PHYSICAL

SCIENCES
GRADE 12
(Rates of Chemical
Reactions)
 Mechanism of Reaction
and
Factors Affecting Reaction
Rate

LESSON 1 & 2
 Putting Things to Perspective

Combined with
Face-to-Face
Lessons at the
centre

FOCUS WEEK :
Sunday:
PAPER 2

Saturday: 10/05/2025
Wednesday: 30/04/2025:
Chemical Equilibrium
Assessment 3

Friday: 02/05/2025 Thursday: 01/05/2025

Rates and extent of Rates and extent
Reactions Reactions
3
 Weighting of prescribed content (GR.12)

Paper Content Marks Total Duration Weighting of Questions Across

Marks/ (Hours) Cognitive Levels
Paper Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
Mechanics 63
Waves, Sound &
Light 17
PAPER1: 150 3 15% 35% 40% 10%
Electricity &
PHYSICS 55
Magnetism
FOCUS
Matter and
15
Materials
Chemical Change
84
PAPER 2:
Chemical Systems
CHEMISTRY 18 150 3 15% 40% 35% 10%
FOCUS
Matter & Materials
48
 Exam Guidelines: Chemical Change
CHEMICAL CHANGE is examined in Paper 2 (3 hr)
EXAM WEIGHTING
• 92 marks out of 150
– i.e. 61% of the paper.
EXAMINABLE MATERIALS
• Stoichiometry (Chemical Change I)
• Representing Chemical Change; Quantitative Aspects (Gr 10/11)
• Energy and Change (Chemical Change II)
• Energy and Change (Gr 11);
• Rates of Reaction;
• Chem. Equilibrium
• Acids and Bases (Chemical Change III)
• Acid-base reactions
• Electrochemistry (Chemical Change IV)
• Electrolytic & Galvanic Cells; Electrode Potentials, Redox
Reactions
This section must be read in conjecture with the CAPS pg 123 -124
RATE AND EXTENT OF REACTION
THE MECHANISM OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
 THE MECHANISM OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Key Concepts:

From Grade 11 – Chemical Change:

Energy and Chemical Change

• Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
• Activation Energy

In Grade 12 – Chemical Change:

Rate & Extent of Reaction

• Rates of Reaction
• Factors Affecting Rates
• Reaction Mechanism
• Measuring Reaction & Exercises
 What learners must Know: ( In accordance with CAPS)

Energy and Change

Energy changes in reactions
related to bond energy
Classify (with reason) changes Define heat of reaction
reactions as exothermic (ΔH) as the energy
or endothermic. absorbed or released in a
chemical reaction.

Define endothermic Define exothermic

reactions as reactions reactions as reactions that
that absorb energy. release energy.
 What learners must Know: ( In accordance with CAPS)

Exothermic
and
Endothermic
reactions
State that ΔH > 0 for
State that ΔH < 0 for endothermic reactions,
exothermic reactions, i.e. reactions in which
i.e. reactions in which energy is absorbed.
energy is released.

Define exothermic Define endothermic

reactions as reactions reactions as reactions
that release energy. that absorb energy.
 What learners must Know: ( In accordance with CAPS)

Activation energy

Draw or interpret fully labelled Define activation energy as

sketch graphs (potential energy the minimum energy
vs. course of reaction) of needed for a reaction to
take place.
catalysed and uncatalysed
endothermic and exothermic
reactions

Define an activated complex

as the unstable transition
state from reactants to
products.
 What learners must Know: ( In accordance with CAPS)

Rate and Extent of

Reaction
Rates of reaction and factors
affecting rate
Explain in terms of the collision
theory how the various factors
affect the rate of chemical Define reaction rate as the
reactions. change in concentration of
The collision theory is a model reactants or products per unit
that explains reaction rate as time.
the result of particles colliding
with a certain minimum energy
to form products.

List the factors that affect the

rate of chemical reactions, i.e. Calculate reaction rate from given
Questions may also include
nature of reacting substances, data. Rate = ∆c (Unit: mol∙dm-3∙s-1)
calculations of rate in terms of
surface area, concentration, ∆t
change in mass/volume/moles per
pressure for gases, temperature unit time.
and the presence of a catalyst.
What learners must Know: ( In accordance with CAPS)

Measuring rates of reaction

Answer questions and interpret data (tables or

graphs) on different experimental techniques for
measuring the rate of a given reaction.
 What learners must Know: ( In accordance with CAPS)

Mechanism of reaction
and of catalysis

Use a graph showing the

distribution of molecular energies Define the term (positive)
(number of particles against their catalyst as a substance that
kinetic energy) to explain why only increases the rate of a chemical
some molecules have enough reaction without itself
energy to react, and hence how undergoing a permanent change
adding a catalyst and heating the
reactants affects the rate.

Explain that a catalyst increases the

rate of a reaction by providing an Interpret graphs of distribution of
alternative path of lower activation molecular energies (number of particles
energy. It therefore decreases the net against their kinetic energy also known
activation energy. as Maxwell-Boltzmann curves) to
explain how a catalyst, temperature and
concentration affect rate.
 PART 1: THE MECHANISM OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

The steps that atoms go through

On the microscopic level a
as their arrangement change
number of steps are essential
from reactants to products are
before a reaction will occur.
known as the MECHANISM of
the reaction.

The model used to explain

reaction mechanism is THE
COLLISION THEORY.
 THE COLLISION THEORY

Kinetic theory
All materials consist of small particles (atoms, molecules, ions) that are in
continuous random motion. Particles collide with each other and the
sides of the container.

Collision theory

According to the collision theory a reaction will take place only if the
following three requirements are met:
1. Reacting molecules have to collide (effectively) with each other.
2. Reacting molecules have to collide with sufficient energy.
3. Reacting molecules have to collide with the correct orientation so that
rearrangement of atoms can take place.
 THE COLLISION THEORY

• Reacting atoms, molecules or ions must collide with each other.

• The particles must have sufficient kinetic energy and must be oriented
correctly.
• Bonds in the original molecules must break and new bonds must form.
• Electrons must be re-arranged in order to form new bonds.

18
 Collisions

Amount of energy and orientation of colliding particles leads to

some collisions being effective and others not.

19
 Effective Collisions

• Collisions on their own are therefore not enough for a reaction to take
place.
• Only effective collisions i.e. collisions during which particles have
enough energy, as well as the correct orientation, will lead to a
reaction.

• The rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to the

frequency of effective collisions which the reacting molecules
undergo. The word effective is important here.

Effective collisions

Effective collisions are collisions between molecules with a certain

required orientation, and with sufficient energy.
Effective Collisions
Collisions must be effective.
✓ Particles must have enough kinetic energy to meet activation
energy.

✓ Particles must have the correct orientation.

21
 THE MECHANISM OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Consider the arrangement of symbols which represents a chemical

reaction, with AB and CD the reactants (reagents) and AC and BD
the products of the reaction.

AB + CD → AC + BD
reagents products

There are several steps to this chemical reaction ….

