Description of unit

This unit module is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes
to enable him/her process information and communicate effectively at the workplace.

The content of this document is suitable to all levels of learners in TVET polytechnic
that is, artisan, craft certificate and diploma levels. Tutors are advised to identify the
level of learners and select the appropriate content.

A tutor is advised to selected appropriate teaching and learning resources, teaching

and learning activities and appropriate evaluation methods.

Suggested teaching and learning resources include but not limited to:
 Language laboratory  Flip charts
 Data projector  Marker pen
 Resources persons  Whiteboard
 Textbooks  Newspapers
 Reference books  Magazines/journals

Suggested teaching/learning resources

 Group presentation
 Debating
 Interactive lectures
 Role playing
 Questions and answers
 Class discussions

Suggested evaluation methods

 Continuous assessment test
 Oral tests
 Assignments
 Random assessment test
 Written tests

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Objective of the Unit
By the end of this unit, the trainee should be able to

a) Recognize the importance of communication in the workplace

b) Develop necessary skills for effective communication
c) Use different modes and forms of communication in business management
d) Recognize the role of information communication technology (ICT) in
communication
e) Develop the necessary writing skills for various documents
f) Apply official etiquette, protocol and diplomacy at workplace
g) Cope with emerging issues and trends in communication

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CONTENT

Description of unit ................................................................................................................... i

Objective of the Unit ............................................................................................................... ii
CONTENT .............................................................................................................................. iii
TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION ..................................................1
1.1 Definition of terms and concepts used in communication ..........................................1
1.2 Purpose of communication ............................................................................................3
1.3 Characteristics of effective communication ..................................................................5
1.4 Role of Information Communication Technology .......................................................5
1.5 Limitations of using personal computer-internet based ICT ......................................6
TOPIC TWO: COMMUNICATION PROCESS......................................................................9
2.1 Elements in the communication process .......................................................................9
2.2 The stages in the communication process .................................................................. 10
2.3. Objectives of Communication ..................................................................................... 11
2.4 Barriers to Communication .......................................................................................... 12
2.5 Overcoming barriers to Communication .................................................................... 16
TOPIC THREE: PRINCIPLES TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION ........................... 17
3.1 Principles of Effective Communication ...................................................................... 17
TOPIC FOUR: CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION............................................. 23
2.1 Types of Communication ............................................................................................. 23
TOPIC FIVE: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION .................................................................. 36
5.1 Forms of Communication ............................................................................................ 36
TOPIC SIX: OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE, PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY .......................... 45
6.1 Meaning of Etiquette, Protocol and Diplomacy ......................................................... 45
6.2 Protocol .......................................................................................................................... 47
6.3 Diplomacy ..................................................................................................................... 47

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TOPIC SEVEN: WRITING SKILLS ....................................................................................... 49
7.1 Punctuation Marks ........................................................................................................ 49
7.2 Courtesy in Writing ...................................................................................................... 53
7.3 Paragraph Development .............................................................................................. 55
7.4 Characteristics of a Good Paragraph........................................................................... 58
7.5 Essay Writing ................................................................................................................ 59
7.6 Functional Writing ........................................................................................................ 62
TOPIC EIGHT: SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 69
8.1 Importance of Summary Writing ................................................................................ 69
8.2 Characteristics of a Good Summary ............................................................................ 69
8.3 Steps in Summary Writing ........................................................................................... 69
TOPIC NINE: REPORT WRITING SKILLS ......................................................................... 72
9.1 Meaning of Reports....................................................................................................... 72
9.2 Importance of Report in an Organization ................................................................... 72
9.3 Types of Reports ........................................................................................................... 73
9.4 Characteristics of a good report ................................................................................... 76
9.5 Preparation for report writing ..................................................................................... 76
9.6 Sections in a report........................................................................................................ 77
9.7 Report writing formats ................................................................................................. 78
9.8 Referencing styles ......................................................................................................... 79
TOPIC TEN: CONDUCTING MEETINGS AND MINUTE WRITING ............................. 82
10.1 Definition of terms meeting and minutes ................................................................. 82
10.2 Purpose of meetings ................................................................................................... 82
10.3 Types of Meetings ....................................................................................................... 83
10.4 Preparation for a meeting ........................................................................................... 84
10.5 Minutes ........................................................................................................................ 86
10.6 Format/ layout in minutes writing ............................................................................ 86

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 10.7 Types of minutes ......................................................................................................... 87
TOPIC ELEVEN: INTERVIEWS ........................................................................................... 88
11.1 Meaning of interviews ................................................................................................ 88
11.2 Purpose of interviews in an organization ................................................................. 88
11.3 Types of interviews ..................................................................................................... 88
11.4 Preparation for an Interview ...................................................................................... 90
TOPIC TWELVE: PUBLIC RELATIONS AND CUSTOMER CARE ................................. 92
12.1 Definitions of terms public, customer, public relations ........................................... 92
12.2 Role of Public Relations .............................................................................................. 93
12.3 Types of Customers .................................................................................................... 94
12.4 Challenges in public relations .................................................................................... 95
12.5 Customer Care/Customer Service ............................................................................. 96
12.6 Customer Service Skills .............................................................................................. 96
TOPIC THIRTEEN: EMERGING ISSUES AND TRENDS IN COMMUNICATION ....... 98

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TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Content
 Definition of terms and concepts used in communication
 Purpose of communication
 Essentials of effective communication
 Role of information communication and technology in communication

1.1 Definition of terms and concepts used in communication

Communication

a. It is the process of passing information from the sender to the receiver or from
one place to another.
b. Communication is the exchange of facts, opinions, ideas or emotions between
two or more people.
c. Communication is giving, receiving or exchanging information or opinions
through writing, speech, visual, audio-visual or gestures so that the information
is completely understood by everyone concerned.
d. Communication can be defined as the process through which people exchange
ideas or information by sending messages from one person to another with the
receiver comprehending the message and giving an appropriate feedback.

Channel/Medium

This is the path/way through which information is passed to reach the receiver. E.g
emails, phones, letters

Barrier

Refers to anything that hinders or distorts the communication process e.g noise, poor
network connectivity etc

Sender

This is the initiator of the communication process and plays the following roles:

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  He/she is the source of the information
 Initiates the communication
 Encodes the message by choosing appropriate words, signs, symbols or
gestures to pass the message
 Chooses the most appropriate medium of communication

Message

This refers to the ideas, feelings or information transmitted from the sender to the
receiver. The role of the message is to bring understanding between the sender and the
receiver.

Encoding

This is the process where the sender puts his ideas/thoughts in a form that can be
understood by the receiver by choosing appropriate words, signs, symbols or gestures.

Receiver

This is the intended target of the message. He receives the message and is expected to
give an appropriate feedback to the sender. If the receiver does not get the message as
intended, then communication breakdown takes place. The receiver plays the following
roles:

 Receives the message

 Decodes the message
 Gives an appropriate feedback

Decoding

It is the process through which the receiver interprets the message in order to give an
appropriate feedback.

Feedback

This is the reaction or response of the receiver to the sender’s message.

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Importance of feedback

 Completes the communication process

 Enables the sender know if the receiver understood the message
 Sender is able to clarify the message if it was not well understood.
 It releases the sender and receiver to attend to other issues

Factors to consider when choosing a medium of communication

(a) Cost- consider how much will be spent on the medium of communication in
relation to the expected results.
(b) Availability of medium- the sender should choose a medium that the receiver is
familiar with and one that is also available in the environment of the receiver.
(c) Resources-consider the number of staff available and physical resources
available.
(d) Urgency/Speed of the message-if a message is urgent, calling is the best.
(e) The nature of the message- a detailed message is best passed through writing
while a brief message can be passed through calling.
(f) The reliability of the medium- if communication is official, writing assures
sender that the message will reach the receiver.
(g) The target audience/receiver of the message- the sender should choose the
medium depending on the type of audience. E.g
 children- choose visual or audio-visual communication
 visually impaired- audio communication
 hearing impaired- visual communication
 deaf and dumb

1.2 Purpose of communication

(a) To inform
One of the most important objectives of communication is passing and receiving
information.

(b) To advice
Information is factual and objective, advice on the other hand involves personal
opinions. It is subjective and neutral. When advice is given to person he/she may use it

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to decide or not to use it. Advice flows downwards and horizontal and is aimed at
influencing the opinions or behavior of other person.

(c) To order
An order is an authoritative communication, directive. Orders flow from top to bottom.

(d) To suggest
A suggestion is different from other forms of communication. In other forms it flows
from superiors to subordinates but a suggestion may flow from subordinate to superior.
It is mild and subtle and moves in all directions.

(e) To persuade
It is aimed at influencing the attitudes, feelings or beliefs of others.

(f) To educate
Education is a conscious process of communication. Its main purpose is to widen
knowledge and improve skills.

(g) To warn
To caution people of any impending issues or behaviors

(h) Raise morale

Morale is a powerful factor representing the sum of many qualities such as courage,
fortitude, resolution and confidence.

(i) To motivate
Motivation means to energize and activate a person and challenge their behavior
towards the attainment of desired goals. It also helps to breathe life into someone’s life
at times.

(j) Good reputation

Effective communication with customers and either business enables company establish
good reputation this increase prestige of the company.

(k) Improves public relations

When a company communicates with general public to keep them informed of its
activities more people become interested to deal with that company.

(l) Better business prospects

Due to good communication the company can attract more customers.
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 (m) Job requirements
Most jobs require communication skills such as personnel public relations, marketing,
editing, research, advocates, etc. executives are expected to make speeches, give
interviews to media and all these require good communication skills.

1.3 Characteristics of communication

(a) Communication is two-way

Communication is said to be two way because it involves both the sender and the
receiver. The sender chooses an appropriate medium to send the message to the
receiver.

(b) Communication is a process

This is because communication is in stages where the sender and receiver play specific
roles. This process ends with a feedback from the receiver.

(c) Communication is contextual

It takes place in a given situation or place. Therefore, the words, signs, symbols and
gestures used must be interpreted by the receiver in the specific context.

(d) Communication is purposeful

Individuals communicate for a specific reason or to achieve a specific objective. E.g to

educate, motivate, warn, advice, counsel etc

(e) Communication is symbolic

Symbols can be letters, marks, numbers, pictures or shapes used to represent

something. Users of different languages agree on the symbols and use them to express
ideas. People in different professions also have symbols that pass specific information.

(f) Irreversible

(g) A system

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Essentials to effective communication

1) The subject

This is the content of the communication. It is the information that the sender
intends to pass across to the receiver

2) The audience

This is the receiver of the message. The sender needs to gather enough information
about the receiver to be able to communicate effectively to them. An audience
analysis can be done if necessary.

3) Purpose – This is the reason why the sender is undertaking the communication e.g
to inform, persuade, educate e.t.c

4) Appropriate channel – It is the vehicle used to pass the message

5) Presentation –Means by which the sender will receive best results

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1.4 Role of Information Communication Technology

ICT has made the world a global village. Many organizations are improving their
business processes by use of ICT with the aim of being effective, transformed and
competitive.

a) Information Communication and Technology allows a number of people to have access to the
same information at the same time instead of having to wait e.g for a file to be returned to the
cabinet i.e information is instantly available.

b) Computers can be used to produce volumes of information sufficient for operations.

c) Tasks that were previously done by hands in what are known as manual system can now be done
much more quickly and efficient by electronic means.

d) Electronic mail allows messages to be sent faster to parts of the world in different time zones
without the need to wait for an appropriate time or the next working day.

e) Electronic conferencing makes it possible to be held between people at different ends of the
country or even in different parts of the world by use of television, camera and receivers,
computer technology and telephone lines.

f) Most organizations/companies are able to store information in data bases and that information
can be retrieved easily and quickly.

g) Confidentiality:- electronic data base make it possible for any authorized uses to have access to
certain information.

h) Portability:- carrying a large amount of information has been made easier by using e.g flash disk,
diskettes, floppy disc e.t.c.

i) Storage of vast amount of data and processing.

j) Editing:- errors can be corrected on screen so that there should be no errors in the final
document.

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1.5 Limitations of using personal computer-internet based ICT

 Bandwidth

The time taken to access information in the internet depends on the bandwidth
available to the user at the time. It takes several minutes to download information using
an economical connection. A person can therefore waste a lot of time as they try to
download information from the internet.

 Language

Currently, all the information in the internet is in English which is a limiting factor.

 Text/Voice

Most information in the computer requires action by the user as opposed to the passive
nature of the television and radio.

 Disruptive software

Internet users are also under the threat of computer viruses which destroy all their
stored information. At the same time, antivirus programs used to secure information in
our computers are also expensive.

 Security

The threat of losing information to computer hackers is high and computer users live in
fear of their confidential information leaking to the wrong hands.

Modern ICT channels of communication

ICT has made communication diverse and therefore organizations and people can use
different modern-internet based channels for fast, effective and efficient
communication. They include:

a) Video conferencing/video collaboration

A video conference is a set of interactive telecommunication technology which allows

two or more people in different locations to interact via two-way video and audio
transmissions.

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Advantages

(i) It saves time since the people do not travel to a central location for the
conference.
(ii) It is cost efficient as it cuts cost on transportation, meals and accommodation.
(iii) It is flexible as it makes it possible to schedule for meetings even in short
notice.
(iv) Boosts productivity-enables employees to easily communicate with other
branches on different issues.
(v) it supports both visual and audio communication making it clear and
effective.
(vi) It offers real time communication thus retaining the attention of the
participants.
(vii) It offers a personal appeal as it is easy to read body language of the
participants.

Disadvantages

(i) Poor network connections may result to disconnection in the conversation.

