UME2405 – MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING METALLURGY Unit -

Titanium and its alloys

Dr. S. Santosh
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
SSN College of Engineering
Mob: +91-9444851079; Email: santoshs@ssn.edu.in
 Titanium and its alloys

SUBJECTS OF INTEREST
➢ Introduction/Objectives
➢ Extraction and melting of titanium
➢ Alloying system & classification of titanium and its alloys
➢ Commercial pure titanium, ∝ and near ∝ titanium alloys
➢ ∝+β titanium alloys
➢ β titanium alloys
➢ Forming and casting of titanium alloys
➢ Welding of titanium alloys
➢ Properties of titanium alloys

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 2

 Objectives

➢ This chapter provides fundamental knowledge of different methods of

productions / heat treatments of titanium alloys and the use of various types of
cast and wrought titanium alloys.

➢ The influences of alloy composition, microstructure and heat treatment on

chemical and mechanical properties of titanium alloys will be discussed in
relation to its applications.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 3

 Introduction- Titanium and its alloys
➢ Titanium is named after the Titans, the powerful
sons of the earth in Greek mythology.
➢ Titanium is the forth abundant metal on earth
crust (~ 0.86%) after aluminium, iron and
magnesium.
➢ Not found in its free, pure metal form in nature Ilmenite (FeTiO3 )
but as oxides, i.e., ilmenite (FeTiO3 ) and rutile
(TiO2 ).
➢ Found only in small amount in Thailand.
➢ Have similar strength as steel but with a weight
nearly half of steel.
Rutile (TiO2 )4
Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE mineral.galleries.com 4
 Physical properties of Titanium
Crystal structure HCP (<882.5oC)
BCC (> 882.5oC)
Atomic diameter 0.320
Density (g.cm-3) 4.54
Melting point ( oC) 1667

➢ Experiences allotropic transformation ( → ) at 882.5oC.

➢ Highly react with oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen.
➢ Difficult to extract → expensive.
➢ Used mainly in wrought forms for advanced applications where cost is not critical.
➢High strength and toughness.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 5

Advantages of titanium alloys

Density of selected metals

Specific strength vs temperature

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 6

 Applications of titanium alloys
➢ Used mainly in
aerospace, marine,
chemical, biomedical
applications and sports Turbine blades

National science centre, Scotland

Hip-joint Shape memory alloy Titanium cladded Guggenheim Bilbao museum, Spain at sunset.
component

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 7

Applications of titanium alloys

AEROSPACE MEDICAL

• Civil • Orthopaedic Implants

• Military • Bone Screws
• Space • Trauma Plates
• Dental Fixtures
• Surgical Instruments
INDUSTRIAL SPECIALIST

• Petrochemical • Body Jewellery

• Offshore • Ultrasonic Welding
• Subsea • Motor Racing Components
• Metal Finishing • Marine
• Pulp & Paper • Bicycle
• General Engineering • Sports Equipment

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 8

 Production of titanium alloys

• Extraction processes
➢ Kroll extraction process
• Melting processes
➢ Electroslag Refining (ESR)
➢ Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR)
➢ Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
➢ Plasma Arc Melting (PAM)
➢ Induction Skull Melting
• Casting processes
➢ Casting : investment casting, laser fabrication
• Forming processes
➢ Forming process such as rolling, extrusion, forging.
• Heat treatments

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 9

 Extraction of titanium
Titanium ore – rutile (TiO2 ) is converted into titanium sponge by

1) Passing Cl2 gas through charge the ore, resulting in colourless. titanium tetrachloride TiCl4 . TiO2 + 2Cl2 + C → TiCl4 + CO2
2) TiCl4 is purified by fractional distillation.

