, and follows triangle law of vector addition.
For example, displacement, velocity, and force are vectors.
Vector quantities are usually denoted by putting an arrow over the corresponding letter, as A or . Sometimes
in print work (books) vector quantities are usuallydenoted by boldface letters as A or a.
Magnitude of a vector A is a positive scalar and written as Aor A.

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