(ii) It is expensive to set up video conference facilities.

b) Teleconferencing

It is a meeting held over the phone usually involving two or more people. Each
attendee calls a central number and uses a code to enter the meeting.

Advantages

(i) It saves time since the people do not travel to a central location for the
conference.
(ii) It is cost efficient as it cuts costs on meals, transport and accommodation.
(iii) It is flexible as it makes it easy to schedule meetings in short notice
(iv) It boosts productivity as it enables employees to easily communicate with
other branches clarifying on issues.

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 Disadvantages

(i) Lack of body language- it does not allow attendees to see the reaction of each
other on the issues being discussed.
(ii) Interruptions-calls may be dropped or poor internet connection may
disconnect the participants.
(iii) It does not support visual presentation- it lacks the ability to share photos,
graphs and charts which may enhance understanding.

Channels of communication

Definition;- Definition of channel

Channels of communication in an organization

 Memos
 Letters
 Notices
 Emails
 Circulars
 Phone calls
 VoIP
 Sms
 WhatsApp
Advantages and disadvantages of each

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TOPIC TWO: COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Content

 Elements in the communication process

 Stages of communication process
 Objectives of communication
 Barriers to effective communication
 Strategies of overcoming barriers to effective communication

2.1 Elements in the communication process

The communication process consists of five elements as shown in the diagram below:

SENDER MESSAGE

FEEDBACK
MEDIUM

RECEIVER

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2.2 The stages in the communication process

The communication process follows a cycle as shown below:

ENCODING
STAGE

CONCEPTION TRANSMISSION
STAGE STAGE

FEEDBACK RECEIVING
STAGE STAGE

DECODING
STAGE

Conception stage

Communication starts with a person who is motivated to communicate. This

communication is as a result of a particular need. This person conceives an idea in their
mind and determines the objective of their communication. e.g educating, informing,
warning

Encoding stage

In this stage the sender converts his thoughts in a form that can be understood by the
receiver by putting the idea in words, signs, symbols or gestures. The sender also
considers the audience

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Transmission stage

It involves the actual transfer of the information. It requires the sender to choose an
appropriate medium depending on the type of audience. The channel should allow
sending of information without distortion.

Receiving stage

It involves the receiver who takes in the message through watching, reading or
listening. This depends on the medium used.

Decoding stage

The receiver interprets the message by giving meaning to the words, signs, symbols or
gestures used.

Feedback stage

The receiver reacts or responds to the sender’s message. The response may be in
writing, speech or a gesture. Feedback is important as it completes the communication
process.

2.3. Objectives of Communication

a) Passing information

In organizations, the main purpose of communication is for managers to inform the

employees about the policies, procedures and changes to be made. This gives the
employees a sense of belonging and job satisfaction. Employees also pass information to
managers in form of suggestions.

b) Giving advice

Mangers and experienced employees in organizations normally advice new and junior
staff about how the organization policies and procedures are implemented. It is up to
the junior staff to decide if to take the advice or not.

c) Counseling

Most organizations have qualified and skilled counselors who give therapy to
employees when they go through professional, domestic and health challenges.

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 d) Giving orders

They are given by managers to employees who are supposed to comply with failure to
which they get warned either verbally or in writing. Downward communication is
dominated by orders.

e) Offering suggestions

Employees in organizations give employees suggestions that may improve the welfare
of the organization if implemented. It is up to managers to ignore or implement them.

f) Persuasion

It is an attempt to influence a person’s attitude, beliefs and feelings. Persuasion is better

than coercion. It has four steps:

i. Analyzing the situation

ii. Preparing the receiver
iii. Delivering the message
iv. Prompting action

g) Education

It involves both teaching and learning extended over a long period of time. The aim is
to instill knowledge and skills in the learners.

h) Warning

If employees go against the rules and regulations at the work place, then they are
warned verbally or in writing.

2.4 Barriers to Communication

Barriers to effective Communication

These are factors that hinder the success of a communication process in one way or another.
We can summarize and classify them as follows;

a. Physiological barriers
b. Psychological
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 c. Physical barriers
d. Cultural barriers
e. Language barriers
f. Interpersonal barriers
g. Mechanical barriers
h. Authority
i. Stereotypes

1. Physiological Barriers

Physiological barriers may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused, for example,

by ill health, poor eye sight, or hearing difficulties. These may also affect one’s personality in

many different and mostly negative ways. This can best be handled by working on developing

a positive perception as certain physiological features contributing to barriers may not be

curable.

2. Physical Barriers

Physical are barrier s that come around as a result of presence of physical objects or distance or

time. These barriers include:

i. Noise

In factories and workshops, oral communication is almost made impossible because of

noise from machines. Electronic noise from telephones, buzzers, photocopy machines
also interfere with oral communication. Noise from vehicles in bust highways and
roads also make oral communication difficult. The term noise is also used to refer to all
kinds of physical interferences like illegible handwriting, faulty procedures, paper
smeared with ink, poor telephone connectivity, loss of important documents and files
and inadequate staff.

ii. Distance

Modern ICT facilities have made communication fairly efficient. However, these
facilities may breakdown, making communication impossible. In this case, the distance
between the sender and the receiver becomes a mighty barrier. There are also other
places without ICT facilities. A faulty seating arrangement can also be a barrier to
communication as one may be seated far away from the speaker and where they may
15
 not be able to make eye contact.

iii. Time

Communication between workers in countries with different time zones can be

confusing and difficult.

iv. Environmental stress

A high temperature, a high humidity, poor ventilation, a strong brightness, vibrations

on the ground may contribute to distortion in sending and receiving information.
v. Subjective stress

Lack of sleep, sickness, mood variations, effects of drugs contribute to difficulty in

listening and interpretation of information.

vi. Wrong choice of medium

Use a medium that the receiver is not familiar with, turns the channel to a barrier.

3. Cultural Barriers

Culture prescribes behavior. Humans can adapt to different culture once we come to accept it

and appreciate that cultures are different so that we can be recognized from others and that no

specific connotations need to be attached to one culture or the other.

4. Language Barriers

These are barriers that result from language related challenges. They can be classified as

follows;

i. Some people may communicate in a language, which the receiver is not

familiar with.
ii. A transmitter/encoder can speak in an unfamiliar accent.
iii. Sender may speak too quickly making it impossible for the receiver to get
the message.
iv. A word may have different meanings and so may be interpreted
differently according to the receiver’s understanding and mental attitude.
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 v. A transmitter may use abbreviations, acronyms and technical language
that may hinder understanding of the receiver.
5. Interpersonal Barriers

These can be classified into two namely the desire to participate and the desire to explore.

Absence of willingness to communicate by either party involved in the said communication

process can be a serious barrier. Likewise, absence of willingness to explore different ideas,

opinions, and priorities is a serious barrier to effective communication as well.

6. Psychological Barriers

These can be classified into the following;

 Perceptual barriers – These are deeply rooted and work in conjunction with our

experiences. We all see the world differently since we have varying experiences. We

tend to associate certain things with our bad experiences and others with our good

experiences. All these affect our behaviour regarding the subject in question, especially

the negative experiences.

 Emotional Barriers - One of the other chief psychological barriers to open and free

communication is the emotional barrier. It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust, and

suspicion. As mentioned earlier the roots of our emotional mistrust of others lie in our

childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said to others.

 Experiential barriers.

Experiential barriers on the other hand become barriers by virtue of not having

experienced them leading to altered interpretation and comprehension. Our experience

shapes our view of the world. For example, when children experience trauma at the

hands of trusted adults (especially family members) their emotional link with the adult

world is severed, creating distrust. They are left with three companions: guilt, fear and

feelings of inferiority.

 Self Consciousness: These are barriers which originate from an individuals' personal

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 judgement of self abilities and inabilities. For example if a person believes something is

beyond his or her ability then they will be unwilling to engage in it.

 Resistance to change: These are barriers which result from the fact that human being tend to

slip in to a sort of comfort zone within the status quo. It is always uncomfortable to

deviate from what one is used to, hence this barrier.

 Inattentiveness: This results from lack of paying attention caused either by stress or being

preoccupied by other things.

 Status Consciousness: It exists in all organizations. Most employees are usually afraid of
communicating any unpleasant information to their managers because they are aware of their

inferior position. Managers on the other hand feel consulting the employees may becompromising

their position. This barrier get worse in face to face communicationwhere the employee fails to

communicate what they want out of fear and the managers get impatient before fully giving the
employee a hearing.

 Poor retention: Studies show that employees retain about 50% of the information communicated to
them. The rest is lost. This may make the receiver give improper feedback.

7.Stereotypes

Stereotypes are widely circulated ideas or assumptions about particular groups. Stereotypes

are usually negative attitudes which people use to justify discrimination of conflict against

others. According to Pennington (1986) "there are two characteristics of stereotypes

1. People are categorized on the basis of very visible characteristics e.g. race, nationality, sex,

dress and bodily appearance;

2. All members of a particular group are assumed to have the same characteristics; and

The effects of stereotyping are seen as gross over simplified and over generalized descriptions.

They operate to overestimate differences existing between groups and under estimate

differences within groups.

Stereotypes distort reality since the over estimation between groups and under estimation

within groups bear little relation to the truth.

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Stereotyping acts as a barrier to communication because people make pre-conceived judgment

about people which are unfounded if their character does not relate to their appearance.

Stereotyping has a halo effect. Halo effect is the use of a single attribute to describe a person or

object fully. For example, if a person is friendly we may use this attribute to assume that they

are punctual and good at their job. Another important aspect of stereotyping is perception.

8. Mechanical barriers

These are the barriers caused by the channels used for interpersonal, group and mass
communication. Channels become barriers when the message is interfered with,
increasing the difficulty in receiving the message or preventing some elements of the
message reaching the destination.

2.5 Overcoming barriers to Communication

i. Organizations should ensure that communication is simple, clear and

straightforward.
ii. Managers should ensure communication should not have ambiguous or
technical terms; abbreviations or acronyms.
iii. Transmitters of information should choose the most appropriate medium of
communication and one that the receiver is familiar with.
iv. In oral communication, the sender should do proper timing so that the
receiver can give full attention.
v. Equipment and mechanical devices should be properly selected and
frequently serviced to prevent breakdown.
vi. Organizations should ensure there is little or no noise so that communication
is well received and understood.

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 TOPIC THREE: PRINCIPLES TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Content

 Principles of effective communication

3.1 Principles of Effective Communication

Introduction

The principles of communication are those scientific aspects, which must be taken into
account in all media f communication. They include:

1. Clarity
2. Completeness
3. Conciseness
4. Consideration/Courtesy
5. Concreteness
6. Correctness
7. Coherence

A. CLARITY

Clarity refers to avoiding ambiguity in your statements. A clear statement gives the
audience no chance of misinterpretation.
How to achieve clarity;
 Use short sentences
 Avoid long winding sentences
 Avoid jargon
 Use active voice and avoid passive voice
 Minimize vague statements, only use them on purpose.

B. COMPLETENESS

In a complete message, the audience has everything they need to be informed and, if

applicable, take action. Does your message include a “call to action”, so that your audience

clearly knows what you want them to do? Have you included all relevant information –

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contact names, dates, times, locations, and so on?

In business communication all facts presented should be complete to avoid confusing

the receiver. As a transmitter, one should organize a message well so that the receiver is
satisfied with it. Completeness therefore requires the following:

a. All questions in a letter should be answered by the receiver by checking all WH

words e.g when, where, what, how etc.
b. When calling for a meeting includes participants, agenda, the date, time and
venue of the meeting.

C. CONCISENESS

A transmitter should be precise when passing a message. However, one should not be
brief at the expense of clarity and completeness. Brevity retains the attention of the
receiver. Conciseness can be achieved by doing the following:

a. Include all relevant facts

b. Avoid unnecessary repetition
c. Use simple words and short sentences
d. Stick to the point
e. Do not beat around the bush, be straight

D. COURTESY/CONSIDERATION

Courteous communication is friendly, open, and honest and does not illicit emotions. There

are no hidden insults or passive aggressive tones. You keep your reader’s viewpoint in mind,

and you’re empathetic to their needs. You use a language that is polite and shows respect. You

must always put yourself in the shoes of the person you are talking to and ask yourself how

you would feel if you were to be addressed the way you are addressing your receiver.

Consideration in communication creates a healthy work environment.

Courtesy /consideration can be achieved through the following;

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  Use of polite language phrases e.g sorry, we appreciate etc

 Address people with their titles and names if possible e.g Dr. Robert, Mr. Joseph

etc as opposed to saying ‘you’.

 Ensure you spell their names right when you address them

 Avoid irritating statements that illicit emotions

 Respond to queries promptly and do not keep them waiting

 Apologize for errors and ommissions

E. CORRECTNESS

Correct communication is error free. You should ensure you send what you wanted to sent
and not a communication full of errors. Your communication should be free from errors both
grammatical and factual ones.
You can achieve this by;
 Double check or proof read the information before you send it
 Check for grammatical errors and correct before you send
 Check for spelling errors and correct
 Have a second person proof read your document before to dispatch it

F. COHERENCE

When your communication is coherent, it’s logical. All points are connected and relevant to

the main topic. The tone and flow of the text is also consistent. There is a flow in terms of ideas

in your communication. For example have an introduction, main body then conclusion. This

can be achieved by;

 Decide on the main topic of the communication from which all the other topics will

radiate

 Organize your ideas in order of importance

 Avoid repetition

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 G. CONCRETENESS

When your message is concrete, then your audience has a clear picture of what you’re telling

them. There are details and vivid facts. Your message is solid and creates a mental picture in

the mind of the receiver. Concreteness can be achieved by use of the following;

 Give vivid facts straight to the point

 Use descriptive language

 Do not exaggerate

 Give examples

 Use figurative language if necessary

Basic concepts of transmission and receipt of a message

 Encoding of the message by the sender

 Transmission
 Decoding of the message by the receiver
 Decoding feedback by the sender

ETHICAL ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION

Ethics in communication essentially deals with how honest, fair, and responsible
communicators are being at the individual, group, and mass communication levels.