1. Energy is required to break all the bonds within the reactant particles
2. The separated particles form an activated complex
3. Energy is released as new bonds are formed
 Reacting particles must have enough energy

• Any chemical reaction occurs with bond

breaking (energy needed) and bond
formation (energy released).
•
If particles with energy lower than
the activation energy collide, no • Activation energy is involved with the
reaction will take place. initial breaking of bonds.
Only collisions with energies equal
to or greater than the activation
energy will lead to a reaction.
 Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

The HEAT OF REACTION (ΔH) is the change in the energy of the

system as a result of the reaction, the difference between the
energy required to break the bonds, that the energy released in the
formation of new bonds.

• When more energy is released in bond formation than required

to break reactant bonds, it is called an exothermic reaction (a
reaction that releases energy in the form of heat or light) with
ΔH < 0.

• When less energy is released than required, it is an

endothermic reaction (a reaction that absorbs energy in the
form of heat or light), with ΔH > 0
 THE MECHANISM OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• All reactions, even so-called spontaneous reactions, require

energy to get started.
• This is the ACTIVATION ENERGY, properly defined as the
minimum energy needed for a reaction to take place.
• The ACTIVATED COMPLEX that is formed in the process of the
reaction is an unstable, high-energy, transition state
between the reactants and products.
 EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS

ΔH = Energy products – Energy reactants

ΔH - is the change in enthalpy. ΔH - is measured in kJ/mol

ΔH - is the amount of energy KNOW THESE

ΔH > 0 for endothermic
absorbed or released during a CONCEPTS reactions
chemical reaction

HEAT OF REACTION (ΔH) - ΔH < 0 for exothermic

difference in energy between reactions
reactants and products.
 THE ACTIVATED COMPLEX

• All reactions need energy to start.

• The reacting atoms must pass over an “energy hill” to change from
reactants to products.
• The transition state that atoms must pass through is called the
ACTIVATED COMPLEX.

The activated complex is an unstable structure where bonds are

forming and breaking at the same time.

27
 Polling Time 1
Consider the following chemical reactions:

I C(s) + H2O(g) → H2(g) + CO(g) ∆H = + 131 kJ∙mol-1

II 2HI(g) + 40 kJ → H2(g) + I2(g)
III CO(g) + NO2(g) → CO2(g) + NO(g) ∆H = - 226 kJ∙mol-1
IV H2(g) + F2(g) → 2HF(g) + 536 kJ
V Na(s) + H2O(ℓ) → NaOH(s) + H2(g) ∆H = - 300 kJ∙mol-1

Which of the reactions are exothermic?

A. only I
B. only IV
C. III, IV and V
D. I and IV

28
 Polling Time 1
Consider the following chemical reactions:

I C(s) + H2O(g) → H2(g) + CO(g) ∆H = + 131 kJ∙mol-1

II 2HI(g) + 40 kJ → H2(g) + I2(g)
III CO(g) + NO2(g) → CO2(g) + NO(g) ∆H = - 226 kJ∙mol-1
IV H2(g) + F2(g) → 2HF(g) + 536 kJ
V Na(s) + H2O(ℓ) → NaOH(s) + H2(g) ∆H = - 300 kJ∙mol-1

Which of the reactions are exothermic?

A. only I
B. only IV
C. III, IV and V
D. I and IV

29
 EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS
• Exothermic reactions are reactions in which the energy needed
during bond breaking is lower than energy released during bond
formation.
• Exothermic reactions release more energy than is absorbed, therefore
the energy of the products is less than the energy of the reactants.

NOTE: Because this energy is released into the surrounding

area, the container in which the reaction takes place gets hot.
Therefore, the temperature of the reaction mixture
increases.
Energy profile for an exothermic reaction

Ea

Potential energy (kJ) Reactants

H

Products

Course of reaction

Heat of the reaction: ∆H = Hproducts - Hreactants

For an exothermic reaction ∆H is negative 31
 ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
Endothermic reactions are reactions in which the energy needed during
bond breaking is greater than energy released during bond formation.

Endothermic reactions absorb more energy than is released, therefore the

energy of the products is greater than the energy of the reactants.

NOTE: Because this energy is absorbed from the surrounding

area, the container in which the reaction takes place cools down.
Therefore, the temperature of the reaction mixture
decreases.
Energy profile for an endothermic reaction

Activation Product
Energy energy

+DH Endothermic

Reactants

Course of reaction

Heat of the reaction: ∆H = Hproducts - Hreactants

For an endothermic reaction ∆H is positive
33
 Alternative Pathway
Illustrated graphically … Note:
❖ a catalyst does not affect
Activation energy the initial / final energy of
activation energy the reactants / products –
potential energy
with catalyst ΔH remains constant.
EA
❖ a catalyst cannot initiate a
reaction – it only lowers
the activation energy
reactants required
❖ in essence, a catalyst
products provides an alternative
reaction path

• When a catalyst is added to the reactants, it

provides an alternative, lower energy path for the
reaction to take place.

• The catalyst increases the rate of reaction

without itself undergoing any permanent change.
 Class Activity 1

Choose an item from COLUMN B that matches a description in COLUMN A.

Write only the letter (A – H) next to the question number.

COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O ΔH < 0 A. Endothermic reaction
2. Lowers the activation energy of a
B. Catalyst
reaction
3. Positive ∆H value C. Exothermic reaction
4. Particular arrangement of atoms that
D. Activation energy
has the maximum energy
5. The energy which is required to E. Enthalpy
break a bond . F. Bond formation
G. Activated complex
H. Bond dissociation energy

35
 Class Activity 1

Choose an item from COLUMN B that matches a description in COLUMN A.

Write only the letter (A – H) next to the question number.

COLUMN A COLUMN B Answers:

1. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O A. Endothermic reaction 1. C
2. Lowers the activation energy of a 2. B
B. Catalyst 3. A
reaction
4. G
3. Positive ∆H value C. Exothermic reaction
5. H
4. particular arrangement of atoms that
D. Activation energy
has the maximum energy
5. the energy which is required to E. Enthalpy
break a bond . F. Bond formation
G. Activated complex
H. Bond dissociation energy

36
2. Polling Time 2
Consider the following potential energy diagram for a chemical reaction:

Ep
(kJ.mol-1)

Progress of the reaction

Course of reaction

Which of the following represents the correct activation energies in kJ∙mol -1?
Forward catalysed reaction Forward uncatalysed reaction

A. 40 140
B. 80 40
C. 100 80
D. 40 100
37
2. Polling Time 2
Consider the following potential energy diagram for a chemical reaction:

Ep
(kJ.mol-1)

Progress of the reaction

Course of reaction

Which of the following represents the correct activation energies in kJ∙mol -1?
Forward catalysed reaction Forward uncatalysed reaction

A. 40 140
B. 80 40
C. 100 80
D. 40 100
38
2. Polling Time 3
Consider the following potential energy diagram for a chemical reaction:

Ep
(kJ.mol-1)

