‫ميحرلا نمحرلا هللا‬ ‫بسم‬

Artificial Intelligence Program

Signals and Systems
‫االشارات والنظم‬
Course Code : CCE121

Lec 1
 What is a Signal?

 A signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with time or any
other independent variables..

 It can also be defined simply as a quantity that we can measure over a

period of time.

 This quantity usually changes with time and that is what makes it
interesting. Signals of interest can include sound, images, time-varying
measurement values and sensor data, for example control system signals,
telecommunication transmission signals such as radio signals, voltage and
current, pressure, fluid level, temperature, and any others.
 What is a System?

 A system is defined as a physical device in which physical components are

connected by one of some regular forms to perform an operation on a
signal.

 The system has an input (one or more) that responses to it in order to

produce an output (one or more).

 In terms of engineering, the input is generally some electrical signal R, and

the output is another electrical signal Y.

Input Output
System
R Y
 What is Signal Processing?

 Signal Processing is afield of engineering that concerns with

signals (either discrete time or continuous time) and the processes

performed on these signals using systems.

 It performs operations on digital data like: amplification,

attenuation, filtering, spectral analysis, feature extraction etc.

 Types of Signal Processing

(1) Analog Signal Processing

 In such type of signal processing the input signal, the output signal
and the system are all analog in nature.
Analog System

An Example of Analog Signal Processing

 Types of Signal Processing

(2) Digital Signal Processing

 In such type of signal processing the input signal, the output signal

and the system are all digital in nature.

 The computer performs any operation digitally; hence it is

considered a digital signal processor or digital system.

 Types of Signal Processing

 EX:
For the following example ,the input signal is a noisy fingerprint image,
and the output is filtered or noiseless fingerprint image. The filtering
operation is done by the digital signal processor or the computer.

Digital System

An Example of Digital Signal Processing

 Basic Elements in Digital Signal Processing

2
1 3
Digital Signal Processor
A/D / Digital System D/A

Analog Digital Analog

I/P I/P Digital
O/P O/P
Signal Signal Signal
Signal
 Basic Elements in DSP Systems

 A/D ( Analog to digital converter) : Converts analog input to digital input.

 Digital Signal Processor or Digital System : it performs operations on

digital data like amplification, attenuation, filtering, spectral analysis, feature
extraction etc. , the output signal of digital signal processor is called
processed signal.

 D/A (digital to Analog converter) : Some of the processed Signals are

required back in their analog form. For example, sound, image and video
signals are required in analog form. The D/A converter converts digital
output of DSP processor to its analog equivalent.
Continuous-time and Discrete
Time Signals
 the discrete time signals are obtained by sampling the continuous time signals through
samplers (or A/D converters).
𝑥(𝑛𝑇)
𝑥(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡) 𝒙∗ (𝒕)
1
T = 𝑓 sec
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥 ∗ (𝑡)

0 𝑡 Sampler 𝑛𝑇
0 𝑇 2𝑇 3𝑇 4𝑇 5𝑇 6𝑇 … …
(A/D converter)
Continuous-time Signal Discrete-time Signal

 The sampling instants are normally represented by 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇, thus the sampled signal (or

discrete-time signal) 𝑥 ∗ 𝑡 becomes a series of samples 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 . where 𝑇 is the sampling

time in second, 𝑛 is an integer number refers to the sample number (𝑛= 0, 1 , 2 , 3 ,

.......) and 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 = 𝑥 𝑡 .
𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇
 by assuming the sampling time 𝑇 = 1 sec, the samples of the discrete time signal

becomes 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 , where 𝑛 = 0, 1 , 2 , 3 , ........ .