1. Truthfulness
A communicator has a responsibility to ensure that the information given out is truthful.
Conscious distortion of facts on the part of the communicator is clearly unethical.
However, truth may at times conflict with other virtues such as public interest, privacy and
confidentiality.
2. Fairness
In giving information concerning parties, the communicator should not consciously lean
towards one side at the expense of another.

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3. Cult
It is very important in communication. A communicator has the responsibility of avoiding
making offensive or discriminatory speech on the grounds of race, gender, creed or
otherwise.
4. Honesty
It is unethical for one to attempt to pass other people’s ideas and theories as their own.
Credit should always be given when quotes from other people; whether copyrighted or not
are cited. If the information is intended to achieve a sale, the salesperson is obliged not to
withhold any piece of information that may put the potential buyer at a disadvantage.
5. Censorship
Authorities, including governments may feel compelled to control what kind of
information reaches the public. It is mostly due to self interest and survival. This
withholding of information may result into the public being not adequately empowered to
make beneficial decisions.
Sometimes, censorship is done on propriety reasons, such as the control of pornographic
material.
6. Objectivity
Communicators need to be faithful to the facts of the subject and report dispassionately.
Personal emotions should be avoided as much as possible, as they have the likelihood of
influencing the audience unduly.

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TOPIC FOUR: CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION
Content

 Types of communication
 Use of various types of communication

2.1 Types of Communication

• Internal communication

• External communication

• Formal communication

o Upward/downward/diagonal

• Informal communication

o Horizontal/grapevine/consensus

• Human communication

o Intrapersonal/interpersonal/transpersonal/group
communication/mass communication

 Internal communication

It refers to the exchange of information between people or departments in the same

organization. E.g between manager and assistant manager, supervisor and employees
etc

Importance

i. Strengthening employer employee relationship

The relationship is improved if the employer quickly solves problems raised by the
employees.

ii. Minimizing loses

It enables employees to inform the managers of any shortages in supplies or machines

that have broken down. Managers then take the necessary action to prevent loses
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iii. Co-ordination

It enables activities to run smoothly in an organization as all the required team

members are involved and well informed.

iv. Fostering Efficiency

It enables the management to instruct the employees about any changes. This makes
employees efficient as they are informed.

 External communication

It refers to exchange of information between an organization or person and another

organization, clients, suppliers, government departments and financial institutions.

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 Importance/Uses
i. Good reputation

It gives an organization a good name in the public eye.

ii. Meeting clients needs

It enables an organization communicate with its clients and getting to know what they
like or dislike and therefore, goods or services are given to the satisfaction of the clients.

iii. Improving business prospects

External communication enables an organization get more clients through referrals

from their old clients.

iv. Developing effective communication skills

Through relations with clients, suppliers, government departments an organization

learns how to politely communicate and negotiate to get what they want.

v. Improved public relations

An organization should communicate regularly with its clients, government

departments, financial institutions etc. this makes them interested in the organization.

 Formal communication

This is communication that follows the laid down structure of an organization.

Employees are therefore expected to strictly communicate according to the structures
laid down by the management. Downward and upward communication is examples
of formal communication.

1. Downward communication

This is communication from the management to the subordinates. E.g from the manager
to assistant manager

Methods/channels of downward communication

 Face to face  Memos

 Telephone conversations  Notices
 Letters  Interviews

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Uses

i. To praise subordinates of their good performance

ii. Explain organization policies and procedures
iii. To keep employees informed of the importance of their jobs in relation to the
organization goals
iv. To give specific directives to an employee.

Limitations of downward communication

i. Delay in communication

Transmission of information is a time consuming process as information leaves the

managers and is expected to reach the subordinates. However, the information may
delay losing its meaning.

ii. Loss of information

Unless the information is written down, it may not be transmitted in full.

iii. Resistance to change

Employees see downward communication as authoritative as they are not involved in

the decision making process. Therefore, they may oppose the decisions made by the
management.

iv. Distortion of information

In long lines of communication, information is twisted /exaggerated so that it loses its

meaning as some facts may be lost.

v. Under communication

A manager may give too little information for it to be useful to the employees.

vi. Over communication

A manager may speak too much leaking confidential information.

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Essentials of effective downward communication

1. Managers should be informed about the policies, procedures and objectives of

their organization. If they have adequate knowledge, they will transmit this
information to their subordinates in an effective manner.
2. Managers should have a communication plan. This will help them decide how
much information should reach the subordinates and at what time.
3. Managements should provide an organization structure that allows all people at
various management levels to give orders and effect decisions. This will ensure
delays are eliminated.

2. Upward communication

This is communication from subordinates to the management.

Importance of upward communication

i. Providing feedback

It provides the managers with the necessary feedback from employees. It also enables
the managers to know if directives given to employees have been understood and
followed. It also gives the managers an opportunity to know what the employees think
about the organization and its policies.

ii. Offering constructive suggestions

Employees give constructive suggestions to promote the welfare of the organization.

When employees realize that their suggestions have been implemented, they get
motivated and work efficiently resulting to increase in productivity.

iii. Creation of harmony and cohesion

It brings about a conducive environment at the workplace which promotes harmony

and oneness between the management and the employees

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 iv. Easy introduction of schemes

It is easy to introduce new schemes in an organization when employees feel part of the
decision making process. They also ensure the schemes succeed. E.g of schemes:
medical, education, housing

v. Release of emotions

Employees are able to express their various emotions to the management. This gives
them relief even if the issues are not solved immediately.

Methods of upward communication

i. Open door policy

The employees are given the feeling that the manager’s doors are always open to them
and whenever they like, they can go to the manager’s office and talk to them about their
problems.

ii. Reports

Employees may be required to submit reports about the progress of their work at
regular intervals.

iii. Complaints and suggestion boxes

They are placed at strategic places in the organization. Employees are encouraged to
drop their complaints or suggestions in these boxes.

iv. Social gatherings

They include a company fun days, sports days, end of year parties. Such gatherings
offer an informal atmosphere where employees feel free to offer suggestions and talk to
the management about their problems.

v. Letters

Sometimes employees may write to their managers on their own accord about
professional issues affecting them.

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 vi. Counseling

In organizations, workers are encouraged to seek advice from their managers or the
counseling department when they face professional, health and domestic challenges.
Employees may be discouraged by failure to get promotions or encounters with
inhuman and unprofessional managers. Counseling helps the employees to deal with
their problems. The information they provide can be used to improve the policies of the
organization.

Limitations of upward communication

i. Employees are usually afraid to start communication with their managers for fear
of victimization from the management.
ii. Employees usually feel communicating their problems could be exposing the
weaknesses of the management. E.g a new secretary may complain about a poor
filing system.
iii. Employees may distort information because they do not want to annoy the
managers. Therefore they may consciously censor information when speaking to
them.
iv. Poor relationships may occur between an employee and the immediate supervisor
if the employee bypasses the supervisor and goes straight to the manager.

Essentials of effective upward communication

i. Managers keep encouraging employees to go to their offices but instead, the
managers should walk to their employees working areas.
ii. Distortion of information can be avoided if the communication lines are kept as
short as possible.
iii. Managers should solve genuine problems from employees and implement
employees’ constructive suggestions if found appropriate.

4. Informal communication

This is communication between two or more people at different levels of management

without following any rules or formality. Horizontal communication is an example of
informal communication.

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 a. Horizontal / Lateral communication

It refers to communication between departments or people at the same levels in the

management hierarchy of an organization. E.g communication between worker and
worker, manager and manger, clerk and another clerk etc

Importance of horizontal communication

i. It promotes understanding and co-ordination among various departments this

is because departments can easily communicate with each other for the smooth
running of the organization.
ii. Employees develop good interpersonal relationships which strengthen unity
and teamwork, this increases productivity.
iii. It encourages quick and free flow of information between departments.
iv. There is immediate feedback to any information transmitted and any
misunderstanding can easily be solved.

Methods/channels of horizontal communication

 Face to face
 Speeches
 Discussions

a. Grapevine/rumors

It is an informal channel of communication where information follows no set direction

nor definite rules but spreads fast, in any direction, anywhere, anytime.

It is natural for people who work together to freely talk about appointments, sacking,
retrenchment, domestic issues and relationships. Employees gain pleasure from such
information ad spread it to others. These are the leaders of the grapevines. There could
be different grapevines in the same department or organization. E.g managers’
grapevine, supervisors’ grapevine etc

NB The grapevine can be effective vertically, diagonally or horizontally,

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How the grapevine operates

It operates in four basic types:

i. Single strand
ii. Gossip
iii. Probability
iv. Cluster

i. Single strand

It involves passing information through a long line of people until it reaches the desired
recipient.

ii. Gossip

A person gets information and tells everyone. Such a person is at the center

iii. Probability(random)

This chain is a random process where a person transmits information to others

according to the laws of probability.

iv. Cluster

In this chain, a person tells selected people who in turn tell other selected people. Most
informal communication follows this chain.

Importance of the grapevine

i. Providing feedback
The grapevine enables the management to know what the employees feel about the
organization policies and procedures, mission and vision.
ii. Promoting organization unity

The existence of the grapevine proves that the employees are interested in each other
and the organization. This is because they talk to each other and this promotes unity.

iii. Release of emotions

Worries experienced by employees on matters like promotes, retrenchments and

transfers is an issue with employees. When they talk about these issues, they find relief.

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iv. Supplement to other channels
All the information in an organization cannot be relayed to employees through the
formal channels. Any embarrassing and unsuitable information can be relayed through
the grapevine.

v. Quick transmission of information

Information in the grapevine is transmitted very fast. Rumors spread fast like bush fire.

Limitations of the grapevine

i. Incomplete information

Information usually lacks some details. Therefore, the information is likely to be

misinterpreted.

ii. Damaging reputation

The information in the grapevine can destroy the name of an individual or an

organization before it is aware about it and be in a position to counter the information.

iii. Distortion of information

The grapevine may spread false information which may be harmful; to an organization
and its employees.

How managers can use the grapevine effectively/ Uses of grapevine Communication

i. To test if an idea is acceptable to the organization’s staff before implementing it.

ii. To stop harmful rumors. Managers can identify the leaders of the various
grapevines and give them the relevant and factual information so that harmful
rumors do not reach the employees.
iii. General mood/feelings and attitudes of employees. The grapevine can be used to
identify the feelings and attitude of the employees in an organization.
iv. Curbing frustration and fear. Most workers can easily be involved in the decision
making process to avoid rumors and frustrate rumor mongers.
v. Motivation. Can easily be used to motivate employees

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 b. Consensus

This type of communication is where a few names are suggested then one name is
picked and some agreement is reached that the members will support a certain member.
As a result, this person is elected by a majority of people as there was an earlier
agreement. Decisions arrived at through consensus gives an organization a good image
to the public. Consensus shows that a majority subscribe to a particular view in the
interests of the organization.

Advantages of consensus

i. Decisions are easily accepted as they are made after consulting members.
ii. Unnecessary and undesirable conflicts are avoided.
iii. It portrays a good image of unity and harmony in an organization.
iv. Employees gain confidence of their organization and their morale is boosted.

Disadvantages of consensus

i. It is an accommodation of interests because a person may not support a

particular candidate but allows the majority to have their way.
ii. A member may be forced to subscribe to a view he does not support. This can
result to conflict.
iii. Employees may feel their managers are incapable of making independent
decisions if they always have to consult.
iv. It is a time consuming process as managers take time to consult with
employees.

5. Human communication

It includes:

 Interpersonal/face to face communication

 Intrapersonal communication
 Transpersonal
 Group communication
 Mass communication

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 i. Interpersonal communication

This is direct face to face communication between two people. It takes place in the form
of a conversation between two people.

It is usually personal, intimate and direct allowing for the maximum interaction and
exchange in words and non-verbal cues. It is the perfect form of communication
between two people as it is persuasive and influential. It is total communication as it
involves body language, physical characteristics, body odors and our dressing. It can be
formal or informal.

The three stages of interpersonal communication

i. Phatic stage

This stage begins with a greeting. The accompanying gestures are: meeting of the eyes,
a smile, a handshake and moving closer to talking distance. In a formal situation, the
distance is greater than in an informal situation where people move close to each other.
This is a warming up stage where people talk about how they are, the weather, and the
current affairs. This shows interest and attention.

ii. Personal stage

It introduces a more personal element in a conversation. Here we express our feelings

and expose some things about ourselves. We can talk about our personal life e.g our
family, health, profession etc. if we don’t desire to get to this stage, the conversation
ends at stage one or continues in a formal manner.

iii. Intimate stage

This stage is reserved for close friends and relatives with the degree of intimacy
depending on the level of closeness in the relationship. We tell our close feelings to
some close people in our lives while we give limited information to others even though
they are our friends or relatives.
Interpersonal relationships take their highest form at this stage as the people talking
reveal their innermost feelings and thoughts, strengths and weaknesses, fears and joys.
This stage is therefore for people with deep relationships based on love, respect and
understanding.