Progress of the reaction

Course of reaction

Which of the following represents the correct activation energies in kJ∙mol -1?
Forward catalysed reaction Backward uncatalysed reaction
(if it can be allowed to reverse)
A. 40 140
B. 80 40
C. 100 80
D. 100 160
39
Follow Up Activity- Learner’ Material P.12 (Marathon Problem Question 1)

1. Write down/Determine the following:

1.1 Energy of reactants
1.2 energy of products.
1.3 Amount of energy absorbed
1.4 amount of energy released.
1.5 Energies shown by letters A,B and C
respectively
2. Overall was energy released or absorbed?
3. Which ONE (REACTANTS or PRODUCTS) are
more stable. Give a reason.
4. Calculate the..
4.1 minimum energy needed to start this reaction.
4.2 the heat of reaction for the forward reaction.
4.3 activation energy of the foward reaction.
5. Classify this reaction EXOTHERMIC OR
ENDOTHERMIC? Give a reason for your answer.
6. Will the temperature of reaction mixture increase or
Decrease?
Give reason for your answer.
 PART 2: Rate and Extent of Reaction

Rate and Extent of

Reaction
Rates of reaction and factors
affecting rate
Explain in terms of the collision
theory how the various factors
affect the rate of chemical Define reaction rate as the
reactions. change in concentration of
The collision theory is a model reactants or products per unit
that explains reaction rate as time.
the result of particles colliding
with a certain minimum energy
to form products.

List the factors that affect the

rate of chemical reactions, i.e. Calculate reaction rate from given
Questions may also include
nature of reacting substances, data. Rate = ∆c (Unit: mol∙dm-3∙s-1)
calculations of rate in terms of
surface area, concentration, ∆t
change in mass/volume/moles per
pressure for gases, temperature unit time.
and the presence of a catalyst.
 Rate of a Chemical Reaction (IN-CLASS DISCUSSION)

Learners make journal entries

(Verbal and Public Chat) for
fast and slow reactions and
state their rationale for each.

• What does rate mean?

Each learner to respond to the • How can you measure the rate of a reaction?
following Questions: • Does a reaction always occur at the same rate? Explain.
• Do all reactions occur at the same rate? Explain.

• reactions that have different rates of reaction

• reactions that occur at different rates under different
Each learner to provide conditions
examples of the following:
• processes that cannot be controlled
• processes that can be controlled
 Part 2: Rate of a Reaction

• Some reaction take place very fast (think petrol burning), while
others take a very long time (the rusting of an iron bar).

• Chemists refer to the rate of a reaction, defined as the change in

the concentration of reactants or products per unit time.
expressed mathematically: rate = Δc / Δt (unit: mol·dm-3)

• Do note that reaction rates may also be defined in terms of mass,

volume or number of moles instead of concentration.
 What is rate of reaction?
Rate of reaction refers to the change in the concentration of reactants or
products per unit time.

Consider, for example, the reaction represented by the following equation:

A(s) + B(aq) → C(aq) + D(g)

• We can measure the rate of this reaction by measuring how fast one of
the reactants (A or B) is used up, or how fast one of the products
(C or D) is formed.

• These may be the same (as in the following example), or different,

depending on the stoichiometry of the reaction.

• The type of measurements we would perform would depend on the

phase of matter of the reactant or product under consideration.
 What is rate of reaction?
A(s) + B(aq) → C(aq) + D(g
change in mass of A mA 1 − mA0
Rate of reaction = = OR
change in time t1 − t0

change in concentration of B [B1 ] − [ B0 ]

Rate of reaction = = OR
change in time t1 − t0

change in concentration of C [C1 ] − [C 0 ]

Rate of reaction = = OR
change in time t1 − t0

change in volume of D (at STP) VD1 − VD0

Rate of reaction = change in time
= t1 − t0
 What is rate of reaction?

• By definition, the rate of a reaction is always positive.

• Thus, if we measure the rate of a reaction in terms of how fast a reactant is used up,
then we must multiply the result of the measurements by a negative sign, to obtain the
rate of the reaction.

change in concentration of reactant

Rate = -
change in time

Rate = + change in concentration of product

change in time
 RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• By definition, the rate of a reaction is always positive.

• Thus, if we measure the rate of a reaction in terms of how fast

a reactant is used up, then we must multiply the result of the
measurements by a negative sign, to obtain the rate of the
reaction.

change in concentration of reactant

Rate = -
change in time

change in concentration of product

Rate = + change in time
RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION FORMULAE
STOICHIOMETRIC FLOW DIAGRAM
 RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Note:
For a reaction involving different numbers of moles of reactants and
products, we must be careful to specify which species is being observed
to measure the rate of the reaction.

E.g. N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)

Here, the rate at which N2 is used up, is half the rate at which NH3 is
formed, one third the rate at which H2 is used up. Thus, using pressure
changes, ∆p
p (N 2 ) = 1
p (NH 3 ) − 13 p (H 2 )
Rate = 2
=
t t t
 MONITORING REACTION RATES

Reaction rate involves the change in

an observable property over time.
The observable property should be
selected based upon what can be Some common methods of
measured in the laboratory. measuring reaction rates involve
the use of spectrometers,
This could be a colour change, a conductivity apparatus, and
temperature change, a pressure manometers (or a simple syringe).
change, or the appearance of a new
substance.
Measuring Reaction rate
What is meant by rate of reaction in
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Rate of reaction expressed as an:

➢ Amount of zinc used per minute (mass).

➢ Amount of sulphuric acid used per minute (mol).
➢ Amount of zinc sulphate produced per minute (mol).
➢ Volume of hydrogen produced per minute

The rate of reaction is measured as change in the concentration of the

reactants or the products in a certain time interval.

[Products] [Reactants]
Reaction rate = t OR Reaction rate = t

53
How concentration changes: reaction: A → B :

Graph of concentration of A Graph of concentration of

versus time B versus time
[B]
[A]
A

tA tB t t

The curve shows: •Reaction rate is greatest where the gradient is

•implies that the rate of the reaction is not greatest.
constant. •Gradient decreases over time,
•The rate of reaction decreases over time. •Therefore the reaction becomes slower as
•Rate can be determined by calculating the reactants are used up.
gradient at a point.
• Gradient at A is greater than at B.
• Therefore the rate at A is greater than at B.

NB: The gradient of either curve at a particular time would give us a measurement of the rate of
the reaction..
• Rate of the reaction is how quickly products are formed or how
quickly reactants are used up.
• As reactants are used up, rate at which products are formed
increases.
Measurement of reaction rates:
• Changes in colour
• Change in temperature

• Change in pH

• Changes in volumes and mass

 AVERAGE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION

The average rate of a reaction depends on the time interval chosen.

Usually this is calculated by dividing the total consumption (or total
production) of a substance by the total time it took for the reaction to
occur. Refer to the following graph and sample calculation.

