1 Introduction and Terminology

Gears belong to a special class of mechanisms whose principal function is to transmit

motion and power from one shaft to another. Specifically, gears are usually in the form
of cylinders whose active surfaces are provided with teeth that interlock or “mesh” such
that the rotation of one accurately controls that of the other and the relationship between
their angular speeds as well as torques is constant. When two gears are in mesh, the
smaller of the pair is generally called the pinion, whereas the larger is referred to as the
gear. When the pinion is on the drive shaft, the pair acts as a speed reducer. Conversely,
when the gear drives the pinion, the pair acts as an increaser. Gears are more frequently
used as speed reducers than as speed increasers

1.1 Classification of gears

Gears may be classified on the basis of relative orientation of the two shafts carrying the
gears.

1.1.1 Gears Mounted on parallel Axes

Irrespective of the nature of contact, a pair of gears mounted on parallel shaft transmits a
uniform motion that is equivalent to rolling motion without slipping between two cyliders

• Straight spur Gears

Gears pairs, having parallel axes of rotation, are spur gears. They have straight
teeth parallel to the gear axes. This is shown in figure 2. As pair of teeth enters into
the engagement, the contact between the two teeth takes place over the entire width
along a line parallel to the axes of rotation. Thus, there is a sudden application of
load associated with high impact stresses and excessive noise at high speeds. As
the gears rotate further, the line of contact between a pair of teeth goes on shifting
parallel to itself as shown by representative successive lines a − a, b − b, c − c,
d − d, . . ., in Fig. 1(b). Shape of tooth profile of a straight spur gear is shown in
Fig. 3

Figure 1: Straight spur gears in mesh

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 Figure 2:

Figure 3:

• Helical spur Gears (or simply Helical Gears)

In helical gears, the teeth are cut on helices instead of straight across the gear
parallel to the axis (see Fig. 4a). Two mating toothed wheels of helical type must
have the same helix angle. Further the teeth must be of opposite hand as shown
in Fig. 4a.
As a pair of teeth comes in contact, the engagement begins only at the point of
leading edge of the curved teeth. As the gears rotate further, the contact progresses
across the tooth along the diagonal line. This is shown in Fig. 4b where the straight
lines a − a, b − b, c − c, d − d, . . ., are the successive lines of contact. These lines are
the elements of the involute helicoid. Thus, in helical gears the load application
is gradual and as such, impact stresses and noise are also less in comparison to
straight spur gears. Helical gears are used at high velocities and can carry higher
loads compared to straight spur gears. Shape of a helical gear tooth profile is shown
in Fig. 5. The angle at which the gear teeth are cut in helical gears is known as
the helix angle.

• Herringbone Gears
Because of helix angle in a single helical gear a component of load, acting on gear
tooth, acts in axial direction producing end-thrust vide Fig. 6. This is considered
to be disadvantage with single helical gear. A herringbone gear is equivalent to two

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 Figure 4: Helical spur gears

Figure 5:

helical gears of same helix angle but of opposite hand which are held together as an
integral piece. In the case of herringbone gear, the two rows of teeth are separated
by groove required for tool runout. In view of two rows of teeth of opposite hand,
the axial thrust mutually cancel out. In view of this, herringbone gears can be run
at high speeds with less of vibration and noise.

Figure 6: Herringbone gear

• Spur Rack and Pinion

In this case the spur rack can be considered to be a spur gear of infinite pitch
radius with its axis of rotation placed at infinity parallel to that of pinion. The
pinion rotates while the rack translates. The combination can be used to convert
either the rotary motion into translatory motion or vice-versa. (see Fig. 7)

1.1.2 Gears Mounted on intersecting shaft Axes

Bevel gears are used to transmit power between two shafts whose axes intersect. The
pitch surfaces of the wheels are frusta of cones which, by pure rolling motion will transmit

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 Figure 7: Spur rack and pinion

the same motion as the bevel wheels (see Fig. 8). The point of intersection of the two
shafts must coincide with common apex of both the frustums of cones. Any angle can be
used as included angle between shafts axes, however an angle of 90o is the most common