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How interpersonal communication is conducted

It is conducted on the basis of

a) Focused interactions
b) Unfocused interactions

a) Focused interactions

These interactions result from two people meeting. These people are fully aware that
they are communicating with each other. Whether they are sitting or standing, near or
far from each other, they are aware that they are exchanging both verbal and non-verbal
messages. They also communicate through body language. Turning eyes away shows
disinterest so the interaction should come to an end.

b) Unfocused interactions

It takes place when we listen to or observe people we are not talking to in buses,
railway station, lifts, hotels, streets, airports etc. this happens when we watch people
without their knowledge. Consequently, we make inferences about them which may be
true or false. We draw conclusions about a person’s culture, social status, religion etc.
E.g a man wearing a suit may be considered a business executive.

ii. Intrapersonal communication

It is communication within oneself also called meditation. This is a type of

communication that involves a person’s reflection, contemplation and meditation. E.g
transcendental meditation

iii. Transpersonal communication

This type of communication involves conversing with the divine, spirits and ancestors.
It is an important experience in the religious and monastic life and places of prayer in
various communities.

iv. Group communication

This communication is to a group of people. It is communication which targets a

specific group. The larger the group grows, the less personal and intimate it becomes.
As the group grows, communication becomes amonologue and participation of the
audience becomes difficult. The degree of intimacy in the group therefore depends on
37
 the size of the group, the place of the meeting, the relationship of the group members
and their group leader. Here, feedback is not instant like in interpersonal
communication as it takes time before meanings are clarified and responses checked.

v. Mass communication
This is imparting information to a wide range of people. Mass communication is a process in

which a person, group of people, or an organization sends a message/information through a

channel of communication to a large group of anonymous and heterogeneous people and

organizations. Such channels of communication include broadcast television, radio, social

media, and print.

Uses of various types of communication

***discussed above***

38
TOPIC FIVE: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
Content

 Forms of communication
 Advantages and disadvantages of each form of communication

5.1 Forms of Communication

These are the ways used to pass information from one person to another or from one
place to another. These include:

 Oral communication
 Written communication
 Visual communication
 Audio-visual communication
 Non-verbal communication

A. Oral communication

Oral communication means communicating by the word of mouth. It is further divided

into face to face conversation and telephone (mobile) conversation.

Therefore, oral communication takes place through the spoken word. Hence its primary
medium is the word of mouth.

Methods/channels of oral communication

 Face to face
 Telephone

(i) Face to face

It involves two or more people talking to each other. These people should be near each
other for effective communication.

39
Advantages

 There is immediate feedback

 Message gets to the receiver immediately
 It is used to pass urgent and confidential messages
 Body language can be read easily.
 It has a personal appeal
 It gives room for clarification if the message is not clear
 It enables one to persuade the other

Disadvantages

 Message may be distorted if there is noise

 Body language may be wrongly interpreted
 It is not suitable for people far away from each other
 It is time consuming if it involves persuasion
 It is not suitable for the deaf
(ii) Telephone

It is a commonly used channel of communication in organizations.

Advantages

 It is time saving as a person calls from wherever they are

 It is cost efficient compared to other channels
 It can be used to pass urgent and confidential messages
 It offers immediate feedback
 Smart phones keep records for future reference
 Suitable for sending messages over long distances
 It is suitable for persuading

Disadvantages

 It may be costly to make international calls

 It is not suitable for the deaf and dumb
 They cannot work in areas without network

40
How to use the phone effectively

Caller

 Speak politely
 Greet the receiver
 Pass you message clearly
 Thank the receiver for help

Receiver

 Have a pen and paper to write important details

 Speak politely
 Listen carefully to caller

Guidelines for answering the telephone

 Be psychologically prepared to receive the call

 Pick the ringing phone and introduce your organization, department and yourself
in that order
 Thank the caller for calling and greet him/her
 Listen carefully without interrupting the caller
 Note down important points
 If part of the message is not clear, ask them to politely to clarify
 Respond appropriately and clearly
 Thank the caller for their call

Guidelines when making a call

 Prepare yourself psychologically

 Prepare your message clearly before you make the call
 Ensure you dial the correct number
 introduce your organization, department and yourself in that order
 Greet the receiver and ask for the person you want to speak to
 Give the message politely
 Ask if anything is unclear
 Thank the caller for picking your call

Telephone messages

 Take down the name, designation and telephone number of the caller

41
 Indicate time of the call
 Note the time caller can be reached
 Record any message they give
 Read the message to the person it is intended for

42
Advantages of oral communications

1. It saves time- In a number of cases where action is required to be taken

immediately, it is best to transmit the message orally.
2. Gives immediate feedback - Most of oral communication allows immediate
feedback of information and unlike written communication where the sending of
the message and the sending of feedback occurs at different times.
3. It is Convenient - Normally orally communication requires no advance
preparation of the message, as in the case with written communication.
4. It’s cost effective- Oral communication does not involve a lot of cost for example
(when it is within the organization). One does not incur the extra cost of
procuring written materials or facilities.
5. It is more reliable - it provides an opportunity for feedback and clarification
6. It also provides opportunities for responding appropriately to a non-verbal
communication.

Disadvantages of oral communication:

• Costly - Oral communication may be costly in terms of the cost of mediums d

e.g. meetings, conferences and seminars are very expensive in terms of
money and materials.
• Oral communication provides no record for future references and oral
message cannot be retrieved for future use or reference.
• It may sometimes be time consuming especially in meetings and conferences
when after various deliberations nothing concrete comes out.
• Although all messages offer a great opportunity for clarification, there are
also greater chances of misunderstanding.
• Sometimes it may be affected by previous strained relationships i.e. between
superiors and subordinates.
• In oral messages, there are no responsibilities for mistakes if any cannot be
specifically traceable or assigned.
• Constantly there may be more opportunities for misunderstanding owing to
the relative immediacy of both the communication and feedback
opportunities with no time for reference.

43
 • Adequacy - It allows adequate illustration of messages as it is capable of
accommodating illustrative mediums like charts, graphs, maps e.t.c.This
helps to improve the clarity of meaning in communication.

B. Written communication

This is communication through written words for example where the primary medium
is the written word. There are times when writing is the best method of communication
i.e. letters memos telegrams, minutes, and questioners’ e.t.c.

Methods/channels of written communication

 Letters  Minutes and agenda

 Memos  Curriculum vitae
 Questionnaires  Filling forms
 Notices  Press release
 Circulars
Advantages

 They give detailed information

 They can be stored for future reference
 The information cannot be easily distorted
 It is suitable for passing information to the deaf and dumb
 They are legal documents thus can be used in a court of law
 Helps passing clear information in organizations
 Allows visual communication by use of charts, maps, graphs, pictorials

Disadvantages
 Suitable for the literate only
 It is not suitable for passing urgent messages
 Takes time to prepare
 Lacks immediate feedback
 It does not offer room for convincing
 One cannot read the body language
 It lacks personal appeal

44
 C. Visual communication

Visual communication includes gestures and facial expressions, tables and charts,
diagrams, posters, slides, films strips e.t.c. We are all familiar with two pieces of bone
put in a cross, fashioned with a skull placed in between, and we all know that they
signify danger. In public places and vehicles we often see a notice showing a lighted
cigarette with cross mark on it; again the meaning is clear to everybody: no smoking.
Communication through such visuals is very effective because it’s sure and
instantaneous.

Methods/channels of visual communication

 Graphs  Pictures
 Maps  Images
 Charts  Drawings
 Diagrams

Advantages of visual communication

 It is suitable for both literate and illiterate

 It strengthens oral and written communication
 It is used for future reference
 It is suitable for those with hearing problems
 The message is memorable because of use of color and pictures
 Helps achieve clarity in presentation of the information

Disadvantages of visual communication

 It does not give comprehensive details about the subject matter.

 It requires time and special skills or knowledge to prepare and present.
 It can be costly, mostly when it involves the use of new technology

45
D. Audio-visual communication
Information is send through watching and listening. It leaves a lasting
impression in the mind.
Methods
 Films  Computers
 Videos  Cinemas
 Television

Advantages

 The information reaches many people at once

 It can pass information to both the literate and illiterate
 It has a lasting impression on the receiver
 It provides room for illustrations and demonstrations
 Suitable for both the deaf and dumb

Disadvantages

 It is expensive as it involves use of high level machines

 It is time consuming to prepare
 It is not suitable for d\sending confidential information

E. Non-verbal communication
This is communication without using words. Instead, non-verbal cues are used.
They include:
i. Gestures
ii. Facial expressions
iii. Posture
iv. Appearance (dressing and grooming)
v. Eye movement and eye contact
vi. Distance and space
vii. Body contact
viii. Voice
ix. Silence

46
 i. Gestures

This is movement of body limbs. E.g movement of the head, shoulders, hands and legs.
Different gestures convey different meanings

Uses of gestures

i. They replace speech completely in noisy environment

ii. They complement speech- gestures combine with speech to make a speaker
appear lively
iii. They accentuate speech- gestures emphasize what a speaker says
iv. They contradict speech- sometimes a speaker’s body language may be
different from what they say.

NB Some gestures are universal while others are restricted to certain cultures.

ii. Facial expressions

Refer to that group of gestures and signs performed by the face. People are able to
control their facial expressions. They communicate different emotions and attitudes.
Emotions include: happiness, sadness, shock, anger, disgust, fear etc. Facial
expressions are universal in most cases despite our racial differences.

iii. Posture

Refers to the way we handle our bodies when we sit, stand or move. Posture influences
our communication both consciously and unconsciously. It communicates some
information for instance social status, tiredness, dominance or submission, interest etc.
Posture can tell the following about a speaker: dominance or submission, interest or
disinterest, boldness or shyness

iv. Appearance

Appearance involves dressing and personal grooming. In all cultures, the way a person
dresses plays an important role in how others view them. We all make assumptions
about people from their appearance. Dressing can communicate the occasion, social
status, occupation, dominance, etc.

v. Eye movement and eye contact

This category consists of that range of gestures performed by the eyes. Eyes can be used

47
to communicate our emotional state e.g happiness or sadness, depression or excitement,
interest or boredom, trust or suspicion, love or hatred. As a speaker, it is important to
look at the eyes of the listeners as they will tell whether they are interested in the topic
of discussion or disinterested. Different cultures view eye contact differently. e.g
avoiding eye contact may mean you are shy. Maintaining eye contact may show
concentration or interest in the topic of discussion. In other cultures it may show
disrespect. You may be suspicious of a person who avoids eye contact. Eyes speak
through a gaze, a stare or a glance.

vi. Body contact

It is related to the idea of personal space. Body contact can be classified into:
 Aggressive-kicking, punching, slapping, pinching
 Symbolic-shaking hands, laying hands on someone, patting a person’s back
 Affective (intimate contact)- kissing, hugging, caressing, cuddling, sex

vii. Distance and space (proxemics)

This refers to manipulating of the distance between the participants depending on the
relationship between them as well as the message to be passed.

We are prepared to vary our distance according to the relationship we have with a
person, the activity taking place or the type of communication taking place. e.g a person
can sit close to a friend but will be further away if it is a stranger.

Space might also indicate power as the higher one goes in the organization ladder, the
bigger the office they occupy.

viii. Voice variation

This is basically manipulating your voice according to achieve additional information.

A speaker’s voice can tell the audience about their social economic class, place of origin,
education level, emotional state or the attitude towards the audience. A person may
speak softly as a sign of politeness or loudly as a sign of rudeness or strength. Poor
articulation may distort your message and this can be corrected through speech therapy.

ix. Silence

Silence refers to keeping quiet. When someone asks you a question and you fail to
answer, you communicate that you despise or ignore them and so on. When a speaker
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gets to the end of their speech, invites questions and the audience is quiet, it can
communicate satisfaction or dissatisfaction depending on other their facial expressions.
It can therefore be difficult to interpret the meaning of silence. It could mean
disagreements, boredom, rejection or satisfaction. Silence can therefore be confusing
and should be carefully used.

49
TOPIC SIX: OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE, PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY
Content

 Meaning of etiquette, protocol and diplomacy

 Official etiquette
 Protocol and diplomacy

6.1 Meaning of Etiquette, Protocol and Diplomacy

Etiquette

Refers to an unwritten code employees should follow in order to be successful in the

workplace. It's a set of norms widely accepted as appropriate behavior.
Office etiquette is basically a code of behavior that states how one should behave or
what is expected of a person at the work place.

Office etiquette is about conducting oneself respectfully and courteously at the workplace. It
involves how one should speak and write as well as general behavior. When speaking, one
should be:

1. Polite and use the words: kindly, please, may I , excuse me

2. Apologetic and use the words: sorry, it will not happen again
3. Grateful and use the words: thank you, I appreciate. I am humbled
4. Careful and use the words: I will find out, I will enquire
5. Tactful and use the words: let us talk tomorrow, I am completing an urgent
report

When writing, one should apply the principles of effective communication.

1. Clarity
2. Correctness
3. Completeness
4. Courtesy /Consideration
5. Coherent
6. Concise
7. Concrete

As one speaks, they should be conscious of the actual and implied meanings. There are
also certain aspects that should be given importance at the work place. These are:

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 1. Rules and regulations

Every organization has rules and regulations that employees should abide by failure to
which they get warned verbally or in writing. If they do not change, then they may be
suspended, interdicted or even dismissed.

2. Work ethics

These are the do’s and don’ts at the work place. An employee is expected to conduct
their work with honesty and fairness.

3. Gender issues

At the work place we have the male and female gender. Lately we also have the
transgender. At times there could be discrimination against any of these genders. E.g
female could be sexually harassed, transgender could be belittled and ridiculed.

4. Religion
Employees should learn and appreciate the religious backgrounds of their colleagues.

5. Professional bodies
They fight for the rights of the employees to prevent them from being exploited by their
employer.