Decomposition of
Substance A

Substance A(g)
30 -
Mass of
20 -
10 -
I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5
Time (min)

30 g − 10 g
Average rate = change in the amount of substance A = = 4g / min
change in time 0 min − 5 min
 INSTANTANEOUS RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION

The instantaneous rate is the rate of reaction that occurs at a particular instant
in time. To calculate this rate, a tangent line is drawn to the point of time on the
graph (particular instant of time), and the slope of this line is then calculated.

Refer to the following graph and sample calculation for determining the
instantaneous rate at 1 minute.
Decomposition of
Mass of Substance
30 - Substance A
A(g) 20 -
10 -
I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5
Time (min)

change in the amount of substance A 25g − 0g

Slope = =
change in time 0min − 5min
= − 5g/min at t = 1min
 RATE AND REACTION STOICHIOMETRY

The concept of rate and reaction stoichiometry should be introduced carefully.

Diagrams of molecules would help learners to understand reaction rate at the
particulate (molecular) level.
Example:
For the reaction N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3, the coefficient in front of the substance
determines the rate of consumption or production of that substance, if the initial
rate of N2 is known.

At the particulate level, this reaction would be expressed as follows:

N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
 Rate and reaction stoichiometry

Note that:
• For every N2 molecule, three H2 molecules need to be consumed.
• This means that the rate of consumption of H2 is three times the rate of
consumption of N2.
• In addition, for every molecule of N2 that is consumed, the rate of
production of NH3 molecules is doubled.

Another way to state this is that N2 is consumed at one-third the rate that H2
is consumed and at half the rate that NH3 is produced.

• If the rate of one of the species is known, the rates of the other species can
be determined from the reaction stoichiometry.

If the rate of consumption of nitrogen is given as

p (N 2 )
Rate =
t
 Rate and reaction stoichiometry
Then the following is also true

p (N 2 ) 1
2 p (NH 3 ) − 13 p (H 2 )
Rate = t = =
t t
Sample Problem:

For the reaction N2 + 3H2 →2NH3, if hydrogen reacts at a rate of 1.5 mol/L. s,
what is the rate of formation of ammonia (NH3)?
 Rate and reaction stoichiometry
Then the following is also true

p (N 2 ) 1
2 p (NH 3 ) − 13 p (H 2 )
Rate = t = =
t t
Sample Problem:

For the reaction N2 + 3H2 →2NH3, if hydrogen reacts at a rate of 1.5 mol/L. s,
what is the rate of formation of ammonia (NH3)?

Solution:

Calculate the rate in a manner similar to how stoichiometry was used to determine
moles of product formed. Use the ratio of the coefficients to determine the ratio of
rates.
 2 NH 3 
  = 1.0 mol/L.s NH3
Rate NH3 formation = 1.5 mol/L.s H2  3H 2 
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION

62
 FACTORS INFLUENCING RATE OF REACTION

Studies of a wide range of reactions have indicated that the following

five factors affect the rate of chemical reactions:

• Nature of the reacting substances

• Surface area/reaction surface of reactants in the solid phase

• Concentration (pressure for gases) of the reactants

• Temperature at which reaction takes place

• Use of a suitable catalyst

Factors affecting reaction rates

Factors affecting
reaction rates

Nature of Temperature Catalyst

reactants

Concentration State of
(Pressure of subdivision
gases)

COACH 64
 Factors Affecting Reaction Rate
According to the collision theory, a reaction will take place between two
reactant particles when these particles have (i) sufficient energy and (ii) the
correct orientation for effective collisions to occur.
You must be able to use the collision theory to argue why and how the
following factors influence the rate of a reaction [ Details on Friday 1st July]
• the nature of the reactants (their state, form, size, electron structure, the
type of bonding) …
• state: solid, liquid or gas – gases, already at a much higher energy level
than solids, will react faster than solids
• form: ions in solution react far more readily than the same ions bonded in
solid form
• size: paraffin (C13H28) burns more slowly than methane (CH4) because
paraffin is larger and has less kinetic energy
• electron structure: Li, Na are much more reactive than Cu, Pb, Ag or Au.
• the surface area of solid reactants
• the greater the surface area – the greater its state of division, the more
effective collisions can take place, resulting in a a greater rate of
chemical reaction.
 Factors Affecting Reaction Rate Cont…
• the concentration of liquid or gaseous reactants
• the more reactants there are within a fixed volume, (greater
concentration), the more effective collision can occur per unit volume , and
thus rate of reaction increases.(this does not apply to solids or pure liquids –
their concentration cannot increase)
• the pressure (of gaseous reactants)
• a higher pressure implies a greater number of gas particles within the
same volume, and thus rate of reaction increases.
• the temperature at which the reaction occurs
• an increase in temperature will increase the average rate of reaction since
it increases the energy of the reactant particles, increasing the chance of
collision, and since it makes it more likely that the colliding particles will
have sufficient energy
• the use of a catalyst
• as noted previously, a (positive) catalyst is a substance that increases the
rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent
change.
• note: when speaking of catalysts, we generally mean positive catalysts; a
negative catalyst (or inhibitor) does the opposite to a positive catalyst – it
retards / inhibits the chemical reaction.
Methods for determining the rate of reaction

• The rate of reaction can be measured in different ways to

determine the influence of the different factors.

• Each factor is a variable that can be investigated.

• It is important to know which factors are controlled variables

because various factors can influence the rate of reaction.

• For example, if the influence of temperature (independent

variable) on the rate of reaction (dependent variable) is being
determined, the concentration is a controlled variable.

COACH 67
The following methods will be used in this unit to determine the
influence of reaction surface, concentration(Pressure of gases), and
temperature on the rate of reaction:

Decrease in mass:
• This method works well in reactions where a gas is released.
• The decrease in mass of the reaction mixture, as the gas escapes over a
certain period of time, is an indication of the rate of reaction.
Volume of gas which develops:
• This method works well in reactions where a gas is released.
• The increase in the volume of the released gas during a specific time is an
indication of the rate of reaction.
Change in intensity of colour:
• The rate at which a reaction mixture changes colour is an indication of the
rate of reaction.
Precipitate formation:
• This method works well in reactions where a solid forms during the
reaction.
• The amount of precipitate that forms during a certain time is an indication of
the rate of reaction. 68
69
 Energy changes in reactions

During a chemical reaction, there is always an energy change.

❑ Energy is given out or taken in.

❑ The energy is usually in the form of heat.
(But some may be in the form of light and sound.)
❑ So reactions can be divided into two groups: exothermic and
endothermic.
 Exothermic reactions

❑ Exothermic reactions give out energy.

❑ So there is a temperature rise.

Here are three examples:

To start off the reaction Mixing silver nitrate and When you add water to
between iron and sulfur, sodium chloride solutions lime (calcium oxide) heat
you must heat the gives a white precipitate is given out, so the
mixture. But soon it of silver chloride 2 and temperature rises. Here
glows red hot 2 without a temperature rise. the rise is being measured.
the Bunsen burner!
 Exothermic reactions

These reactions can be described as:

reactants → products + energy

❑ The total energy is the same on each side of the arrow, in a

reaction.