3) The liquid form of TiCl4 is reacted with either Mg or Na under an inert (Ar) atmosphere to obtain titanium sponge while Mg or
Na is recycled. 2Mg(l) + TiCl4(l) → 2MgCl2(l) + Ti(s)

Titanium sponge

Ti sponge production based on Kroll process

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 10
 Melting of titanium alloys
Vacuum Arc Refining (VAR) - Process
➢ Sponge and alloying
elements are blended
together and then
hydraulically pressed to
produce blocks (briquette).
Revert or scrap can also be
used.
➢ The briquettes are welded
together to produce first
melt electrode or ‘stick’.
➢ The electrode is double or
triple melted in the VAR
furnace to produce sound
ingot

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 11

 Melting of titanium alloys
Vacuum Arc Refining (VAR) - Melting

➢ Electrode made from compacted

briquette of nominal alloy composition
is held in the VAR by a stub and first
melted in a water-cooled copper
crucible.
➢ A molten metal pool is on the top of
the new ingot.
➢ The melting variables such as melting
rate, molten pool depth, stirring,
contamination is carefully control to
obtain homogeneity and soundness of
ingots

VAR furnace

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 12

 Melting of titanium alloys
Electroslag Refining (ESR)

➢ The continuous billet serves as an electrode

where its end dips into the slag pool heated by
AC current.
➢ Molten metal reacts with super heated slag
having composition adapted to the molten alloy.
➢ The intended molten metal drop down through
the slag to form metal pool and then solidify to
give ESR ingot.
➢ The molten metal is refined and inclusions are
absorbed during the reaction.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 13

 Melting of titanium alloys
Plasma Arc Melting (PAM) - Improved method over VAR

➢ The metal is melted in a watercooled

copper vessel (hearth) using the heat
source (plasma torch or electron beam).
➢ The skull (solid Ti) is contacted with the
hearth and leave the molten titanium alloy
floating on the top, preventing
contamination from the hearth.
➢ High density inclusions are separated on to
the bottom of the hearth.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 14

 Melting of titanium alloys
Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

➢ Material is fed through the hearth and

melted by heat source provided by
electron beam similar to PAM.
➢ The floating metal is on the top of the
skull, giving a sound ingot.

Note: Used for melting of reactive

materials such as Ti, Ni, Ta, Zr.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 15

 Melting of titanium alloys
Induction Skull Melting
➢ A water-cooled copper crucible is used to avoid contamination of reactive materials.
➢ Metal is charged inside the crucible by induction power source applied by magnetic field.
➢ The charge is melted and freeze along the bottom and wall, producing a shell or skull with molten metal
in it.
➢ Revert or scrap can be used.
➢ Low cost, high quality titanium alloy production.

Induction coils Molten metal in

the skull

Water-cooled system
Induction skull melting Charged metal melted with ISM

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 16

 Alloying system of titanium alloys
∝ phase HCP structure β phase BCC structure

Alloying elements

Allotropic
• Alpha stabilisers
transformation
Al, O, N
882.3 ° C • Beta stabilisers
Isomorphous: Mo, V, W, Nb, Ta.
Eutectoid: Fe, Cr, Cu, Ni, Co, Mn.
• Neutrual
Zr, Si, Sn

a) ∝ stabilising
b) Isomorphous β stabilising
c) Eutectoid β stabilising
Basic types of phase diagrams for titanium alloys
Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 17
 Classification of titanium alloys
➢ Commercially pure (CP) titanium alpha and near alpha titanium alloys
▪ Generally non-heat treatable and weldable
▪ Medium strength, good creep strength, good corrosion resistance
➢ Alpha-beta titanium alloys
▪ Heat treatable, good forming properties
▪ Medium to high strength, good creep strength
➢ Beta titanium alloys
▪ Heat treatable and readily formable
▪ Very high strength, low ductility

Different crystal structures and properties →allow manipulation

of heat treatments to produce different types of alloy
microstructures to suit the required mechanical properties.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 18

 Basic principal of heat treatment
Heat treatment is mainly applied to ∝/β and β titanium alloys
due to the ∝-β transformation (typically in the β isomorphous
Ti alloy group).

➢ Strength of annealed alloys increases gradually and linearly

with increasing alloy contents.
➢ Quenching from the β phase field gives a martensitic
transformation with improved strength (depending on
composition).
➢ For lowly alloyed Ti, rapid quenching from the β phase field
gives maximum strength at Mf .
➢ For highly alloyed Ti, rapid quenching from β phase field
gives lowest strength but after ageing, the maximum
strength is obtained.