Situations where etiquette should be observed

i. When talking to clients and colleagues
ii. When writing business documents and external correspondence
iii. When answering phone calls
iv. When handling clients complaints

Importance of etiquette
It enables one to:
i. Communicate effectively
ii. Get positive feedback
iii. Strengthen interpersonal relationships
iv. Create a positive image
v. Maintain a job

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 Characteristics of office employees
1. Honesty in all dealings
2. Loyalty to the organization
3. Respectful when dealing with clients and colleagues
4. Punctuality to work
5. Respect to managers

The following are some general rules that will help you handle yourself well at the workplace
successfully;

1) Punctuality
2) Appropriate dressing
3) Do not gossip
4) Ask before using
5) Be courteous
6) Do not be too loud e.g. on phone, ringtones etc
7) Observe personal hygiene, do not stink
8) Avoid strong perfumes

6.2 Protocol

Protocol refers to attitudes, etiquette rules and guidelines for behavior that encompass
the best way to act at work. It derives from social conventions, but also from laws that
protect people from being harassed on the job.

It is a system of rules that explain the correct conduct and procedures to be followed in
a formal situation.
It explains how people should conduct themselves in meetings, public gatherings,
formal presentations, giving speeches and during discussions.
Protocol demands that certain procedures should be followed during the interactions.
In organizations e.g., the hierarchy should be followed.

Importance of protocol
1. It enhances good interpersonal relationships
2. It gives a good corporate image
3. It increases the chances of getting positive feedback

52
 4. It enables one maintain a positive personal image

6.3 Diplomacy
Diplomacy refers to methods used to aid effective communication, especially during
negotiation and when attempting to be persuasive or assertive.

It involves maintaining good relations between a speaker and the receiver. E.g.between
employees and clients

How to achieve diplomacy

1. Following protocol
2. Use of polite words and tone
3. Appreciating the status of people
4. Being objective by making decisions using facts
5. Use interpersonal skills e.g active listening, turn taking, interrupting politely
6. Exercise emotional intelligence e.g self- control and avoid losing your temper

Situations where diplomacy can be applied

1. When talking to clients and work mates
2. When writing business correspondence e.g tendering and bidding
3. When handling clients with complaints
4. When making demands
5. When handling employee complaints

Advantages of diplomacy
By using diplomacy, we achieve the following:
1. A good personal image
2. A good corporate image
3. Good interpersonal relations
4. Effective communication
5. It strengthens team work
6. It minimizes barriers to communication

53
TOPIC SEVEN: WRITING SKILLS

Writing is the process of using symbols (letters of the alphabet, punctuation marks and spaces)
to communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form.

What are writing skills?

These are techniques and habits that enable us to be precise and effective in our
communication through writing.

Content

 Use of punctuation marks in writing

 Courtesy in writing
 Paragraph development
 Essay writing
 Functional writing

7.1 Punctuation Marks

A punctuation mark is a mark such a full stop, comma or question mark that is used in
writing to separate either sentences or their elements and to clarify meaning.

The chief purpose of punctuation is to make the meaning of a written piece clear.
Punctuate carelessly and you will communicate inefficiently and probably misleading. The
following are the uses of punctuation marks in English.

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FULL STOP/THE PERIOD

 To end a sentence. The chief use of the full stop (or point or period) is to end an
assertion –typicallya declarative sentence (one that is not a question or an
exclamation) such as
John has gone home.
 After abbreviations. Full stops are also widely used after abbreviations – e.g. M.
A., a.m., Jr., Dec. etc.
 In numbers/numerals they are used as points
 Addresses sometimes end with a full stop and have a comma at the end of each
line.

COMMA

 Its main typical use is to separate main clause/clauses linked by conjunctions

such as and, but or for and nor in a sentence
 The comma is most likely to be used between clauses, when the clauses are long
contrasted and complete. e.g. The cottage was old, but the garden was new.
 In numerals commas are used to separate large whole numbers into units of
three as forthousands and millions e.g. 153,601.

HYPHEN (-)

The hyphen looks like a short dash, but hyphen and dash are used verydifferent.
The dash separates whereas the hyphen unites.
 Mostly used after a prefix or other word element e.g Un-American, non-
European.
 The hyphen is used to unite separate words into compound forms that function
as a single unit. E.g. head-waiter, tax-payer, up-to-date.

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BRACKETS ([ ])/BRACES ({})/ PARENTHESES (())

Brackets and parentheses are symbols used to contain words that are a further explanation or are
considered a group. The sentence still remains grammatical even after their removal. E.g

He [John] was the last person at the house

He was the last person at the house

Braces ({}) are used to contain two or more lines of text or listed items to show that they
are considered as a unit. They are not commonplace in most writing but can be seen in
computer programming to show what should be contained within the same lines. They
can also be used in mathematical expressions. For example, 2{1+[23-3]}=x.

SEMICOLON (;)

The semicolon (;) is used to connect independent clauses. It shows a closer relationship
between the clauses than it would otherwise appear with a period.

In simple terms; to separate clauses that might have been two different sentences but are
closely connected in thought or meaning. For example, the house was dark; the woman
was extremely frightened.

COLON (:)

1. Its correct use is to introduce materials that explain or interprets what precedes
it. e.g. They didn’t sleep last night: they must be tired.
2. Colon and list - It introduces a list of items listed separately
e.g we offer the following services:
 Typing  Printing
 Internet services  photocopying
3 May be used after formal salutation preceding a message e.g
Ladies and gentlemen: it gives me great pleasure to introduce John the new sales
manager.

4 It is used after various headings in correspondences. E.g. To: Subject:

5 Maybe used for emphasis e.g. One thing meant everything: the dog.

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 APOSTROPHE (’)

Apostrophes have two chief purposes to indicate possession and other kinds of
relationships e.g Robert’s pen
Apostrophe comes before the s if the noun is singular e.g. one judge’s opinion
Apostrophe comes after the s if that s serves to make the noun plural e.g The
judges’ opinions.
Apostrophe comes before the s if the noun is already plural without the s e.g. The
people’s palace.

Omission of letters from a word and also used in contracted forms: e.g I've seen that movie several
times. I can’t come today.

It should be noted that, according to Purdue University, some teachers and editors enlarge the
scope of the use of apostrophes, and prefer their use on symbols (&'s), numbers (7's) and
capitalized letters (Q&A's).

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 QUOTATION MARKS (“ ”)

The main purpose of quotation marks also called quote marks, quotes or inverted
commas is to enclose material that is brought into a text outside. It could be direct
speech from an individual or a book. ‘’Go out’’ the boy shouted.

They are also used to indicate meanings and to indicate the unusual or dubious status
of a word or phrase. Eg A ‘’computer error’’ resulted in loss of millions of shillings.

QUESTION MARK (?)

It comes at the end of a direct question. It indicates that the structure is a direct question. E.g.
Would you like a drink?

EXCLAMATION MARK (!)

It is used within dialogue when a person wants to express a sudden outcry or shock. eg
‘’Jesus Christ!’’
Also used after imperatives or commands. E.g. shut up!

THE DASH (-)

A dash is used to separate words into statements. There are two common types of
dashes: en dash and em dash.
En dash: Twice as long as a hyphen, the en dash is a symbol (–) that is used in writing
or printing to indicate a range, connections or differentiations, such as 1880-1945 or
Princeton-New York trains.

Em dash: Longer than the en dash, the em dash can be used in place of a comma,
parenthesis, or colon to enhance readability or emphasize the conclusion of a sentence.
For example, She gave him her answer — No!
Whether you put spaces around the em dash or not is a style choice. Just be consistent.
Can also be used to interrupt a sentence e.g she was extraordinarily tall – the tallest
woman I had ever seen. A dash can be used to indicate and finish dialogue that was not
completed e.g help help! I can’t seem to – “she fell to the ground, gasping for breath”.

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THE SLASH (/)

 Used to indicate a choice between the words or phrases it separates.

 The slash can be translated as or and should be used where the words or could
not be used in its place.

THE ELLIPSIS (…)

 During direct quoting; an ellipsis is used when you are quoting material and
you want to omit somewords. When Newton stated, "An object at rest stays at rest
and an object in motion stays in motion..." he developed the law of motion.

 Omission of words; ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in the flow of a
sentence and isespecially useful in quoted speech. She began to count, "One, two,
three, four…" until she got to 10, then went to find him.

59
7.2 Courtesy in Writing

Courtesy in writing refers to the respectful, polite and considerate way of

communicating through written form. Writing is a skill; like other skills, it can be
learned and in like most skills it is not inborn. It is best learned by doing.

By observing courtesy while writing, we help reduce the burden on our reader of
striving to understand and thereby making the communication of information more
effective.

There are three key elements in communicating on a paper

 Structure and layout

 Content
 Style and tone

Structure and layout

Correct layout should be used. Layout greatly affects the ease with which information is
assimilated. Layout refers to the way in which text or pictures are supposed to be set
out on a page.
Letters are geometrical shapes with conventionalized meanings. Equally indention,
spacing, underlining and layout of blocks of types communicate much. Appropriate
layout should thus be adopted

Correct sequence of events should be adopted. Many instructions fail because they are
out of sequence or contain gaps. E.g. An essay should have an introduction then body
and finally conclusion

Numbering- Use appropriate numbering system. Do not use decimal numbers for
subsidiary points. They are best reserved for headings and subheadings where the
hierarchy and interrelationships or sections is being shown.

Style and tone

Tone is the attitude your writing employs. Just like tone of voice, tone in writing gives
much more context beyond the words used. It can reveal intention or conceal it.
The style and tone of written communication is important to ensure the message is put
over and received clearly. For this one should:-
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Keep it simple

 Prefer familiar words to the far- fetched

 Prefer concrete word to the abstract
 Prefer short word to the long
 Strive for clarity above all things (even above brevity)
 Be natural
 Be Concise
 Let the tone reflect your true feelings but beware of being angry, suspicious,
insulting, patronizing or presumptuous.
 Be courteous (cordial and tactful) for example while ending a letter use a
phrase yours faithfully/sincerely/affectionately accordingly.
Content

 The content should contain all the information required to be communicated. it

should be compact.

 It should be devoid of ambiguity (open to having several possible meanings or

interpretations, difficult to comprehend or lacking clearness)

 Words with double meaning should also be avoided e.g replace, refit, reconnect.
o Example: - check undercarriage locking pin if bent replace.
o The pilot took out the pin and examined it. It was indeed bent, so he
carefully put it back into the mechanism. The aircraft subsequently
crashed. One should take precautions to understand these words.
 Ellipsis (omission of some part of a sentence) can lead to misunderstanding. It
should thus be avoided. E.g. put in 3 pints of water – drop in spaghetti – stir.

Examples

• In writing a business letter you should always test the draft to ensure that:

• The message is clear

• Points are made in the best order

• It has the right style and tone.

• The most appropriate word and phrases are being used.

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 • The grammar/spelling is correct
• The layout is attractive.

• The closing formulae/ending is appropriate.

CLASS ACTIVITY

Punctuate the following paragraphs

Nearly two thirds of deaths in the world are cause by non communicable diseases such
as cancer diabetes heart and lung disease which are rapidly increasing at a cost to the
global economy of trillions of dollars according to UN estimates and preliminary
results of a new study

Secretary general ban ki moon said in a report circulated Monday that while the
international community has focused on communicable diseases such as HIV AIDS
malaria and tuberculosis the four main non communicable diseases has been side lined
he added we need to put more emphasis in combating these diseases in the developing
world

Punctuated paragraphs

Nearly two-thirds of deaths in the world are caused by non-communicable diseases

such as cancer, diabetes, heart and lung diseases which are rapidly increasing at a cost
to the global economy of trillions of dollars, according to U.N. estimates and
preliminary results of a new study.

Secretary-General Ban ki-Moon said in a report circulated on Monday that while the
international community has focused on communicable diseases such as HIV/AIDS,
malaria and tuberculosis, the four main non-communicable diseases has been sidelined.
He added, “We need to put more emphasis in combating these diseases in the
developing world.”

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7.3 Paragraph Development

A paragraph is a collection of sentences which all relate to one main idea or topic. It is a
distinct section of a piece of writing, usually dealing with a single theme and indicated by a
new line, indentation, or numbering.

The following are techniques of paragraph development;

1. Topic Sentence

The sentence that states the main idea of a paragraph is called the topic sentence.

Example: The commercials for televised football games are truly “big business” for
regular

Season games, commercials can cost an advertiser thousands of dollars for 30 seconds of
airtime.

For the super bonus, they can cost millions of dollars for a couple of minutes of airtime.
All together,

Football commercials earn hundreds of millions of dollars a year for advertising

agencies and television networks.

The first sentence states the topic of the paragraph that commercials during football
games are timely “big business”. The first sentence is therefore the topic sentence. The
other three sentences support this topic sentence. In this paragraph, the supporting
sentences give specific facts to explain why commercials during football games are big
business.

In most paragraphs, the topic sentence is at the beginning of the paragraph, it may even
come in the middle of a paragraph or at the end.

The supporting sentences are those sentences that give examples or develop the idea
stated in the topic sentence.

Four of the most common ways that supporting sentences develop a topic are through;
examples, analysis, analogy or narration.

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EXAMPLES

One way in which a topic is developed is with examples

Example; besides the new, specialized computer stores, many retail stores have taken
advantage of growing demand for computer software. Most departments’ store chains,
for example, now have computer departments. In addition, discount stores throughout
the country are selling growing numbers of low cost home computers. Appliances store
also have added computers to their lines of sound and audio equipments. Even book
stores stock a range of software disks and cassettes on their ever expanding shelves of
computer, books and magazines.
The first sentence states the topic that many retail stores now carry computer products.
The remaining four sentences develop this topic sentence by giving four specific
examples of retailers who have done so, including department stores, discount stores,
appliance stores and bookstores.