𝑡=𝑛

𝑥(𝑛)
𝑥(𝑡)
𝒙∗ (𝒕)
T = 1 sec

𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥 ∗ (𝑡)

0 𝑡 Sampler 𝑛
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ……
(A/D converter)

 For simplification, we will assume 𝑇 = 1 sec for all discrete signals in our course.
Standard Continuous-time and
Discrete Time Signals
1- Unit impulse Signal (continuous-time form)

 The unit sample signal is defined as:

1 , 𝑡=0
𝛿 𝑡 =
0 , 𝑡≠0

𝛿(𝑡)

… … −3 −2 −1 𝑡
0 1 2 3 4 5 ……
1- Unit impulse Signal (discrete-time form)

 The unit sample sequence is defined as:

1 , 𝑛=0 𝛿(𝑛)
𝛿 𝑛 =
0 , 𝑛≠0
In the sequence form, it can be represented as:
1
𝛿 𝑛 = …….0 ,0 ,1 ,0 ,0 ,0 ……
𝑛
… … −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 ……
• The arrow refers to the 0th sample, i.e., the sample
value at n = 0.
• In the absent of arrow, the first sample is considered
as the 0th sample. So, the above sequence can be
represented simply as 𝛿 𝑛 = 1 .
2- Unit Step Signal (continuous-time form)

 The unit step signal is defined as:

1 , 𝑡≥0
𝑢 𝑡 =
0 , 𝑡<0

𝑢(𝑡)

𝑡
… … −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 ……
2- Unit Step Signal (discrete-time form)

 The unit step sequence is defined as: 𝑢(𝑛)

1 , 𝑛≥0 1
𝑢 𝑛 = ……
0 , 𝑛<0
… … −3 −2 −1 0 1
𝑛
2 3 4 5 ……
In the sequence form, it can be represented as:

𝑢 𝑛 = …….0 ,0 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,1 ……

• AS we mention before, in the absent of arrow,

the first sample is considered as the 0th sample.

3- Unit Ramp Signal (continuous-time form)

 The unit ramp signal is defined as:

𝑡 , 𝑡≥0
𝑢𝑟 𝑡 =
0 , 𝑛<0

𝑢𝑟 𝑛

𝑡
… … −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 ……
3- Unit Ramp Signal (discrete-time form)

 The unit ramp sequence is defined as:

𝑛 , 𝑛≥0
𝑢𝑟 𝑛 =
0 , 𝑛<0
In the sequence form, it can be represented as:
𝑢𝑟 𝑛 = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 … …

5
𝑢𝑟 𝑛
4
3
2
1 ……
𝑛
… … −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 ……
4- Exponential Signal (continuous-time form)

 The exponential signal is defined as:

𝑎𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑥 𝑡 =
0 ,𝑡 < 0

𝑥 𝑡 𝑥(𝑡)

1
1
… … −3 −2 −1 0 1
𝑡 𝑡
2 3 4 5 …… … … −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 ……

0<a<1 a>1
4- Exponential Signal (discrete-time form)

 The exponential sequence is defined as:

𝑎𝑛 , 𝑛≥0
𝑥 𝑛 =
0 , 𝑛<0
In the sequence form, it can be represented as:
𝑢𝑟 𝑛 = 1 , 𝑎 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3, 𝑎4 … … …

𝑎5
𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑎4
1 𝑎3
a 𝑎2 𝑎2
𝑎3 a
𝑎4 1 ……
…… 𝑛
… … −3 −2 −1 0 1 …… … … −3−2 −1 0
𝑛
2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 ……
a>1
0<a<1
Basic Operations on Continuous-
time or Discrete-time Signals
 Continuous-time System

 The continuous-time system performs some prescribed operations

on the continuous-time signal.

𝒙(𝒕) 𝒚(𝒕)
T
continuous input continuous output
signal continuous-time signal (response)
system

The above continuous-time system can be represented as:

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑻 [𝒙 𝒕 ]
Where T refers to the transformation operations applied by the continuous-
time system over the input 𝑥 𝑡 to produce the output 𝑦(𝑡) .
 Discrete-time System

 The discrete time system is a device or algorithm that performs

some prescribed operations on the discrete time signal.