Heat treatment diagram of β

isomorphous titanium alloys
Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 19
Commercially pure (CP) titanium and alpha/near alpha alloys

Microstructure contains HCP ∝ phase and can be divided into;

➢ Commercially pure titanium alloys

➢ Alpha titanium alloys
➢ Near alpha titanium alloys

Characteristics:
• Non-heat treatable
• Weldable.
• Medium strength
• Good notch toughness
•Good creep resistance at high temperature.

Phase diagram of ∝
stabilised Ti alloy.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 20

Microstructure of commercially pure (CP) titanium alloys

➢ Purity 99.0-99.5%, HCP structure.

➢ Main elements in unalloyed titanium are Fe and interstitial
elements such as C, O, N, H.
➢ O content determines the grade and strength.
➢ C, N, H present as impurities. H → embrittlement.

Oxygen equivalent %Oequiv = %O + 2.0%N + 0.67%C

HCP ∝ phase structure HCP ∝ phase structure with 𝛽 Hot-rolled structure

spheroidal particles due to
0.3% Fe as impurity
Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 21
 Properties and typical applications of commercially pure (CP) titanium alloys
Properties

➢ Lower strength, depending on contents of O, N.

➢ Corrosion resistance to nitric acid, moist chlorine.
➢ 0.2% Pd addition improves corrosion resistance in HCl,
H2SO4 , H3PO4 .
➢ Less expensive

Applications:

➢ Airframes
➢ Heat exchangers Plate and frame heat exchanger
➢ Chemicals
➢ Marine
➢ Surgical implants. Large structure used in bleaching
section of pulp and paper

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 22

Compositions and applications of commercially pure (CP) titanium alloys

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 23

 Alpha titanium alloy
∝ stabilisers are more soluble in the ∝ phase and
raise the β transus temperature.

➢ Al and O are the main alloying elements, which provide solid

solution strengthening. O and N present as impurities give
interstitial hardening.
➢ The amount of ∝ stabilisers should not exceed 9% in the
aluminium equivalent to prevent embrittlement due to
ordering.
➢ 5-6% Al can lead to a finely dispersed, ordered phase (∝2 ),
which is coherent to lattice. → deleterious ductility.
➢ Sn and Zr are also added in small amount to stabilise the ∝ Phase diagram of ∝
stabilised Ti alloy
phase and give strength.

Aluminium equivalent %Alequiv = Al + 1/3 Sn + 1/6 Zr +10(O + C + 2N) < 9%

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 24

 Alpha titanium alloys
Microstructure

Homogeneous ∝2 precipitation on
Ti-5%Al-2.5% Sn alloy in sheet form
dislocations in aged Ti 8%Al with
1780 ppm of O

➢ Sn is added to improve ductility. ➢ >5-6% Al addition produces coherent ordered

➢ Spheroidal β phase is due to 0.3% ∝2 phase (Ti3Al) → embrittlement.
Fe as impurity ➢ Co-planar dislocations are produced → early
fatigue cracking.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 25

 Alpha titanium alloys
Properties Applications:

➢ Moderate strength. ➢ Aircraft engine compressor blades, sheet-

➢ Strength depends on O and Al contents. (Al <5-6%) metal parts.
➢ Al also reduces its density. ➢ High pressure cryogenic vessels at -423°C.
➢ Good oxidation resistance and strength at 600 to
1100F.
➢ Readily weldable.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 26

 Near-alpha titanium alloys
➢ Small amounts of β stabilisers (Mo,V) are added, giving a microstructure of β
phase dispersed in the ∝ phase structure. → improved performance and
efficiency.
➢ Sn and Zr are added to compensate Al contents while maintaining strength and
ductility.
➢ Show greater creep strength than fully ∝ Ti alloy up to 400oC.
➢ Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V and Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-Mo alloys are the most commonly used for
aerospace applications, i.e., airframe and engine parts.