2. Analysis

The second way to develop a sentence is through analysis. Analysis paragraph

development means breaking down the topic sentence into its main parts or categories.
Here is an example of a paragraph developed in this way.

Example

An overhead projector has three main systems of parts. The optical system uses mirrors
and lenses to focus the image of a transparency on to a screen. The electrical system
consisting of a cord, switches, a fuse, a bulb, a fan, provides light and cooling. The
housing system which includes the main cabinet a focusing posts and the lens holder,
protects the other components and keeps them properly aligned with each other,

The topic –the three main systems of parts of an overhead projector is stated in the first
sentence. The remaining sentences analyze the topic dividing it into subtopics that
presents specific details.

3. Analogy

A third way to develop a topic is analogy. An analogy is a comparison of one topic to

another topic that is more familiar to an audience. An analogy helps develop a
paragraph by relating an unfamiliar topic to more familiar ideas.

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Example

Some financial analysts compare investing in the stock market to riding on a roller
coaster. Like a roller coaster, the stock market goes up and down. Some of these ups
and downs are steeper than others and often they occur suddenly. However, the more
times a person rides a roller coaster the more that person knows what to expect. In the
same way through experience investors can learn to predict the ups and downs of a
stock market. The topic sentence is again at the beginning of a paragraph. The four
sentences that follow the topic sentence develop the analog by showing specific
comparisons between investing in the stock market and riding a roller coaster.
4. Narration

A fourth way to develop a topic is by narration. Narration presents a series of events in

the order that they happened. In narration the audience is given an accurate description
of what happened.

Examples;

The agreement between mc Gregor Technologies and foster communications took several months
to produce. The first discussions ended when major errors were discovered in mc gregor offered
to open its financial records to an independent audit. In exchange fosters management agreed a
lowered percentage of returns during the first three years of the contract. After several weeks of
negotiation on details, the agreement was signed on August 4.

7.4 Characteristics of a Good Paragraph

Effective paragraphs have four main characteristics: a topic sentence, unity, coherence
and adequate development. Each of these characteristics is discussed below.

• Unity
Unity refers to the extent to which all of the ideas contained within a given paragraph
hang together in a way that is easy for the reader to understand. When the writer
changes to a new idea – one which is not consistent with the topic sentence of the
paragraph – the writer should begin a new paragraph. Unity is important because it
aids the reader in following along with the writer’s ideas.

• Coherence
Coherence refers to the extent to which the flow of ideas in a paragraph is easily
understood by the reader. For this reason, coherence is closely related to unity. When a
65
writer changes main ideas or topics within a paragraph, confusion often results. To
achieve coherence, then, a writer should show how all of the ideas contained in a
paragraph are relevant to the main topic.

• Adequate development
A paragraph is adequately developed when it describes, explains and supports the
topic sentence. A good rule to follow is to make sure that a paragraph contains at least
four sentences which explain and elaborate on the topic sentence.
• Topic sentences
Beginning a paragraph with a topic sentence is one of the best ways to achieve clarity
and unity in one’s writing. The function of a topic sentence is to describe what the
paragraph will be about, such that the reader has clear expectations about what will
follow. An effective topic sentence typically contains only one main idea. The remainder
of the paragraph then develops that idea more fully, offering supporting points and
examples.

7.5 Essay Writing

An essay is a brief piece of writing which is often written from an author’s point of
view. It contains three main sections i.e. introduction, body, and conclusion.

NB: The concept of an essay has been extended to other medium beyond writing e.g.
film essay, photographic essay etc

Importance of essay writing

 It improves writing skills

 Used as a way of assessing the performance of a student
 It improves thought system in sorting out ideas, organizing them and putting
them down for others to read.
 A way of addressing issues in society

Common types of essays

 Narrative
 Expository /explanatory
 Descriptive
 Argumentative

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 (i) Narrative

Narration is the basic way of presenting a story. The writer tells the story as it
happened, the order of events is given in the sequence it happened (chronological
order). A narrative usually have a plot (main event) e.g. when narrating about your first
day in high school.
(ii) Expository/Explanatory

Writing in which the author’s purpose is to inform or explain the subject matter to the
reader. It attempts to explain so that the reader may understand what the writer
needs tobe understood.
When writing, make it simple and easy to understand. Do not put in your own opinions
or views. It also attempts to explain so that the reader may understand what the writer
needs to be understood. These may be any of the following:

 What the subject or topic is about

 How the thing being explained works
 Showing the relationship between one thing and another one
 Explain how various parts of one thing or objects functions.
 Why something happened the way it happened.

Expository essay may be written using the following approaches:

 Analysis
 Subject and predicate
 Compare and contrast
 Illustrations

(iii) Descriptive

The purpose of descriptive writing is to make our reader see, feel and hear what
we have seen felt and heard. We may describe a place, an object, a topic, a building etc.
when writing this essay the best way to create a vivid experience is to focus on the five
senses i.e sight, smell, taste, sound, and touch. This shows your reader rather than tell
them what happened

Planning your descriptive essay

 What do you want to describe?

67
  What is your reason for writing your description?
 What are the particular qualities you want to focus on?

(iv) Argumentative

It is a writing that requires the learner to investigate a topic, collect, generate and
evaluate evidence and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner. It calls for
extensive research. In this kind of essay we not only give information but also present
an argument with the pros(supporting ideas) and cons (opposing ideas) of an
argumentative issue. We could clearly take our stand and write as if we are trying to
persuade an opposing audience to adopt the new belief or behavior.

The structure of argumentative essay is held together by the following:

 A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of
the essay
 Clear and logical transition between the introduction, body and conclusion.
 Body paragraphs that include evidential support
 Evidential support
 The conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis but address a light of
evidence generated.

Examples

 Stress is good for human body

Selling and using marijuana in public places should be considered illegal.

STEPS IN ESSAY WRITING PROCESS

1. Decide on your topic.

2. Prepare an outline or diagram of your ideas.
3. Write your thesis statement.
4. Write the body.
a. Write main points.
b. Write the sub-topics
c. Elaborate on the sub-topics
5. Write introduction
6. Write conclusion
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 7. Add finishing touches
7.6 Functional Writing

This refers to those texts that we produce in order to achieve a specific purpose. This includes
several areas such as writing instructions, formal letters, notes, invitations, and advertisements
and so on.

FORMS OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE

These are the methods used by business people to communicate. Every business
whether big or small, maintains contacts for external communication. The following are
forms of business correspondence:

 Business letters
 Internal memorandums
 Notices
 Electronic mail
 Questionnaires
 Minutes
 Curriculum vitae
 Reports
 Posters
 Forms
 Press release
 Circulars
 Video conferencing
 Teleconferencing

1. Business letters

Letters can be classified as formal or informal. Each specific letter has a specific
purpose.

Types of business letters

i. Letters of inquiry
ii. Credit letters
iii. Letters answering requests
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 iv. Claim/complain letters
v. Adjustment letters
vi. Collection letters
vii. Sales letters
viii. Employment letters
ix. Social letters
x. Circular letters
xi. Advertisements

i. Letters of inquiry

They are simple letters where a business person asks for information, a quotation or a
favor.

ii. Credit letters

They are written by business people to order for goods or services on credit. Such
requests can be declined if the applicant is a poor credit risk.

iii. Letters answering requests

These are letters written by business people to their clients telling them that their order
will delay or declining their request. Such letters should be written in polite language.

iv. Claim/complaint letters

They are written by a client to complain about a problem in their delivered goods. E.g
wrong size of clothes delivered, damaged furniture etc.

v. Adjustment letters

They are written in response to claim letters. If the adjustment will not be granted, a
logical reason should be given.

vi. Collection letters

They are written to customers reminding them to pay their debts as they have taken
longer than expected. Some clients are sometimes threatened to pay their debts.

vii. Sales letters

They are written to encourage clients to buy more goods or services. The business hopes
70
to make more sales.
viii. Employment letters

They are written by those seeking to fill certain vacant positions or seeking for
opportunities for employment.

ix. Social letters

They are written to maintain clients and business associates. They include :
congratulatory notes, thank you notes, invitation letters, letters of sympathy etc.

Essentials of an effective business letter

i. Clarity
ii. Completeness
iii. Correctness
iv. Courtesy
v. Conciseness
vi. Persuasive
vii. Prompt (written immediately after being received and decoded)

Functions of business letters

i. To provide a cost effective /affordable means of communication

ii. To gather or give information
iii. To provide evidence of business transactions done
iv. To provide a record for future reference

Components/parts/layout of a business letter

i. Heading
ii. Date
iii. Sender’s address
iv. Receiver’s address
v. Salutation
vi. Reference
vii. Body of letter – introduction paragraph, support paragraphs and concluding
paragraph
viii. Complimentary close/ signing off
ix. Signature
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 x. Name
xi. Designation/position

a) Circular letter

It is written by a business to its clients passing important information about its

operations. E.g closing a business, moving premises, stocking new products, opening a
new branch etc.

A memo is used for internal communication within an organization. The

communication is usually from the management to the subordinates.

Functions
i. Passing information on a new policy or procedure
ii. Making requests to get information
iii. Providing responses to issues raised
iv. Giving instructions to staff
v. Giving or gathering information
vi. To clarify an issue

Notices
They are used to keep employees informed with what is going on in the organization.
They are usually appeals, instructions or announcements. They can be displayed on
notice boards or in areas where they can capture the attention of many people.

Advantages

i. Can be used for future reference

ii. They use few catchy word
iii. They are displayed on areas where many people can see and read them
iv. They pass important information

A notice must have the following:

 A heading
 The word ‘notice’
 Use few catchy words

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  Must be signed by the writer

2. Electronic mail

It involves ending mail through telecommunication links. If two computer terminals are
connected to a network, it is possible to send and receive messages from one person to
another. The message is typed on a computer screen on one end and it is received on
the other end through electronic impulses. Checking ones email alerts one that they
have a new message in their email account.

Advantages

i. It is one of the quickest means of passing messages

ii. Mails received can be deleted or sorted, amended then forwarded to others.
iii. If two people are connected to a network, mails can be received immediately and
information not understood clarified.
iv. They can be used to send confidential information because one needs a password
to open an account.
v. One can attach photos and big files to a mail then send it to the receiver.
vi. Emails can be stored for future reference.

Disadvantages

One needs to be connected to a network to be able to send an electronic mail

i. It requires a skilled person to operate a computer

ii. One needs knowledge of the English language to operate a computer
iii. There is danger of hacking accounts where confidential information leaks to the
wrong people
iv. Computer viruses destroy files and one loses important information
v. One may forget their password therefore are unable access their account
vi. One may forget the email account of a receiver.

3. Posters

A poster is an enlarged write-up that are strategically displayed so as to inform people

about a certain event. Creativity is required to come up with a good poster. Posters can

73
be found everywhere. E,g on streets, bus stops, notice boards, walls etc. an effective
poster must:

 Use attractive colors and graphics

 Be clear enough to be seen from a distance
 Use grammatical language
 Use morally upright language

4. Press release/press statement/news release/media release/press advertisement

It is a written or recorded statement directed at the media for the purpose of

communicating important information to the public.

Uses

 Informing clients of a company online presence

 Informing clients of new goods or services
 Celebrating an anniversary
 Launching a new product
 Opening a new branch
 When rebranding a business
 Expanding or renovating a business
 Participation on a charitable event
 Sponsoring a workshop or seminar

5. Questionnaires

They are a set of questions designed to collect information. A questionnaire assists a

person doing research to collect data. A questionnaire should:

i. Have simple and clear questions

ii. Give detailed questions to get detailed information
iii. Write the questions in a logical order
iv. Start from simple to complex questions

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 6. Circulars

They are used to communicate to people with common characteristics. E.g students,
clients, parents, employees. Etc.

Uses
 To advertise a product or a service
 Informing clients of special offers
 Inform staff of a new policy

7. Curriculum Vitae/ Resume

It is a summary of ones education background, work experience that one attaches to an

application letter and sends to a prospective employer. It gives the potential employer a
summary of a person’s suitability for a job. A Curriculum Vitae has the following parts:

i. Personal details
ii. Education
iii. background
iv. Work experience
v. Skills
vi. Hobbies/ interests
vii. Referees- they are people who can give a good report about you to a potential
employer. They should preferably be three.

8. Minutes

Minutes are written when people hold an official meeting. They are a record of what
was discussed and agreed upon as well as a list of people who attended the meeting.
They are written by the secretary.

Importance

i. Can be used for future reference

ii. Give evidence of business transacted
iii. Provide duties allocated to members
iv. Identify action agreed upon

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TOPIC EIGHT: SUMMARY
Content

 Importance of summary writing

 Steps in summary writing

a summary is a concise restatement in your own words of the main ideas or information
from your sources

8.1 Importance of Summary Writing

• It helps improves reading skills as you can pick main ideas of a reader
• Critical thinking skills are improved as one can decide on the main ideas of the
reading to include in the summary
• Writing and editing skills are improved as one drafts and edit the summary
• Heaps expand the students vocabularies as a student paraphrase a reading
• Useful when you have a lot of repetitive action
• You get a whole or general meaning of an article
• One is made to focus on the main idea

8.2 Characteristics of a Good Summary

1. Brief: the summary should be short

2. Complete: it should be complete
3. Objective: you should not put in your opinions
4. Accurate: it should accurately represent the ideas in the original text.
5. Balanced: it should represent the balance and proportion of the original work
6. Unbiased: it should not misinterpret or twist the ideas in the source text.
7. Original: use your own words.