𝒙(𝒏) 𝒚(𝒏)
T
Discrete input Discrete output
signal Discrete-time signal (response)
system

The above discrete time system can be represented as:

𝒚 𝒏 = 𝑻 [𝒙 𝒏 ]
Where T refers to the transformation operations applied by the discrete-time
system over the input 𝑥 𝑛 to produce the output 𝑦(𝑛) .
 Basic Operations Performed by Continuous-time or
Discrete-time Systems

 The following operations may be performed on continuous-time or

discrete-time input signals:

1. Folding operation (reflection operation)

2. Shifting operation (delay or advance)

3. Addition operation

4. Scaling operation (multiplication operation)

Example 1:

 Consider a signal 𝑥 t , that is defined as:

1 , 0≤𝑡<1
𝑥 𝑡 = −𝑡 + 2 , 1≤𝑡≤2
0 , 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

sketch the following signals:

• 𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡

• 𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 2

• 𝑦3 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 2

• 𝑦4 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 𝑡 − 1

• 𝑦5 𝑡 = 2𝑥 𝑡
 𝑥 𝑡

1 , 0≤𝑡<1
𝑥 𝑡 = −𝑡 + 2 , 1≤𝑡≤2 1
0 , 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

𝑡
−2 −1 0 1 2

 𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 (Folding operation)
𝑦1 𝑡
Solution

0
𝑡
−2 −1 1 2

 The signal 𝑥 −𝑡 is the reflection of 𝑥 𝑡 at 𝑡 = 0

 𝑥 𝑡

𝑡
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

 𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 2 (Delay operation)

Solution 𝑦2 𝑡

𝑡
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

 The signal 𝑥 𝑡 − 2 can be obtained by shifting 𝑥 𝑡 to right by 2 − time units.

 𝑥 𝑡

𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

 𝑦3 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 2 (Advance operation)

Solution 𝑦2 𝑡

𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

 The signal 𝑥 𝑡 + 2 can be obtained by shifting 𝑥 𝑡 to left by 2 − time units.

 𝑥 𝑡
 𝑦4 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 𝑡 − 1
(Addition operation) 1

𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
𝑥 𝑡−1
1

𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

Solution 𝑦4 𝑡
2

𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
 𝑦5 𝑡 = 2 𝑥 𝑡
𝑥 𝑡
(Scaling operation)
1

𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

Solution

𝑦5 𝑡
2

𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Example 2:

 Consider a signal 𝑥 t , that is defined as:

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 + 2 + 2 𝑢 𝑡 + 1 − 2 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 2)

sketch this signals.

Solution 𝑥 𝑡

𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Example 3:

 Consider the sequence 𝑥 n = 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , sketch and write in

the sequence form the following operations:

• 𝑦1 𝑛 = 𝑥 −𝑛

• 𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 − 1

• 𝑦3 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 1

• 𝑦4 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑥 𝑛 + 1

• 𝑦5 𝑛 = 2𝑥 𝑛
 Note that
 𝑦1 𝑛 = 𝑥 −𝑛 (Folding operation) 𝑥 n = 1 ,1 ,1 ,1
𝑥 0 =1
Solution 𝑥 1 =1
𝑥 2 =1
The sequence form is 𝑦1 𝑛 = 1 , 1 , 1, 1 𝑥 3 =1

𝑥 𝑛 𝑦1 𝑛

1 1

𝑛 𝑛
… … −3−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 …… … … −3−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 … …

 The sequence 𝑥 −𝑛 is the reflection of 𝑥 𝑛 at 𝑛 = 0

 Note that
 𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 (Delay operation) 𝑥 n = 1 ,1 ,1 ,1
𝑥 0 =1
Solution 𝑥 1 =1
𝑥 2 =1
The sequence form is 𝑦2 𝑛 = 0 , 1 , 1 , 1, 1 𝑥 3 =1

𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦2 𝑛
Delay by 1 sample

1 1

𝑛 𝑛
… … −3−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 …… … … −3−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5… …

 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 can be obtained by shifting 𝑥 𝑛 to right by one sample.