Duplex annealed Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V Forged compressor disc made

from neat alloy IMI 685

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 27

 Heat treatment in CP and alpha titanium alloys

Treatment from the phase field

➢ Annealing of CP Ti at high temperature gives a HCP ∝

phase structure, fig (a).
➢ Quenching of CP Ti from the β phase field change the
HCP structure to the hexagonal martensitic ∝’ phase
a) Annealed at 700°C/1h. (b) Quenched from 𝛽 phase field
with remained β grains, fig (b).
➢ Air-cooling of CP Ti from the β phase field produces
Microstructure
Widmanstätten ∝ plates, fig (c). of CP Ti alloy

Note: This transformation contribute to only little strength.

(c) Air-cooled from 𝛽 phase field.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 28

 Heat treatment in near ∝ titanium alloys
Heat-treated from ∝ + β phase field
➢ Alloys should contain high amount of ∝ stabilisers
without severe loss of ductility.
➢ Small amounts of Mo or V (beta stabilisers) are added
to promote the response to heat-treatment.
➢ The alloy is heated up to T to obtain equal amount of
∝ and β phases. Pseudo-binary diagram for Ti-8% Al
with Mo and V addition
➢ Air-cooling gives equiaxed primary ∝ phase and
Widmanstätten ∝ formed by nucleation and growth
from the β phase, fig.
➢ Faster cooling transforms β into martensitic ∝ ’ which
gives higher strength.

IMI679 Air-cooled from ∝+β phase field, having white

primary ∝ phase and Widmanstätten β

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 29

 Heat treatment in near ∝ titanium alloys
Heat-treated from β phase field

➢ Quenching from the β phase field produces laths of

martensitic ∝’ , which are delineated by thin films of β
phase.
➢ Ageing causes precipitation of fine ∝ phase dispersion.

(a) Near ∝ Ti (IMI 685) oil-quenched,

(b) quenched from β phase field and aged at 850° C
➢ Air-cooling from the β phase field gives a basket weave
structure of Widmanstätten ∝ phase delineated by β
phase, fig (b).

(b) Near ∝ Ti (IMI 685) aircooled

from the β phase field

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 30

 Heat treatment in near ∝ titanium alloys
Effects of cooling rate from β phase field
in lamellar microstructure
Increasing cooling rate

(a) 1°C /min (b) 100°C /min (c) 8000°C /min

Effects of cooling rage from the beta phase field on lamellar microstructure in Ti 6242 alloy
Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 31
 Near alpha titanium alloys
Properties

➢ Moderately high strength at RT and relatively good ductility (~15%).

➢ High toughness and good creep strength at high temperatures.
➢ Good weldability.
➢ Good resistance to salt-water environment.

Applications:

➢ Airframe
➢ Jet engine parts.
Chemical compositions and
typical applications

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 32

 Alpha-beta titanium alloys
➢ Alpha-beta titanium alloys contain both ∝ and β.
➢ ∝ stabilisers are used to give strength with 4-6% β stabilisers
to allow the β phase to retain at RT after quenching from β
or ∝ + β phase field.
➢ Improved strength and formability in comparison to ∝ -Ti
alloys.
➢ Ti-6Al-4V (IMI 318) is the most widely commercially used.

➢ Microstructure depends on chemical composition, processing

history and heat treatments, i.e., annealing, quenching and
tempering.
➢ Heat treatment can be done in corporation with thermo-
mechanical processes to achieve desired
microstructure/properties
Forged Ti-6-4 blades

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 33

 Annealing from β or ∝ + β phase field
➢ Annealing from the β phase field (β annealed) ➢ Annealing from the ∝ + β phase field (mill
causes a transformation from β to ∝ annealed) produces microstructure approaching
microstructure containing lamellar structure equilibrium equiaxed primary ∝ phase
of similar crystal orientation. surrounding with retained β phase.

Annealed from β phase field, showing transformed β phase or Annealed from ∝ + β phase field, showing equiaxed ∝
lamellar (basket weaves) microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V grains (light) with intergranular retained beta (dark)

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 34

 Air cooling from β and ∝ + β phase field
➢ Air cooling provides intermediate cooling rates.
➢ Air cooling from the β phase field produces fine acicular ∝, which is
transformed from the β phase by nucleation and growth.
➢ Air cooling from the ∝ + β phase field provides equiaxed primary ∝ phase
in a matrix of transformed β phase (acicular).