❑ So, in exothermic reactions, the products have lower energy

than the reactants.

This is shown on the energy level diagram on the right.

An energy level diagram for an

exothermic reaction. The
products have lower energy than
the reactants.
 Exothermic reactions

The energy change

Other examples of exothermic reactions:
⚫ the neutralisation of acids by alkalis.
⚫ the combustion of fuels. We burn
fuels to obtain heat for cooking,heating
homes, and so on. The more energy they
give out, the better!
⚫ respiration in your body cells. It
provides the energy to keep your heart
and lungs working, and for warmth and
Energy is measured in kilojoule (k J).
movement.
For reaction A above:
Fe (s) + S (s) → FeS (s) the energy change = -100 kJ
So, 100 k J of energy is given out when the amounts of reactants in
the equation (56 g of iron and 32 g of sulfur, or 1 mole of each)
react together.
The minus sign shows that energy is given out.
 Endothermic reactions

Endothermic reactions take in energy from their surroundings.

Here are three examples:

When barium hydroxide Sherbet is citric acid plus The crucible contains calcium
reacts with ammonium the base sodium hydrogen carbonate. If you keep on
chloride, the temperature carbonate. The heating, it will all decompose
falls so sharply that neutralisation that occurs to calcium oxide and carbon
water under the beaker will takes in heat – so your dioxide..
freeze! tongue cools.
 Endothermic reactions

These reactions can be described as:

reactants + energy → products

❑ The energy is transferred from the surroundings: in D from

the air and wet wood, in E from your tongue, and in F from
the Bunsen burner.

❑ Since energy is taken in, the products must have higher

energy than the reactant s.

This is shown on the energy level diagram on the right.

An energy level diagram for an

endothermic reaction. The
products have higher energy
than the reactants.
 Exothermic reactions

The energy change

Other examples of endothermic
reactions
Reactions D and E above are
spontaneous. They start off on their
own.
But many endothermic reactions are like
F, where energy must be put in start the
reaction and keep it going. For example:
⚫ reactions that take place in cooking.
⚫ photosynthesis. This is the process in
For reaction F above: which plants convert carbon
dioxide and water to glucose. It depends
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 ( g) the energy change = + 178 kJ on the energy from sunlight.

❑ So, 178 kJ of energy is needed to make 100 g (or 1 mole) of

CaCO3 decompose.

The plus sign shows that energy is taken in.

 Explaining energy changes
Making and breaking bonds
❑ In a chemical reaction, bonds must first be broken. Then new bonds form.
✓ Breaking bonds takes in energy.
✓ Making bonds releases energy. But the energy taken in for step
Example 1: an exothermic reaction 1 is less than the energy given
out in step 2. So this reaction
Hydrogen reacts with chlorine in sunshine, to form hydrogen chloride: gives out energy, overall. It is
exothermic.

If the energy taken in to break

bonds is less than the energy
released in making bonds, the
reaction is exothermic.

1. First, the bonds in the hydrogen 2 Now new bonds form between
and chlorine molecules must be hydrogen and chlorine atoms, giving
broken. Energy must be taken in, for molecules of hydrogen chloride.
this. (Energy from sunshine will do!) This step releases energy.
 Explaining energy changes
Example 2: An endothermic reaction

If you heat ammonia strongly, it breaks down to nitrogen and hydrogen.

Here we use lines to show the bonds. (Note the triple bond in nitrogen.)

This time, the energy taken in for

step 1 is greater than the energy
given out in step 2.

So, the reaction takes in energy,

overall. It is endothermic.

If the energy taken in to break

1 First, the bonds in ammonia must 2 Now the hydrogen atoms bond bonds is greater than the
be broken. Energy must be taken in, together. So do the nitrogen atoms. energy, released in making
for this. (You supply it by heating.) This releases energy. bonds, the reaction is
endothermic.
 Explaining energy changes
Bond Energy

The energy needed to make or break bonds is called the

bond energy.

Look at the list on the right.

242 kJ must be supplied to break the bonds in a mole of

chlorine molecules, to give chlorine atoms.

If these atoms join again to form molecules, 242 kJ of energy

are given out.

✓ The bond energy is the energy needed to break bonds,

or released when these bonds form.

✓ It is given in kJ / mole.
 Starting a reaction off

To start a reaction, bonds must be broken. As you saw, this needs

energy.

❑ For some reactions, not much energy is needed. Just mix the
reactants at room temperature. (For example, reactions B and C on
page 114.)
❑ Some exothermic reactions need heat from a Bunsen burner just to
start bonds breaking. Then the energy given out by the reaction
breaks further bonds. (For example, reaction A on page 114.)

❑ But for endothermic reactions like the decomposition of calcium

carbonate (reaction F on page 115), you must continue heating until
the reaction is complete.
 Rates of reaction
Fast and slow
Some reactions are fast and some are slow. Look at these examples:

But it is not always enough to

know just that a reaction is fast
or slow.
In factories where they make
products from chemicals, they
need to know exactly how fast
a reaction is going, and how
long it will take to complete.
In other words, they need to
know the rate of the reaction.

The precipitation of silver Concrete setting. This Rust forming on an old car.
chloride, when you mix reaction is quite slow. It will This is usually a very slow
solutions of silver take a couple of days for the reaction. It will take years for
nitrate and sodium chloride. concrete to fully harden. the car to rust completely
This is a very fast reaction. away.
 Rates of reaction
What is rate?

Rate is a measure of how fast or slow something is. Here are some examples

This plane has just flown This petrol pump can pump This machine can print From these examples you
800 kilometers in 1 hour. It out petrol at a rate of 50 newspapers at a rate of can see that:
flew at a rate of 800 km per Rate is a measure of the
litres per minute. 10 copies per second. change that happens in a
hour. single unit of time.
Any suitable unit of time
can be used – a second, a
minute, an hour, even a
day.
 Rates of reaction
REACTION RATE ANALYSED:

When zinc is added to As time goes by, the gas Finally, no more bubbles
dilute sulfuric acid, they bubbles off more and more appear.
react together. slowly. The reaction is over, because
The zinc disappears slowly, This is a sign that the all the acid has been used up.
and a gas bubbles off. reaction is slowing down. Some zinc remains behind.

The gas that bubbles off is hydrogen. The equation for the reaction is:
zinc + sulfuric acid → zinc sulfate + hydrogen
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Both zinc and sulfuric acid get used up in the reaction. At the same time, zinc sulfate and hydrogen form.
 Reaction Rate Cont…
Both zinc and sulfuric acid get used up in the reaction. At the same time,
zinc sulfate and hydrogen form.
You could measure the rate of the reaction, by measuring:
❑ the amount of zinc used up per minute or
❑ the amount of sulfuric acid used up per minute or
❑ the amount of zinc sulfate produced per minute or
❑ the amount of hydrogen produced per minute.
For this reaction, it is easiest to measure the amount of hydrogen
produced per minute, since it is the only gas that forms. It can be collected
as it bubbles off, and its volume can be measured.
In general, to find the rate of a reaction, you should measure:
✓ the amount of a reactant used up per unit of time or
✓ the amount of a product produced per unit of time.
 Measuring the rate of a reaction
A reaction that produces a gas
❑ The rate of a reaction is found by measuring the amount of a reactant
used up per unit of time, or the amount of a product produced per unit of time.