 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑘 can be obtained by shifting 𝑥 𝑛 to right by 𝑘 sample.
 Note that
 𝑦3 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 1 (Advance operation) 𝑥 n = 1 ,1 ,1 ,1
𝑥 0 =1
Solution 𝑥 1 =1
𝑥 2 =1
The sequence form is 𝑦3 𝑛 = 1 , 1 , 1, 1 𝑥 3 =1

𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑦3 𝑛
Advance by 1 sample
1
1

𝑛 𝑛
… … −3−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5… … … … −3−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5… …

 𝑥 𝑛 + 1 can be obtained by shifting 𝑥 𝑛 to left by one sample.

 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑘 can be obtained by shifting 𝑥 𝑛 to left by 𝑘 samples.
 𝑦4 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑥 𝑛 + 1 (Addition operation)
Solution

The sequence form is 𝑦4 𝑛 = 1 , 1 , 2 , 2, 1, 1

𝑥 𝑛−1
1

… … −3−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 … … 𝑛

𝑦4 𝑛 2

𝑥 𝑛+1
1 1

𝑛 𝑛
… … −3−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 … … … … −3−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 … …
  𝑦5 𝑛 = 2 𝑥 𝑛 (Scaling operation)

Solution

The sequence form is 𝑦5 𝑛 = 2 , 2 , 2 , 2

𝑥 𝑛 𝑦5 𝑛

2
1

𝑛 … … −3−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 … …
𝑛
… … −3−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 ……
 Example 4:
 Sketch and write in the sequence form the signal y(n),
where: 𝑦 𝑛 = 3𝛿 𝑛 + 2𝛿 𝑛 − 1 − 𝛿(𝑛 − 2)
Solution
𝑛 =0  : 𝑦 0 = 3𝛿 0 + 2𝛿 −1 − 𝛿 −2 = 3
𝑛 =1  : 𝑦 1 = 3𝛿 1 + 2𝛿 0 − 𝛿 −1 = 2
𝑛 =2  : 𝑦 2 = 3𝛿 2 + 2𝛿 1 − 𝛿 0 = −1
𝑛 =3  : 𝑦 3 = 3𝛿 3 + 2𝛿 2 − 𝛿 1 =0 +ve values of 𝑛
𝑛 =4  : 𝑦 4 = 3𝛿 4 + 2𝛿 3 − 𝛿 2 =0
. .
. .
. .
𝑛=∞ : 𝑦 ∞ =0
𝑛=−1 : 𝑦 −1 = 3𝛿 −1 + 2𝛿 −2 − 𝛿 −3 = 0
𝑛=−2 : 𝑦 −2 = 3𝛿 −2 + 2𝛿 −3 − 𝛿 −4 = 0
𝑛=−3 : 𝑦 −3 = 3𝛿 −3 + 2𝛿 −4 − 𝛿 −5 = 0
. . − ve values of 𝑛
. .
. .
𝑛=∞ : 𝑦 ∞ =0
 The sequence form of y(n) is

𝑦 𝑛 = 3 , 2 , −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 𝑛 = 3 , 2 , −1

𝑦(𝑛)
3
2

2
𝑛
… … −3−2 −1 0 1 3 4 5 ……

-1
Example 5:

 Consider the sequence 𝑥 n = 2 , −1 , 1 , 0 , 2 , 1 , sketch and

write in the sequence form the following operations:

1) First fold 𝑥 𝑛 and then delay the resulting signal by 4 samples.

2) First delay 𝑥 𝑛 by 4 samples and then fold the resulting signal.

3) Write the mathematical expression that represents each one of

the above operations.

  𝑥 n = 2 , −1 , 1 , 0 , 2 , 1

1) First fold 𝑥 𝑛 and then delay the resulting signal by 4 samples.