Air-cooled from β phase field Air-cooled from ∝ + β phase field,

giving transformed β phase showing primary ∝ grains in a
(acicular) matrix of transformed β (acicular)

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 35

Alpha-beta titanium alloys

➢ Annealing from the β and ∝ + β phase field.

➢ Air cooling from the β and ∝ + β phase field.
➢ Quenching from β and ∝ + β phase fields.
➢ Tempering of titanium martensite
➢ Decomposition of metastable β

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 36

 Quenching from β phase field

➢ The alloy experiences martensitic transformation when

quenched from the β phase field passing through Ms
➢ Martensite ∝’ consists of individual platelets which are
heavily twinned and have HCP crystal structure.

Rapid transformation increases

dislocation density

Ti-6-4 alloy solution-heat-treated at

1066°C/30min and water quenched Increase hardness (strength) but not as
high as in steel.
Note: Following tempering and ageing at elevated temperature
lead to decomposition of martensite.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 37

 Quenching from β phase field

➢ Martensite of different crystal structure.

➢ Increasing solute, ∝’ → ∝’’

(a) Hexagonal ∝ ’ lath, (b) hexagonal lenticular ∝ ’,

(c) orthorhombic ∝ ’’
Possible reactions due to quenching from the ∝ phase field

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 38

 Quenching from ∝ + β phase field
Below β transus but above Ms Below Ms

➢ Microstructure consists of primary ∝ ➢ Microstructure consists of primary ∝

phase embedded in transformed β phase and small amount of retained
phase (∝’ martensite). or untransformed β

Ti-6-4 alloy solution treated at 954°C and then water quenched Ti-6-4 alloy solution treated at 843°C and then water quenched

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 39

 Tempering of titanium martensite
➢ Decomposition of martensitic structure occurs when a quenched alloy is subject to
subsequent elevated temperature treatments.
➢ Decomposition reaction depends upon martensite crystal structure and alloy
composition

Decomposition of Martensite
Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 40
 Decomposition of metastable β
➢ Retained β obtained after quenching decomposes when subjected to
ageing at elevated temperatures.→ developing high tensile strength.
➢ The metastable β is transformed into equilibrium ∝ phase at high ageing
temperatures due to difficulty in nucleating HCP ∝ phase on BCC β matrix.

Possible reactions

ω phase formation
β phase separation
β isomorphous alloy phase diagram
Equilibrium ∝ phase formation

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 41

 Decomposition of metastable β
ω phase → embrittlement
➢ Appears as very fine dispersion particles after metastable β
is isothermally aged at 100-500°C
➢ Avoided by controlling ageing conditions, temp (475°C),
composition.
β phase separation → not significantly important
➢ β phase separation into two BCC phases β → β(enrich)+ β1(depleted) occurs
in high β stabiliser containing alloy to prevent ω formation.
➢ This β phase will slowly transform into equilibrium ∝ phase
Equilibrium ∝ phase formation → strength Laths of
Widmanstätten ∝
➢ Equilibrium ∝ phase can form directly from β phase or
indirectly from ω or β1
➢ Laths of Widmanstätten ∝
➢ Finely dispersed ∝ particles

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 42

Double solution treatments

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 43

Microstructure vs heat treatment in Ti-6Al-4V alloys

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 44

 Anisotropic properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloys

Table 6.5 Mechanical properties of 57 mm thick × 235 mm wide forged and

(a)Slip planes in HCP ∝ Ti alloy annealed Ti - 6Al - 4V bar (from Bowen, A. W., in Titanium Science and Tech-
nology, R. I. Jaffee and H. M. Burte (Eds), Plenum Press, New York, Volume 2,
and alignment of unit cell 1973; p. 1271)
showing strongly preferred 0.2% Approximate
Testing
orientation. directions Proof Tensile Elastic fatigue strength
stress strength modulus Elongation at 10 ^ 7 cycles
(b)Fatigue endurance limit of (MPa) (MPa) (GPa) (±MPa)
(%)
three different conditions in
Ti-6Al-4V alloy Longitudinal 834 910 114 17.5 496
Long transverse 934 986 128 17.0 427
Short transverse 893 978 114 12.5 565

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 45 45

Composition and applications of ∝ + β titanium alloys

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 46

 Beta titanium alloys
Beta stabilisers are sufficiently added to retain a fully β structure
(avoid martensite formation) when quenched from the β phase field.