Look at this reaction:

magnesium + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + hydrogen

Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

✓ Here hydrogen is the easiest substance to measure, because it is the only

gas in the reaction.
✓ It bubbles off and can be collected in a gas syringe, where its volume is
measured.
 Measuring the rate of a reaction
The experiment

This table shows some typical

results for the experiment.
You can tell quite a lot from
this table. For example, you
can see that the reaction
lasted about five minutes.

✓ The volume of gas in the syringe is noted at intervals – for example every half a minute.
✓ How will you know when the reaction is complete?
Typical results
 The Graph??? Measuring the rate of a reaction
But a graph of the results is even more helpful.

A graph of the results

Notice these things about the results:
I. In the first minute, 14 cm3 of hydrogen are
produced.
So the rate for the first minute is 14 cm3 of
hydrogen per minute.

II. In the second minute, only 11 cm3 are

produced. (25 - 14 = 11)
So the rate for the second minute is 11 cm3 of
hydrogen per minute.

III. The rate for the third minute is 8 cm3 of

hydrogen per minute.
So the rate decreases as time goes on.

The rate changes all through the reaction. It

is greatest at the start, but decreases as the
reaction proceeds.
 The Graph??? Measuring the rate of a reaction Cont…
A graph of the results : Summary of Essentials

1. The reaction is fastest in the first minute, and the curve is

steepest then. It gets less steep as the reaction gets slower.
The faster the reaction, the steeper the curve.
2. After 5 minutes, no more hydrogen is produced, so the
volume no longer changes. The reaction is over, and
the curve goes flat.
When the reaction is over, the curve goes flat.

3. Altogether, 40 cm3 of hydrogen are produced in 5 minutes.

The average rate for the reaction = total volume of hydrogen

total time for the reaction

= 5 40 cm3
5 minutes
= 8 cm3 of hydrogen per minute.

Note that this method can be used for any reaction where one product
is a gas.
Changing the rate of a reaction
 Changing the rate of a reaction
Ways to change the rate of a reaction

There are several ways to speed up or slow down a reaction.

For example, you could change the concentration of a reactant, or the temperature.

The rate will change - but the amount of product you obtain will not.
 Changing the rate of a reaction
1 By changing concentration

Here you will see how rate changes with the concentration of a
reactant.
The method Repeat the experiment from page 131 twice (A and B
below).
Keep everything the same each time except the concentration of the
acid.
In B it is twice as concentrated as in A.
 The Graph??? Changing the rate of a reaction
But a graph of the results is even more helpful.

The results Here are both sets of results, shown on

the same graph.
Notice these things about the results:
1 Curve B is steeper than curve A. So the reaction was
faster for B.
2 In B, the reaction lasts for 60 seconds. In A it lasts for
120 seconds.
3 Both reactions produced 60 cm3 of hydrogen. Do you
agree?
4 So in B the average rate was 1 cm3 of hydrogen per
second. (60 ÷ 60)
In A it was 0.5 cm3 of hydrogen per second. (60 ÷ 120)

The average rate in B was twice the average rate in A.

So in this example, doubling the concentration doubled

the rate.
These results show that:
A reaction goes faster when the concentration of a
reactant is increased.
This means you can also slow down a reaction, by
reducing concentration.
 Changing the rate of a reaction
By changing surface area

In many reactions, one reactant is a solid.

The reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate (marble chips) is an
example.
Carbon dioxide gas is produced:

CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) →CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

✓ The rate can be measured using the apparatus on the right.

✓ The method Place the marble in the flask and add the acid.
✓ Quickly plug the flask with cotton wool to stop any liquid splashing out.
✓ Then weigh it,starting the clock at the same time. Note the mass at regular
intervals until the reaction is complete.
❖ Carbon dioxide is a heavy gas. It escapes through the cotton wool, which
means that the flask gets lighter as the reaction proceeds.
✓ So by weighing the flask at regular intervals, you can follow the rate of reaction.
❖ The experiment is repeated twice.
Everything is kept exactly the same each time, except the surface area of the marble
chips.
 Changing the rate of a reaction
By changing surface area

The experiment is repeated twice. Everything is kept exactly the same each time,
except the surface area of the marble chips.

For experiment 1, large chips are For experiment 2, the same mass
used. Their surface area is the total of marble is used – but the chips
area of exposed surface. are small so the surface area is
greater.
 Comparing the rate of a reaction: By changing surface area
The results The results of the two experiments are plotted here:
How to draw the graph
First you have to find the loss in mass at different times:
❖ loss in mass at a given time = mass at start - mass at that time
❖ Then you plot the values for loss in mass against time.

So what can you conclude about surface area? Did it

affect the rate of the reaction?

Notice these things about the results:

1 Curve 2 is steeper than curve 1. This shows that
the reaction is faster for the small chips.
2 In both experiments, the final loss in mass is 2.0
grams. In other words, 2.0 grams of carbon dioxide
are produced each time.
3 For the small chips, the reaction is complete in 4
minutes. For the large chips, it takes 6 minutes.
These results show that:
The rate of a reaction increases when the surface
area of a solid reactant is increased.
 Explaining rates
The collision theory
Magnesium and dilute hydrochloric acid react together like this:
magnesium + hydrochloric acid →magnesium chloride + hydrogen

Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

In order for the magnesium and acid particles to react together:

❑ the particles must collide with each other, and

❑ the collision must have enough energy to be successful. In other words,
enough energy to break bonds to allow reaction to occur.

This is called the collision theory. It is shown by the drawings below.

 Explaining rates
The collision theory

The particles in the liquid This collision has enough energy to But this collision did not have
move non-stop. To react, an break bonds. So it is successful. enough energy. It was not
acid particle must collide The particles react and new bonds successful. No bonds were
with a magnesium atom, form, giving magnesium chloride broken. The acid particle just
and bonds must break. and hydrogen. bounced away again.

KEY POINT:
✓ The rate of a reaction depends on how many successful collisions there are in a
given unit of time.
✓ If there are lots of successful collisions in a given minute, then a lot of hydrogen is produced
in that minute.
✓ In other words, the rate of reaction is high. If there are not many, the rate of reaction is low.
 Explaining rates
Changing the rate of a reaction

Why rate increases with concentration If the concentration of the acid is increased,
the reaction goes faster. It is easy to see why:

Reactions between gases

⚫ When you increase the
pressure on two reacting
gases, it means you squeeze
more gas molecules into a
given space.
⚫ So there is a greater
In dilute acid, there are Here the acid is more chance of successful collisions.
not so many acid particles. concentrated – there ⚫ So if pressure↑ then rate↑
So there is less chance of are more acid for a gaseous reaction.
an acid particle hitting a particles. So there is
magnesium atom. now more chance of a
successful collision.