8.3 Steps in Summary Writing

STEP 1: BEFORE WRITING

 Go through the original text fairly quickly, but with a purpose. Ask yourself
beforehand what information or evidence you are looking for, and read with this
in mind

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  Decide the text’s main focus and content; and the position of the writer. The
main ideas will very often be stated at the beginning of a chapter or section, and
again at the end, so initially concentrate your reading here. Section headings are
also a mini-summary in themselves
 Now read again more carefully the sections that you have decided are relevant to
your own purpose in writing. Do not waste time reading anything that is not
relevant
 Underline or highlight the main ideas and make short notes in the margin if
appropriate

STEP 2: INITIAL WRITING

 Write down an outline that includes the main idea and any important supporting
details. Arrange your information in a logical order
 Restate the text’s thesis (main idea) simply, in your own words
 Restate each other important idea, again concisely and in your own words
 Combine these sentences into the full draft summary. Remember to make
reference to the source writer, usually at the beginning of the summary

Strauss (2003) claims that … or at the end:

(Strauss 2003).

In longer summaries, it may be necessary to make further passing references to the

original writer to make it clear that you are still summarizing. For example:

Strauss continues by arguing that …

A further point raised by Strauss is that

As it is the same source, it is not necessary to repeat the year of publication.

 Try and write this summary without looking at the original. Instead, base your
writing on what you have understood. Maybe using any notes that you have
made

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STEP 3: THE FINAL SUMMARY
 Check your summary carefully with the original text. Make sure that you have
not changed the meaning at all, that you have included all the main points, but
have not included any minor information. Make sure too that the words used are
your own; if you have inadvertently used language that is very close to the same
as the original, the you will need to change it.
 Use linking/transition words and phrases to make the summary read smoothly
and logically
 Proofread your writing for grammar, spelling and punctuation mistakes. While
you are doing this, particularly if you have a strict word limit, ask yourself if
particular words or phrases are actually necessary to convey the meaning
 Decide how the summary is going to fit into the rest of the writing. Why exactly
are you using it?
TOPIC NINE: REPORT WRITING SKILLS
Content

 Meaning of reports
 Role of reports in an organization
 Forms and types of reports
 Formats of reports
 Steps taken in preparation of report writing
 Writing, editing and dissemination of reports
 Referencing styles used in reports
 Preparation of PowerPoint slides

9.1 Meaning of Reports

A report is a document or oral presentation whether formal or informal, in which a

given problem is examined for the purpose of conveying information, reporting
findings, putting forward ideas or making recommendations.

Or

1. A business report is an orderly presentation of facts about a specific business

activity or programme.
2. A business report is a document in which a given problem is examined for the
purpose of conveying information, reporting findings, reaching a conclusion and
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 making recommendations.

9.2 Importance of Report in an Organization

 A tool used in decision making

 Give consolidated and updated report information
 A means of internal communication
 Discloses unknown information
 Reports give information to employees
 Information is permanent
 Give information of shareholders
 Solve current problems
9.3 Types of Reports

1. Oral reports

It is a report made through observation of a situation.

2. Written report

It is written after a business activity or after carrying out research. It is therefore

documented.

Advantages

i. It gives a permanent record that can be used for future reference

ii. It is accurate
iii. It is short and precise
iv. It cannot be distorted.

3. Informative report

It presents facts connected to a specific issue. E.g a report on the total number of
students who studied in the library for a whole week.

4. Interpretative report/Analytical report

It is an interpretative report that has been analyzed, a conclusion drawn and

recommendations made.

Types of business reports

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Business reports can be classified into three categories:

1. On the basis of the legal requirements to be fulfilled

i. Formal

It is a report prepared and presented according to the requirements by law. There are
two types:

a) Statutory reports

They are prepared and presented according to the procedure laid down by law.
E.g The Directors’ Report
The Annual General meeting report
The Annual Returns Report
The Auditor’s Report

b) Non statutory reports

These are formal reports that are not required under any law but are prepared to help
the management in making policies and important decisions. They are prepared
regularly as part of the routine of business while others are prepared on special
occasions when demand arises. E.g Reports by Directors to the shareholders

Reports by committees
Reports by Heads of Departments
Financial reports

2. On the basis of the number of people who write them:

i. Reports by individuals

They are submitted by the managers, company secretary and auditor. The reports are
submitted periodically according to the various activities.

ii. Reports by committees /subcommittees.

If a matter concerns various departments or the whole organization, then a committee

may be formed to prepare a report.

3. On the basis of the nature of a report:

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 i. Periodic/routine reports

These reports are prepared and presented at regular intervals in the usual routine of
business. They may be submitted weekly, monthly or yearly. They contain facts in
details or summary without recommendations. They are usually informative. Such a
report should give a correct picture of the work in an organization.

Progress reports

They describe and assess progress made during a particular period. They present an
account of the work already done, work in progress and work yet to be covered. It gives
the following details:

 Nature of the project

 Work already covered
 Work in progress
 Problems being faced
 Work yet to be covered
 Challenges hindering progress of work

ii. Examination reports

They cover important events. They are prepared after thorough investigations and may
or may not have recommendations. E.g A report on the declining sales, a report on the
causes of fire

iii. Recommendation reports

They are similar to examination reports but must end with specific recommendations.
The very useful to large business houses. Details covered under such reports include:

a. Aim and scope of the report

b. Methods adopted for the collection of data
c. Analysis of data
d. Finding recommendation for a definite programme of action

iv. Statistical reports

These reports are largely made of financial data, mathematical charts, tabular columns
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of figures etc. although statistical data may be introduced into other type of reports to
corroborate facts and facilitate recommendations, if a report consist mainly of such data
and there should be some justification in describing it as statistical report.
9.4 Characteristics of a good report

1. Precision –the writer of a report should be clear about the exact purpose of
writing the report. His investigations, findings and recommendations are
directed by the central purpose.
2. Accuracy- reports are used in decision making so they should give facts only as
misleading information may lead to disastrous decisions.
3. Relevant- every fact in the report should be connected to the topic of the report.
4. Objectivity- recommendations at the end of the report should be based on facts
and not personal feelings.
5. Simple and clear language- a report should be written clearly and not leave the
reader with unanswered questions.
6. Brief- a report should concentrate on the facts. This makes it brief. However,
brevity should not be achieved at the expense of clarity.
7. Grammatical – a report should have clear and well-constructed expressions for it
to be accepted.

9.5 Preparation for report writing

To write a good report, consider the following:

a. Establish terms of reference

Determine the purpose of writing the report, the authorizing body and the
submission date.

b. Plan the contents

Write down all the facts connected to the report in a logical order and in the relevant
sections.

c. Think and analyze

Think about how to present the report in a logical manner

d. Writing the report

Reports have sections which should be arranged in a logical way.

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 e. Presentation

Layout of a report depends on personal preference. It should be clear and attractive.

9.6 Sections in a report

i. Title page

It gives the author, title of report, the recipient and the submission date.

ii. Summary/Abstract

It captures the entire report in a shortened form. It is an important section as managers

may use it to make decisions when they lack time to read the entire report.

iii. Content page

It gives a reader an overview of the parts in the report arranged in a logical sequence.

iv. Introduction

It gives a brief background to the contents of the report to enable the reader get a hint
about the topic of the report.

v. Terms of reference

It outlines the purpose of the report, the person who commissioned its writing and the
submission date.

vi. Methodology

If the report is written based on research, then the research tools used are presented.
The commonly used research tools are questionnaires, interviews and observation.

vii.Findings
They are divided in various sections. The information given should be from facts
gathered during the research. They should be presented in point form and in order of
importance.

viii. Conclusion

It gives a brief summary of the information given in the findings.

ix. Recommendations
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They offer solutions to the problems identified in the findings. Recommendations
should be realistic and practical. They should be listed in point form in the order of the
findings.

x. Appendix

It contains support materials which may be referred to in the report. E.g copy of the
questionnaire used during research, letter of transmittal, photos, statistical information
etc.

xi. References/Bibliography

It provides all the sources used in writing the report. They should include the name of
the author, publication title, date, publisher’s name and the page number.

9.7 Report writing formats

There are three formats in which a report can be written. These are:

1. Letter format

The report is written in the form of a letter. It has a heading, title, date, address,
salutation, body and complimentary close. Such a report is written in the 1st person.

2. Memorandum format

The report is written in the memo form.

3. Letter-text combination format/ tabular format/ Schematic format

Reports written after investigations have been carried out are in this format. Such a
report has three main parts:

i. Introduction
 Title page
 Content page
 Summary
 Body of report
 Introduction

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  Terms of reference
 Methodology
 Findings
 Conclusion
 Recommendation

ii. Addenda
 Bibliography
 Appendix
 Signature

Letter of transmittal

It is a routine letter written to transmit the report from the writer to the reader, it
performs the following functions:
i. It provides a permanent record of the transfer
ii. Shows the date the report was submitted
iii. States the name and position of the writer of the report
iv. States when and by whom the report was authorized.
v. May invite the reader’s comments or suggestions.

9.8 Referencing styles

Referencing is acknowledging the sources of information that you have used in your
written work. The various parts that constitute a reference are called bibliographic
details. These details concern the publication, distribution and ownership (authorship
of the book or place of publication).

They include:

 Author
 Title/edition statement
 Publisher

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There are several different styles of referencing:

 American Psychological association (APA)

 MLA
 Oxford
 Harvard
 Chicago

Each style has its own rules for properly citing sources.

 Author-date styles (e.g. APA, MLA, and Harvard) put the author's name inside
the text of the assignment 

 Documentary-note styles (e.g. Chicago and Oxford) put the author's name in a
footnote at the bottom of each page, or in an endnote at the end of the
assignment

All of the most common styles list every source used in a document at the end, in
a reference list or bibliography (see reference list vs. bibliography for the
difference between these).

The styles differ in format. For example, an APA in-text citation incorporates the
author's name, the year of publication, and sometimes the page number,
separated by a comma:

(Lazar, 2006, p. 52)

An MLA in-text citation, on the other hand, does not include the year or commas:

(Lazar 52)

Likewise, an APA reference list entry puts the year in brackets after the author's
name:

Lazar, J. (2006). Web usability: A user-centered design approach. Boston, MA:

Pearson Addison Wesley.

An MLA works cited entry puts the year at the end of the entry:

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 Lazar, Jonathan. Web Usability: A User-Centered Design Approach. Boston:
Pearson Addison Wesley, 2006.

There are other differences between these two styles: APA uses italics for book
titles, whereas MLA commonly underlines. APA gives first initials whereas MLA
uses full first names. When formatting a reference, follow the style you have
been set closely.

 APA style is commonly used in Education, Business, and some Social Sciences
and Humanities disciplines. 

 MLA style is often used in English and Media Studies. 

 Oxford style is often used in History, Philosophy, and Classics. 

 Harvard and Chicago styles are used by some individual disciplines.

If you are unsure what referencing style you are required to use, check your
introductory course materials. If a style is not specifically mentioned, ask your
course coordinator.

Other styles

There are several styles that are not covered on OWLL. These are rarely used, but some
assignments will require you to follow styles such as the Australian Guide to Legal
Citation or styles specific to a print journal.

Vancouver style is sometimes used in science journals, for example. This style uses a
number to represent each source, and lists the sources in the reference list in the order
they were used.

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TOPIC TEN: CONDUCTING MEETINGS AND MINUTE WRITING
Content

 Definition of terms meeting and minutes

 Purpose of meetings
 Types of meetings
 Preparation for a meeting
 Minutes
 Format/ layout in minutes writing
 Types of minutes

10.1 Definition of terms meeting and minutes

MEETINGS

They are effective tool of communication in an organization. Managers organize

meetings to inform subordinates of new policies or procedures. At the same time, the
subordinates also get a chance to express their opinions, suggestions, complaints and
criticisms.

1. Statutory meeting

It is the coming together of at least two people for any lawful purpose. It is an assembly
of people who come together according to legally defined rules and procedures to
discharge business required by law.

2. Executive meeting

It is a meeting between managers. They have convener interests and exchange relevant
views then make decisions and implement them.

3. Managerial meeting

It is a meeting between a manager and the subordinates where views are exchanged,
decisions made and implemented.

10.2 Purpose of meetings

1. They enable gathering of information

2. They enable management pass information to the subordinates.

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 3. They help to solve conflicts and address complaints
4. They make it possible for an organization to make major decisions.

NB the purpose of any meeting is determined by the items listed on the agenda.

10.3 Types of Meetings

Meetings can be classified as formal or informal

1. Formal meeting

A formal meeting follows the rules set down by statutes, constitution, standing orders
or by-laws. The records of this meeting are properly kept to guide future meetings.

Documents required for a formal meeting

i. Notice of a meeting
ii. Agenda
iii. Minutes

Examples of formal meetings:

 Company General meetings

 Executive committee meetings
 Board of Directors meetings

2. Informal meetings

In such a meeting, there are no formal rules or procedures. There is a group leader
instead of a group of officials. Documents are not formally prepared. Notes instead of
minutes are written.