Molybdenum equivalent Metastable β alloys : Mo Eq. <25

Stable β alloys : Mo Eq. <25-40

Moequiv% = 1.0Mo + 0.67V + 0.44W − 0.28Nb + 0.22Ta +1.6Cr + ... −1.0Al

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 47

 Beta titanium alloys
➢ β titanium alloys possess a BCC crystal structure, which is readily cold-worked
(than HCP ∝ structure) in the β phase field.
➢ Microstructure after quenching contains equiaxed β phase.
➢ After solution heat treating + quenching → giving very high strength (up to
1300-1400 MPa).
➢ Metastable β Ti alloys are hardenable while stable β Ti alloys are non-
hardenable.

Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al alloy solution Flow stress for Ti

heat-treated at 788° C /30min alloys hot-worked at
and water-quenched 810° C

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 48

Heat treatment scheme for 𝛃 titanium alloys

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 49

 Beta titanium alloys
Most β titanium alloys are metastable and tend to transform
into
❑ coarse ∝ platets after heat-treated in the ∝+β phase field or
❑ ∝ phase precipitation after longterm ageing at elevated
temperature

𝛽 annealed microstructure, 𝛽 CEZ (Ti-5Al2Sn-2Cr-4Mo-4Zr)- beta rich

This effect gives higher strength to the

alloy but can cause embrittlement and
not desirable when ductility is required

Effect of pre-aging on microstructure of heavily stabilised β

alloys Beta 21S (Ti-15Mo-2.6Nb-3Al-0.2Si)
Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 50
Composition and applications of 𝛃 titanium alloys

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 51

Beta titanium alloys

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 52

 Forming of titanium alloys

Most of titanium products are mechanically deformed by the

following processes

➢Forging
➢Sheet and ring rolling
➢Machining
➢Power metallurgy
➢Superplastic forming/diffusion bonding

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 53

Deformation of titanium alloys

Crystal structure and slip systems in HCP and

BCC crystal structures

HCP ∝ Ti alloys
Deformation is limited on available slip
systems and relies on twinning*
deformation at RT
BCC β Ti alloys
Deformation relies on more available slip
systems with quite limited twinning
deformation →hot-working

Note: FCC metals have the most activated slip system→ most ductile

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 54

 Forging of titanium alloys
➢ Ti alloys have much higher flow stress than Al alloys or steels. → requiring
high forging pressure, capacity
➢ Near net shape is obtained using precision die forging
➢ Initial working is done about 150°C above the
beta transus temperature to about 28-38%
strain, depending on alloy types and prior heat
treatments. Subsequent deformation
processes can be done in the ∝+β region

Forged Ti connecting rod and Titanium forged golf club

implant prothesis

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 55

 Rolling of titanium alloys
➢ Titanium alloy sheet is normally packrolled to avoid
surface oxidation.
➢ A group of titanium sheet blanks are sealed with steel
retort and rolled as a group.
Titanium alloys are ring rolled to produce large
➢ Parting agent is filled between individual blanks to prevent cylinders for fan casing or pressure vessels
sheet bonding.
➢ After hot rolling, the sheets are extracted, pickled and
flattened for finishing process

Hot-rolled Ti clad steel plates used Titanium ring rolling

in condenser in power station
Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 56
 Machining of titanium alloys
➢ Titanium and titanium alloys are relatively more difficult to machine
(especially β Ti alloys) in comparison to steels and aluminium alloys
for all conventional methods such as milling, turning, drilling etc.
➢ Titanium’s low thermal conductivity reduces heat dissipation at
metal-workpiece interface → decreased tool life, welding or galling
at tool-workpiece interface.
➢ Machining tools are critical → carbide or ceramic toolings.
➢ Avoid loss of surface integrity due to tool damage → dramatically
reduce properties especially fatigue.