KEY POINT:
The more successful collisions there are, the faster the reaction.
 Explaining rates
WHY reaction slows down???
That idea also explains why the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid slows
down over time:

At the start, there are After a time, there are

plenty of magnesium As a result, the slope of
fewer magnesium atoms, the reaction curve
atoms and acid particles. and the acid is
But they get used up in decreases with time, as
less concentrated. So shown above. It goes flat
successful collisions. there is less chance of when the reaction is over.
successful collisions.
 Explaining rates

Why rate increases with temperature On heating, all the particles take in heat energy.

This makes the acid The extra energy also As a result, the slope of the
particles move faster – means that more reaction curve decreases
so they collide more collisions are with time, as shown above. It
often with magnesium successful. So the goes flat when the reaction is
particles. reaction rate increases. over.
 Explaining rates
Why rate increases with surface area The reaction between the magnesium and
acid is much faster when the metal is powdered:

The acid particles can collide only In the powdered metal,

with the magnesium atoms in the many more atoms are
outer layer of the metal ribbon. exposed. So the chance of
a collision increases.
KEY POINT:
The more successful collisions there are, the faster the reaction.
 Catalysts
What is a catalyst?

You saw that a reaction can be speeded up by increasing the

temperature, or the concentration of a reactant, or the
surface area of a solid reactant.

There is another way to increase the rate of some reactions:

use a catalyst.

A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical

reaction, but remains chemically unchanged itself.

KEY POINTS/QUESTIONS:
1. What is a catalyst? Many different substances can act
2 Which of these does a catalyst not change? as catalysts. They are usually
a the speed of a reaction made into shapes that offer a very
b the products that form large surface area.
c the total amount of each product formed
 Catalysts
How do catalysts work?

❑ For a reaction to take place, the reacting particles must collide with
enough energy for bonds to break and reaction to occur.

❑ When a catalyst is present, the reactants are able to react in a way that
requires less energy.

❑ This means that more collisions now have enough energy to be successful.

❑ So the reaction speeds up. But the catalyst itself is unchanged.

❑ Note that a catalyst must be chosen to suit the particular reaction.

It may not work for other reactions.

 Catalysts
Catalysts in the chemical industry

❑ In industry, many reactions need heat. Fuel can

be a very big expense.

❑ With a catalyst, a reaction goes faster at a given

temperature. So you get the product faster, saving
time.
❑ Even better, it may go fast enough at a lower
temperature – which means a lower fuel bill.

❑ So catalysts are very important in the chemical

industry. They are often transition elements or
their oxides.
Two examples are: A catalyst of platinum and
rhodium,in the form of a gauze, is
❑ iron used in the manufacture of ammonia being fitted into a tank. It will
❑ vanadium(IV) oxide used in the manufacture of catalyse the production of nitric
sulfuric acid. acid from ammonia and oxygen.
 Revision Checklist
Make sure you can …
❑ explain what these terms mean: exothermic reaction endothermic reaction
❑ give examples of exothermic and endothermic reactions and draw energy level
diagrams for them
❑ use the idea of bond making and bond breaking to explain why a reaction is exo- or
endothermic
❑ state the unit used for measuring energy
❑ say what the + and - signs mean, in energy values
❑ explain what a reversible reaction is, with examples
❑ write the symbol for a reversible reaction
❑ explain that a reversible reaction never completes, in a closed container – it
reaches equilibrium
❑ give ways to obtain more product in a gaseous reversible reaction
❑ predict the effect of a change in temperature and pressure, for a given reversible
reaction
❑ say how a catalyst will affect a reversible reaction
❑ predict the effect of a change in conditions for a reversible reaction in solution
 ENERGY AND CHANGE

❑ Describe the meaning of exothermic and endothermic reactions

❑ Describe bond breaking as an endothermic process and bond forming as an
exothermic Process
❑ Draw and label energy level diagrams for exothermic and endothermic
reactions using data provided
❑ Interpret energy level diagrams showing exothermic and endothermic
reactions and the activation energy of a reaction
 RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION

❑ Describe practical methods for investigating the rate of a reaction which

produces a gas
❑ Interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with rate of reaction
❑ Describe the effect of concentration, particle size, catalysts and temperature
on the rate of reactions
❑ Describe and explain the effect of concentration in terms of frequency of
collisions between Reacting particles
❑ Describe and explain the effect of changing temperature in terms of the
frequency of collisions between reacting particles and more colliding particles
possessing the minimum energy (activation energy) to react
 RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION

Learning outcomes
You should be able to:
■■ explain and use the terms
– rate of reaction
– activation energy, including reference to the Boltzmann distribution
– catalysis
■■ explain qualitatively how the following affect the rate of a chemical reaction:
– concentration (in terms of collision frequency)
– temperature (in terms of both the Boltzmann distribution and collision frequency)
– catalysts (in terms of changing a reaction’s mechanism, lowering the activation
energy and the Boltzmann distribution)
■■ explain that catalysts can be homogeneous or heterogeneous
 RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION

Introduction
Some chemical reactions are very fast (they have a high rate of reaction) and others are much slower.
Chemists study rates of reaction to control reactions in industrial processes and make useful products
efficiently and safely.

a The reactions needed to produce b Corrosion of some metals, such as the

firework explosions need to take place rusting of iron, is a much slower
in a fraction of a second. reaction.
 RECAP: COLLISION THEORY
❖ When we explain the effects of concentration, temperature, surface area and catalysts on
rates of reaction, we use the collision theory.
❖ Collision theory states that in order to react with each other, particles must collide in the
correct orientation and with sufficient energy.
❖ The particles might be atoms, ions or molecules.
❖ When reactant particles collide, they may simply bounce off each other, without changing.
This is called an unsuccessful collision.
❖ An unsuccessful collision will take place if the colliding particles do not have enough energy
to react.
❖ If the reactant particles do have enough energy to react, they may change into product
particles when they collide. This is called a successful (or effective) collision.
❖ The minimum energy that colliding particles must possess for a successful collision to take
place is called the activation energy of that particular reaction.
❖ The activation energy for an exothermic reaction and an endothermic reaction can be shown
on enthalpy profile diagrams,
 COLLISION THEORY

❖ When we explain the effects of concentration, temperature, surface area and

catalysts on rates of reaction, we use the collision theory.
❖ Collision theory states that in order to react with each other, particles must collide
in the correct orientation and with sufficient energy.
❖ The particles might be atoms, ions or molecules.
❖ When reactant particles collide, they may simply bounce off each other, without
changing. This is called an unsuccessful collision.
❖ An unsuccessful collision will take place if the colliding particles do not have enough
energy to react.
❖ If the reactant particles do have enough energy to react, they may change into
product particles when they collide. This is called a successful (or effective) collision
COLLISION THEORY

When reactant particles collide,

they may simply bounce off each
other, without changing. This is
called an unsuccessful collision.