Examples of informal meetings

 Working party meetings

 Intra-departmental meetings
 Brainstorming meetings

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10.4 Preparation for a meeting

The chairperson and the secretary should determine the following:

1. Agenda of the meeting

2. The participants
3. Venue for the meeting- ensure it is:
 Spacious
 Well lit
 Well ventilated
 Clean, neatly arranged and tidy
4. Refreshments
5. The seating arrangement: chairs only or chairs and tables

Conducting a meeting

A chairperson should conduct a meeting in the best way possible by doing the
following:

1. Beginning and ending the meeting on time

2. Control meeting and announce general rules
3. Summarize and conclude every agenda item
4. Give members fair chance to make their contributions
5. Ensure discussions are strictly based on the agenda

Follow up

This comes after a meeting. The following activities should be carried out:

1. Distribution of minutes or notes

2. Ensure duties given are done

Officials in a formal meeting

They include:

1. Chairperson
2. Treasurer
3. Secretary

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Functions of a Chairperson

1. Maintaining order
2. Ensuring all members get a chance to make contributions
3. Ensuring discussions are based on the agenda
4. Motivates the participants
5. Maintaining the momentum of the meeting
6. Summarizing the agenda items
7. Ensuring secretary circulates minutes to members

For the success of a meeting, a chairperson should do the following:

1. Speak clearly and concisely so that members in the meeting can hear what he/she
is saying
2. Set clear objectives of the meeting
3. Strictly follow the agenda and guide members back to track in case they digress.
4. Try not to dominate the meeting as role of chairperson is to guide the discussions
5. Listen carefully to arguments and contributions and note down important points
and summarizing them.
6. Speak courteously to members and ensure they speak courteously to each other.
7. Carefully manage time and ensure all agenda items are adequately discussed.
8. Conclude each agenda item by arriving at decisions that meet the objectives of
the meeting.
9. At the conclusion, set a date for the next meeting and thank members for their
contributions and attendance.

Functions of a secretary

1. Drafting the notice of meeting after consulting the chairperson

2. Writing the agenda after discussion with the chairperson
3. Identifying a suitable venue for the meeting
4. Making seating arrangements
5. Assisting the chairperson clarify any issues raised by the members.
6. Distributing any documents needed during the meeting
7. Writing minutes during the meeting
8. Organizing for refreshments for the meeting
Functions of members

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 1. Notifying the chairperson or secretary of items to be included in the agenda
2. Reading documents related to the agenda
3. Preparing any support documents related to any agenda item
4. Attending the meeting on time
5. Making contributions during the meeting
6. Taking note of the decisions reached and the required action
7. Carry out tasks assigned and give feedback on the tasks.

10.5 Minutes

Minutes are written when people hold an official meeting. They are a record of what
was discussed and agreed upon as well as a list of people who attended the meeting.
They are written by the secretary.

Importance

i. Can be used for future reference

ii. Give evidence of business transacted
iii. Provide duties allocated to members
iv. Identify action agreed upon

10.6 Format/ layout in minutes writing

i. Heading

Minutes have a four -part heading that must have:

 Name of organization or group that is meeting

 Venue of meeting
 Date
 Time

ii. Attendance record

 Members present
 Members absent with apology
 Members absent
 In attendance

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 iii. Preliminaries

This is the introduction of the meeting. The chairperson starts the meeting and the time
is noted.

iv. Reading and confirmation of previous minutes

Minutes of the previous meeting are read through, proposed and seconded as a true
record.

v. Matters arising

These are issues brought forward from the previous meeting. Members usually want to
them clarified.

vi. New business

The items in the agenda are discussed

vii. Any Other Business

These are any other pressing issues that were not part of the agenda.

viii. Adjournment

This is the end of the meeting. It indicates the time the meeting ended and the date,
venue and time of the next meeting.

After the minutes, the secretary leaves space for the Chairperson and the Secretary to
sign after the minutes are confirmed in the next meeting.

10.7 Types of minutes

i. Minutes of resolution
They only give the resolutions passed and do not make reference to the
discussions.

ii. Minutes of narration

They give a brief account of the discussion and resolutions passed

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TOPIC ELEVEN: INTERVIEWS
Content

 Meaning of interviews
 Purpose of interviews in an organization
 Types of interviews
 Preparation for an interview
 Interviewing skills

11.1 Meaning of interviews

An interview is a kind of a meeting where the conversation is highly structured. It is

dominated by questions from the interviewers and answers are given by the
interviewees.

11.2 Purpose of interviews in an organization

 Recruitment of staff
 Disciplinary action
 Investigating complaints and staff grievances
 Performance appraisals
 Interviews are used to gather information for decision making

11.3 Types of interviews

1. Selection interviews

It is a kind of interview that takes place to decide whether or not somebody will be
given a certain job. The selection process may include: visits to the factory, and informal
decisions with members of staff. The interviewer asks the interviewees questions on
their education background, work experience, ambition.

2. Promotion interviews.

They take place when an employee has applied for a job of a higher grade within the
organization. They are conducted like selection interviews and aim to discover whether
the applicant has the necessary qualifications and abilities to do the job. They are
conducted by managers.

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 3. Appraisal interviews/Update interviews

The appraisal interview is a way of assessing the work done and progress made by an
employee. They take place yearly and are conducted by the head of department who
reviews the work of the interviewee during the year. He then moves to future prospects
like: chances of promotion, staff training and possible transfer to other work or to
different department.

Appraisals motivate employees because their yearly work is assessed and it is an

opportunity for them to make suggestions to their managers about the organization
affairs.

4. Disciplinary interviews

They are the least pleasant type of interview. They are carried out by managers when an
employee has been accused of committing a breach of the regulations. Preparations
must include a complete study of the facts which guide the interview. Personal bias
which may influence judgment should be avoided. The interview should be conducted
without bias and decisions made fairly.

5. Screening interview

This is conducted to determine if you have the skills and qualifications for the job. It
may be conducted over the telephone and may also serve as a preliminary screening of
your communication and interpersonal skills. Keep your responses concise; giving too
much information in a screening interview can hurt you.

6. Panel or committee interview

This type of interview is fairly common today as companies look for ways to make
better hiring decisions. The interview team members usually take turns asking
interview questions. When answering questions, focus your attention on the person
who asked the question rather than the whole group.

7. Stress interview

A stress interview is a deliberate attempt to put you under stress to test how you react
under pressure. Some techniques used in stress interviewing are:

 Rapidly firing questions at you.

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  Placing you on the defensive with irritating questions and sarcastic comments.
 Long periods of silence after you answer a question.
 Remain calm during this type of interview

11.4 Preparation for an Interview

Interviews should cover four areas:

1. Consider the purpose of the interview

2. Gather the necessary information
3. Plan a suitable venue
4. Plan for the applicants to be interviewed

i. Conducting employment interviews

The following is important about these interviews:

a. Interviewer/ panelist
At the start
 Greet the interviewee in a friendly and professional way
 Introduce yourself and the other panel members
 Make interviewee comfortable by introducing a friendly talk

Main interview
 Preview for the applicant how the interview will be
 Start with easy questions to help applicant relax
 Avoid Yes/No questions, leading questions and personal questions. Ask only
questions on areas of interest to the organization, work related questions.
Education and training questions, salary and benefits questions.
 Give applicant an opportunity to ask questions.

Ending the interview

 The interviewer should explain to the applicant when they expect to get a
response.
 Panel should record the impression made by the applicant immediately he leaves
the interview room to help make a good decision on the best applicant.

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 b. Interviewee/applicant
 Be punctual
 Follow the instructions of the interviewers. E.g Do not sit before you are asked to
 Be tactful and honest in your conversation.
 Listen carefully before answering and don’t interrupt
 Reply to questions with explanations
 Avoid mannerisms that may create a negative impression like chewing, picking
the nose, looking outside, constantly checking your wrist watch, slouching on
your seat, fidgeting on your seat.
 At the end, express your appreciation for the opportunity to be interviewed.
 You may ask questions if given the chance.

Preparation before going for an interview

 Do thorough research about the organization

 Arrange all your original academic and professional documents in a file
 Decide on a comfortable, presentable and formal outfit to wear during the
interview
 Write down possible questions that may be asked and their answers
 Do a mock interview before a mirror or with a friend.
 Visit the company before the day of the interview know its exact location.

ii. Conducting disciplinary interviews

They are conducted by the management when an employee is accused of committing a

breach of the organization regulations. These interviews should be conducted fairly and
determined after studying all the facts.

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TOPIC TWELVE: PUBLIC RELATIONS AND CUSTOMER CARE
Content

12.1 Definitions of terms public, customer, public relations

Public relations is the way an organization communicates with the public through the
(social) media. The public relations manager hopes to create and maintain a positive
image and create a strong relationship with the public. Public relations also involves
anticipating, analyzing and interpreting public opinion, attitudes and issues that might
impact well or badly on the operations of an organization.

The Public Relations Publics

The publics of one organization may differ from that of another. These publics include:

 Community
 Clients
 Potential employees
 Employees
 Suppliers
 Investors
 Distributors
 Opinion leaders
 Trade unions
 Financial institutions
 Media

Methods and tools used to create good public relations

 Conferences
 Meetings
 Displays and demonstrations
 Open days
 Trade fairs and exhibitions
 Road shows

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Objectives of public relations

It aims at doing the following:

i. Tell the story of an organization and gain credit for its achievement
ii. Improve community relations following public outcry based on a
misunderstanding of the organization’s intention
iii. Educate customers about their products.
iv. Regain public confidence after a disaster which may have shown the
organization as inefficient.
v. Establish a new corporate image
vi. To develop and maintain goodwill of the public for the organization
vii. To correct negative attitude to the organization
viii. To keep employees informed about the organization and its operations
ix. To increase sales and acceptance of the organization to the public.

How an organization improves its public image

i. Embracing the policy of integrity and honesty

ii. Good time management
iii. Caring for the environment
iv. Addressing customers’ needs with care and courtesy
v. Engaging in corporate social responsibility
vi. Advertising products
vii. Dressing professionally
viii. Fulfillment of guarantee

12.2 Role of Public Relations

1. Communication management

A public relations department in an organization develops objectives that are consistent

with the organizations objectives. The Public Relations Manager communicates directly
with the various publics the organization deals with passing to them important
information from the organization’s management.

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 2. Crisis Management

The Public Relations department establishes policies to be used in the operations of an

organization are involved in an issue affecting the publics. They pass this information to
the publics.

3. Issues management

The department deals with identifying problems, issues and trends relevant to an
organization and then develop and execute a program to deal with them.

4. Reputation and image management

The Public Relations Department plans and implements policies, procedures and
strategies that show an organization’s commitment to the publics. It also deals with
corporate social responsibility, ethical behavior, corporate identity and reputation with
the publics.

5. Relationship management

It involves identifying key publics and establishing strategies for building and
maintaining mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and its publics.

6. Resource management

Public Relations involves management of human and financial resources in an

organization by setting objectives, planning the budget and recruitment of staff to
administer these resources.

7. Risk management

The department recognizes areas of potential danger and weaknesses then recommend
changes to be made before the dangers develop into crises.

12.3 Types of Customers

Customers play an important role in a business as they help to generate profits for the
business.

They also judge the quality of goods and services. Therefore it is important for an
organization to retain their customers and make new customers for their organization

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to remain in business. Since customers ate valuable to an organization, they should be
put into groups as shown below:

1. Loyal customers

They are few but make more sales compared to majority customers. They therefore
contribute most to the high profits of an organization.

2. Discount customers

They are frequent customers but buy when offered discounts on regular products. They
buy low cost products.

3. Impulsive customers

They are difficult to convince as they do business in urge. They do not have specific
goods they want to buy but buy what they find good at a particular time.

4. Need based customers

They buy specific products that they are used to and have a specific need for.

5. Wandering customers

They are the least profitable as they are not sure what to buy. They are usually new in a
specific industry and most times visit suppliers to confirm their needs on certain
products.

12.4 Challenges in public relations

1. Credibility

An organization may pass information through the social media and its source may be
questioned by certain publics. Therefore, an organization should pass important
information to the various publics by using the organization logo and offering facts.

2. Communication channels

An organization should choose a communication channel according to the organization

needs and the targeted group.

E.g youth – social media, phones, adults - journals, television, newspapers

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 3. Impact of the social media

It is difficult to measure its influence on the desired publics.

4. Miscommunication

An organization should have its public department alert so that they can swiftly
respond to queries or negative comments made by certain publics. If information was
misinterpreted, they should correct the perception by the public.

12.5 Customer Care/Customer Service

This is the act of taking care of the customers’ needs by developing and providing
professional and high quality service to clients.

It can also be defined as an approach which an organization uses to win and maintain
customers by giving them high quality service.

12.6 Customer Service Skills

1. Patience

Sometimes customers get confused and frustrated and so they reach out for help. The
employees or customer care representative should understand their problems and solve
them.

2. Attentiveness

An employee should listen keenly to the client so as to provide quality service to them.
Businesses that look for innovation should carefully listen to clients as they give them
ideas.

3. Communication skills

Employees should speak clearly and use simple language. Answers to questions should
be factual.

4. Knowledge of product/ service

Customer care representatives should have thorough knowledge of what they deal
with. This makes it easy for them to deal with their clients.

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 5. Courtesy

Employees should use polite language when dealing with customers. This makes clients
happy and satisfied.

6. Time management skills

If as a customer care representative you are unable to sort out the issue of a client,
kindly direct them to someone who can instead of wasting their time.

7. Observant

It is important to read a client’s emotional state. This is important so that a customer is

well attended to avoid losing them in their confusion.

8. Calm personality

Even if a customer comes with a bad temper, a customer care representative should not
allow themselves to be annoyed.

9. Persuasion skills

An employee or a customer care representative should have the ability to convince an

interested client that a certain product is good for them.

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TOPIC THIRTEEN: EMERGING ISSUES AND TRENDS IN

COMMUNICATION
Content

 Emerging trends and issues in communication

 Challenges faced by emerging trends and issues in communication
 Ways of coping with emerging trends and issues in communication

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