Machined titanium parts-defence satellites

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 57

Powder metallurgy of titanium alloys
➢ Titanium PM parts are made from pressing and sintering, giving
near-net shape products.
➢ Production of titanium powder is quite difficult due to high reactivity
of titanium with oxygen → expensive.
➢ The whole process (atomization, pressing and sintering) requires
prevention from atmospheric contamination
➢ Blending of Ti sponge and master alloys.
➢ CIPing at T > β transtus upto 95% density.
➢ HIPing to improve mechanical properties

(a) Ti-6Al-4V alloy produced (b) Same material after

from CIPing and sintering of HIPing, showing no
Titanium powder (SEM) blended CP sponge and ALV porosity
master alloy
Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 58
 Superplastic forming and diffusion bonding of titanium alloys
Advantages: Disadvantages:
➢ Produce complex and light-weight components ➢ Expensive
with good integrity and stiffness. ➢ Cannot be used for critical load
➢ Reduce production steps. bearing structures.
➢ Reduce the use of fasteners, i.e., rivets →
eliminating stress concentrations.

Stop-off agent is used for bonding of regions of the sheet, followed

by pressurisation to separate unbonded regions of the sheet.

SPF/DB process SPF/DB structure

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 59

 Casting of titanium alloys
Titanium castings contribute to small
amount of titanium products recently
used. There are several methods as
follows;

• Conventional casting
• Investment casting
• Vacuum casting
Note: Titanium castings are normally near
net shape products with minimised metal
waste, which can occur during mechanical
processing and machining.
Casting processes

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 60

 Conventional casting
➢ Rammed graphite is used as the mould rather than sand due
to its minimal tendency to react with molten titanium.
➢ Produce intricate shapes with good surface finish condition

Rammed graphite casting made from CP Ti grade 2

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 61

 Investment casting
This process begins with

1) Duplicating a wax part from engineering drawing of the specific part.

2) Dipping in ceramic slurry until a shell is formed.
3) The wax is then melted out and the fired shell is filled with molten
metal to form a part near to the net shape of the drawing.

➢ Most widely used for titanium

castings
➢ Cost effective
➢ Precise dimensional control

Used for structural applications

requiring metallurgical integrity and
sports applications such as golf heads.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 62

 Vacuum die casting
Vacuum is applied for die casting to reduce gas entrapment
during metal injection and to decrease porosity in the casting

➢ Reduce porosity in the castings

➢ Provide high quality parts

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 63

 Properties of titanium alloys
Material strength, creep resistance and fatigue properties are the
main properties usually required for applications of titanium alloys.
Titanium alloys provide superior specific yield
strength (high strength to weight ratio) than other
alloys.

Specific proof stress of Approaches to modify the properties of titanium alloys

various materials
Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 64
Strength and toughness of titanium alloys

Tensile strength of different Ti

alloys at a range of temperatures

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 65

Strength and toughness of titanium alloys

Properties of various Ti alloys

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 66

Microstructure and tensile properties of titanium alloys

➢ Bimodal microstructure is more

resistant to fracture due to equaixed
∝ phase→ giving higher strength.
➢ Equiaxed ∝ phase is also more
resistant to nucleation of voids →
higher ductility.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 67

Microstructure and fracture toughness properties of titanium alloys

Crack paths in the centre of fracture toughness Ti-6Al-4V

specimens (a) coarse lamellar and (b) fine lamellar

More torturous path in coarse lamellar microstructure leads to

higher energy dissipation during fracture → higher toughness.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 68

 Fatigue properties of titanium alloys

➢ Smaller equiaxed ∝ grains are more beneficial to fatigue

strength.
➢ Crack nucleates within the lamellar region more easily than
in the equiaxed ∝ phase region.
➢ But crack propagation is more difficult in the lamellar
structure.

Crack initiation at lamellar region in

Crack propagation paths in (a) lamellar and (b) bi-modal structures
bi-modal microstructure

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 69

 Fatigue properties of titanium alloys
Properties of annealed Ti-6Al-4V (forging)

➢ Moderate tensile strength.