If the reactant particles do have

enough energy to react, they
may change into product
particles when they collide. This
is called a successful (or
effective) collision
 Enthalpy profile diagrams

Figure 9.4 Figure 9.5

The activation energy in an The activation energy in an
exothermic reaction. endothermic reaction.
 The effect of a catalyst on the activation energy

According to the collision theory, a reaction will speed up if:

■■ the frequency of collisions increases
■■ the proportion of particles with energy greater than the
activation energy increases.

A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction

but remains chemically unchanged itself at the end of the
reaction.

A catalyst does this by making it possible for the particles to

react by an alternative mechanism. This alternative mechanism Figure 9.6 The effect of a catalyst on the
has a lower activation energy (see Figure 9.6) on the right. activation energy in an exothermic reaction.
 The effect of concentration on rate of reaction
❖ In chemistry we usually measure the concentration of
solutions in moles per decimetre cubed: mol dm−3.
❖ The more concentrated a solution, the greater the number
of particles of solute dissolved in a given volume of solvent.
❖ In reactions involving solutions, more concentrated
reactants have a faster rate of reaction. This is because the
random motion of the particles in solution results in more
frequent collisions between reacting particles. This is shown
in the figure on the right.
❖ The effect of pressure in reactions involving gases is similar
to the effect of concentration in solutions.
❖ As we increase the pressure of reacting gases, there are
more gas molecules in a given volume.
The particles in box a are closer together than
❖ This results in more collisions in any given time, and a faster
those in box b. There are more particles in the
rate of reaction.
same volume, so the chances and frequency of
collisions between reacting particles are
increased. Therefore, the rate of reaction is
greater in box a than in box b.
 The effect of temperature on rate of reaction
❖ To fully understand rates of reaction, we need to look more closely at the energy
possessed by the reactant particles.

❖ In a sample of any substance, at a given temperature, the particles will not all
possess the same amount of energy as each other.
❖ The distribution of energies at a given temperature can be shown on a graph
called the Boltzmann distribution.

❖ When we raise the temperature of a reaction mixture, the average kinetic

(movement) energy of the particles increases.

❖ Particles in solution and in gases will move around more quickly at a higher
temperature, resulting in more frequent collisions.

❖ However, experiments show us that the effect of temperature on rate of reaction

cannot be totally explained by more frequent collisions.

❖ The key factor is that the proportion of successful collisions increases greatly as
we increase the temperature.
The Boltzmann Distribution Curve

• Shows the distribution of molecular energies of

gasesous particles of reactant molecules at a
given temperature.
• The area of the graph represents the total
number of reactant particles available to react
at a given temperature.
• The graph passes through the origin meaning
–there are no particles with zero kinetic energy
at nu given temperature except absolute zero.
• The graph does not intercept the energy axis-
but comes very close on the high energy side-
this means there is always a fraction of particles
with sufficient energy no matter how few.
• The peak shows the number of particles with
the most probable energy value.
 The effect of temperature on rate of reaction
❖ The distribution of molecular energies changes as we raise
the temperature, as shown in Figure 9.9. The curve
showing the Boltzmann distribution at the higher
temperature flattens and the peak shifts to the right.
❖ The area under the curve represents the number of
particles.
❖ The shaded area shows the number of particles with
energy greater than the activation energy, Ea. For a 10 °C
rise in temperature this area under the curve
approximately doubles, as does the rate of many reactions.
❖ Therefore, increasing the temperature increases the rate
of reaction because:
■■ the increased energy results in particles moving around
more quickly, which increases the frequency of
collisions The Boltzmann distribution of molecular
■■ the proportion of successful collisions (i.e. those that energies at temperatures T °C and (T + 10) °C,
result in a reaction) increases because the proportion showing the activation energy.
of particles exceeding the activation energy increases.
This is the more important factor.
 The effect of a catalyst on rate of reaction

❖ The shaded area under the curve represents the

numbers of molecules that have energy greater
than the activation energy of the reaction.

❖ The total shaded area (including both the light and

dark shading) under the curve shows the number
of particles with energy greater than the activation
energy with the catalyst present (Ea(cat)).

❖ This area is much larger than the dark shaded

area for the reaction without a catalyst.

❖ Therefore, the rate at which effective collisions

occur, and so, the rate of the catalysed reaction, The Boltzmann distribution of molecular
is greatly increased compared with the rate of the energies, showing the change in activation
uncatalysed reaction. energy with and without a catalyst.
The effect of temperature on rate of reaction

TEMPER
ATURE
HAS NO
EFFECT
ON
1.∆𝐻
2. 𝐸𝐴

3. Yield
of
reaction
 Summary: Rate of reaction
■ Reaction kinetics is the study of the rates of chemical reactions.

■ Factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction are:

– surface area
– concentration (or pressure of gases)
– temperature
– catalysts.

■ The activation energy of a reaction is the minimum energy required by colliding

particles for a reaction to occur. Enthalpy profile diagrams show how the activation
energy provides a barrier to reaction.

■ At higher concentration (or pressure), more frequent collisions occur between reactant
molecules. This increases reaction rate.

■ At higher temperature, molecules have more kinetic energy, so a higher percentage of

successful collisions occur between reactant molecules.
 Effect of concentration on reaction rate

By increasing the concentration of molecules within a system, the actual energy of the
molecules doesn’t change. The more of them! Because of this, more particles in the
systemproportion of molecules with the required activation energy is the same, there
are just have the required activation energy and react.
 Concentation

• An increase in concentration
increases the
total umber of reactant particles
available to react in a given volume.
• This increases the proportion of
particles with sufficient energy.
• More effective collisions occur per
unit time.
• Rate of reaction increases
Effect of concetration conti

CONCENTRATI
ON
1.∆𝐻
2. 𝐸𝐴

3. Yield of
reaction(IF
THE REACTANT
IS IN EXCESS)
Effect of catalyst on reaction rates

A catalyst is as substance that increases

the rate of a chemical reaction without
itself undergoing a permanent change .
A catalyst provides an alternative pathway
with a lower activation energy.
• This increases the proportion of particles
with sufficient energy.(𝐸𝑘 ≥ 𝐸𝑎 )
• More effective collisions occur per
unit time.

• Rate of reaction increases

ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES
 Summary: Rate of reaction
■ The Boltzmann distribution represents the numbers of molecules in a sample with
particular energies.

➢ The change in the Boltzmann distribution as temperature is increased shows

how more molecules have energy greater than the activation energy.
➢ This in turn leads to an increase in reaction rate.

■ A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by providing an alternative reaction

pathway with a lower activation energy. More molecules have sufficient energy to
react, so the rate of reaction is increased.

■ In homogeneous catalysis the reactants and catalyst are in the same phase (e.g. allin
aqueous solution), whereas in heterogeneous catalysis the reactants and catalyst are
in different phases (e.g. the reactants are gases and the catalyst is a solid).
Thank you