Solution 𝑥 𝑛
2 2 The result in a sequence form is
1
1 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥 −(𝑛 − 4) = 0 , 1 , 2 , 0, 1 , −1 , 2

−1
𝑛
… … −3 −2 0 1 2 3 4 5… …

1 −1

Folding 𝑥 −𝑛 2 𝑥 −(𝑛 − 4) = 𝑥 −𝑛 + 4
2 2 2 2
1 1 Delay by 4 samples 1 1

1 5
𝑛… … …… 𝑛
… … −3−2−1 0 2 3 4 5…… −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 6 7 8

−1 −1
  𝑥 n = 2 , −1 , 1 , 0 , 2 , 1

2) First delay 𝑥 𝑛 by 4 samples and then fold the resulting signal.

Solution 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−4
2 2 1 2
2
1 Delay by 4 samples 1
1 1

−1 3
𝑛 𝑛
… … −3 −2 0 1 2 3 4 5 …… … … −2 −1 0 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 ……

−1 2 −1
𝑥 −𝑛 − 4 = 𝑥(− 𝑛 + 4 )
Folding 2 2
1 1

−3
The result in a sequence form is 𝑛 …… 𝑛
−8 −7 −6−5 −4 −2 −1 0 1 2… …
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥 −𝑛 − 4 = 1 , 2 , 0, 1 , −1 , 2 , 0 , 0
−1
Example 6:

 Consider the signal 𝑥 t that is defined as :

1 , −1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2
𝑥 𝑡 =
0 , 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

sketch the following signal:

• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 − 2
Solution • 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 − 2 = 𝑥(− 𝑡 + 2 )

1 fold first
𝑥 𝑡
1
2 Then, advance by 2 − time units

𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
𝑥 −𝑡
1

𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 − 2 = 𝑥(− 𝑡 + 2 )
1

𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
 • 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 − 2
Another Solution
1 delay first 2 − time units
𝑥 𝑡
2 Then, fold
1

𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
𝑥 𝑡−2
1
1

𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 − 2
1

2
𝑡
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Example 7:

 Consider the sequence 𝑥 n = 2 , 1 , 1 , 1 , −1 , −1 , −2 , write in

the sequence form the following operations:

1) 𝑥 −𝑛

2) 𝑥 −𝑛 + 2

3) 𝑥 −𝑛 − 2
Solution
The results in a sequence form are 𝑥 n = 2 , 1 , 1 , 1 , −1 , −1 , −2

1) 𝑥 −𝑛 = −2 , −1 , −1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 2

2) 𝑥 −𝑛 + 2 = 𝑥 −(𝑛 − 2) = −2 , −1 , −1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 2

1 fold first 𝑥 −𝑛 = −2 , −1 , −1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 2

2 Then, delay by 2 samples 𝑥 −(𝑛 − 2) = −2 , −1 , −1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 2

3) 𝑥 −𝑛 − 2 = 𝑥 −(𝑛 + 2) = −2 , −1 , −1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 2

1 fold first 𝑥 −𝑛 = −2 , −1 , −1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 2

2 Then, advance by 2 samples 𝑥 −(𝑛 + 2) = −2 , −1 , −1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 2

Another Solution
𝑥 n = 2 , 1 , 1 , 1 , −1 , −1 , −2
The results in a sequence form are

1) 𝑥 −𝑛 = −2 , −1 , −1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 2

2) 𝑥 −𝑛 + 2
1 Advance first by 2 samples 𝑥 𝑛 + 2 = 2 , 1 , 1 , 1 , −1 , −1 , −2

2 Then, fold 𝑥 −𝑛 + 2 = −2 , −1 , −1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 2

3) 𝑥 −𝑛 − 2

1 Delay first by 2 samples 𝑥 𝑛 − 2 = 2 , 1 , 1 , 1 , −1 , −1 , −2

2 Then, fold 𝑥 −𝑛 − 2 = −2 , −1 , −1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 2