➢ β annealed has superior fatigue along platelets of ∝.
➢ ∝+β annealed is more fatigue resistance due to slower crack
propagation rate to fatigue crack initiation. → better low cycle fatigue
(high stress).
➢ Duplex structure of 30% equiaxed ∝ and ∝ platelets provides high
temperature applications.

LCF of Ti-6Al-4V in FCG curves for 𝛽 and ∝+𝛽

∝+𝛽 annealed and 𝛽 annealed conditions
annealed

Crack propagation path in 𝛽 annealed Ti-6-4

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 70
 Corrosion of titanium alloys

When fresh titanium is exposed to

environment containing oxygen, it will
develop oxide films which are

1) Stable
2) Tenacious
3) Inert
4) Self-healing or re-form

Good corrosive resistance to salt water and marine, acids,

alkalis, natural waters and chemicals

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 71

 Welding of titanium alloys
➢ ∝ and ∝+β titanium alloys are readily weldable.
➢ β titanium alloys are not readily weldable due to high amounts
of alloying element → macro/micro segregation.

➢Tungsten
➢Inert Gas Welding
➢Electron Beam Welding
➢Laser Beam Welding
➢Friction welding

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 72

 Tungsten inert gas welding

Arc is produced between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode

and the metals in the presence of shielding gas (He, Ar)

➢ Most widely used technique for titanium welding.

➢ Require no vacuum
➢ Lower operating cost Tungsten inert gas welding
➢ Provide relatively coarser weld structure than those
obtained from EBW and LBW.
➢ High heat input → relatively high distortion

Note: Also called Tungsten Inert Gas welding or TIG welding.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 73

 Electron beam welding
➢ Electron beam is used as a heat source.
➢ Vacuum and non-vacuum process → clean.
➢ Relatively high operating cost and equipment.
➢ Multiple or single -pass arc welding
➢ Low heat input → minimum distortion

Electron beam welding Electron beam welding

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 74

 Laser beam welding
➢ Laser is used as a heat source
➢ Correct choice of shielding
gas
➢ Adequate shielding methods
➢ Pre-cleaning (de-greasing)
➢ Good joint surface quality

Advantages of laser beam welding

➢ High productivity (nearly 10 times faster than
TIG).
➢ Low heat input and therefore low distortion.
➢ Ease of automation for repeatability.
➢ No need for filler wire, thus reducing costs
Laser welding of titanium alloy

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 75

 Friction welding

Friction welding is carried out by moving

one part in a linear reciprocating motion to
effect the heat at the joint

Friction welding process Weld structure obtained from

friction welding

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 76

 Defects in titanium welding
➢ Titanium and titanium alloys are highly reactive to oxygen,
therefore care must be taken for titanium welding
➢ Should be carried out in vacuum or appropriate shielding
gas such as Ar or He
➢ The main defects occur in titanium welding are;

➢ Weld metal porosity

Most frequent defects caused by gas bubbles trapped
between dendrites during solidification
➢ Embrittlement
Due to oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen contamination
at T> 500°C → need effective shielding. Macroscopic pore observed in TIG
➢ Contamination cracking welding of beta titanium alloy

Due to iron contamination→ reducing corrosion

resistance, separate from steel fabrication

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 77

Applications of titanium alloys in summary

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 78

 References
➢ Polmear, I.J., Light alloys: metallurgy of the light metals, Third edition, 1995,
Arnold, London, ISBN 0-340-63207 (pb).
➢ Smith, W.F., Structure and properties of engineering alloys, second edition,
1993, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-70- 112829-8.
➢ Lütjering, G., Williams, J.C., Titanium, 2003, Springer, ISBN 3-540-42990-5.
➢ Leyens, C., Peters, M., Titanium and titanium alloys: fundamentals and
applications, 2003, WILEY-VCH, Germany, ISBN 3-527-30534-3.
➢ F.H. Froes, S.J. Mashl, V.S. Moxson, J.C. Hebeisen, and V.A. Duz , The
Technologies of Titanium Powder Metallurgy, JOM, November, 2004, p. 46-48.
➢ www.jhu.edu.

Dr. S. Santosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNCE 79