• Straight Bevel Gears

Kinematically, a pair of bevel gears is equivalent to a pair of conical frusta, keyed
to the intersecting shafts. At a particular point along the line of contact, the
peripheral speed of the two frusta are equal. The pitch of the teeth depends on
the distance of the point from common apex. The teeth of straight bevel gears are
straight, along the generator of the cone and vary in cross-section throughout their
length. Straight bevel gears usually connect shafts which run at low speeds. When
two straight bevel gears are of same size connect two shafts at right angles to each
other, the gears are called Mitre Gears

Figure 8: Pitch surface of frusta of cone which can transmit same velocity ratio

• Spiral Bevel Gears

It is also possible to produce bevels with spiral and curves spiral teeth, which offer
certain practical advantages. Although straight bevel gears are easy to design and
simple to manufacture and give very good service, they become noisy at higher
pitch line velocities. Spiral bevel gear is the bevel-counterpart of the helical gear.
It gives a much smoother tooth action than straight bevel gears and are very
useful for high speed applications. The tooth elements are theoretical spirals, but
in practice they are made of circular arcs because of ease of manufacture. The
spiral or helix angle φ is measured at the mean radius of the gear. Spiral bevel
gears find application in drive to the differential of an automobile.

• Zerol Bevel Gears

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 Figure 9: Spiral bevel gear

Gears with curved teeth of spiral type, but with spiral angle φ = 0o are called Zerol
Bevel Gears.

1.1.3 Gears Mounted on skew shaft Axes

Several applications demand gears to connect two non-parallel and non-intersecting

shafts. Unlike gears with parallel axes or intersecting shaft axes, uniform rotary mo-
tion by pure rolling cannot be obtained by gears of this type.

• Hypoid Gears
Some times it is necessary to have a gear similar to bevel gear but having an off set
between shaft-axes, then hypoid gear becomes the obvious choice. Hypoid gears
are based on hyperboloids of revolution (see Fig. 10. A necessary condition to
connect two non-parallel non-intersecting shafts by hyperboloids, is that the two
hyperboloids must be generated by revolving the same line (i.e their line of contact)
about the axis of each of the two connected shafts. Relative motion between gears
of this type consist partly of rolling and partly of sliding, along the common line,
and has much in common with worm gears.

Figure 10: Hperboloid

• Crossed Helical Gears (Spiral Gears)

The teeth of crossed helical gears have a point contact with each other, which
changes to line contact as the gears wears out. For this reason the use of double
helical gears or spiral gears is limited to light loads. There is no difference between
a crossed helical gear and a simple helical (spur) gear. The difference comes when

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 crossed helical gears are mounted in mesh with each other. A pair of meshed
crossed-helical gears have teeth which are usually of the same hand. By a suitable
choice of helix angle for the mating gears, the two shafts can have any angle of
inclinations (Fig. 11). These gears find use in the drive for feed mechanisms on
machine tools, camshafts and oil pumps on small I.C engines.

Figure 11: Spiral gears.

• Worm Gears
Worm is a member having screwlike thread and it is usual to call worm teeth as
threads. A worm and worm-wheel combination is similar to a pair of mating spiral
gears except that the larger wheel (usually) has a hollow or concave shape such
that it is partially encloses the worm. For this reason, they have a line contact
and are capable of transmitting more power. The worm-wheel is usually the driven
member of the pair and are shown in Fig. 12. The two shafts may have any angle
between them, but normally it is 90o . The sliding velocity of worm wheel is higher
compared to any other type of gear pairs

Figure 12: Worm gear in mesh

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1.2 Definition of gear terms (Spur gearing)

In order to analyze or design a gear system, it is important to understand the following

terms and definitions.
Pitch surfaces. Two imaginary cylindrical surfaces having their axes coinciding with
those of meshing gears in question and transmitting same velocity ratio through friction
alone (without any slip), are called equivalent pitch surfaces.
Pitch circle. Circle obtained by taking transverse section of pitch surface (i.e., using
section plane normal to the axis of pitch cylinder) is called pitch circle. Being imaginary
by nature, the size of pitch circles for a given pair of mating gears changes with centre
distance.
Pitch point (P). The point of tangency of the pitch circles.

Figure 13: Basic gear terminologies

Pitch diameter (Dp ). The diameter of the pitch circle.

Circular pitch(Pc ). The distance from a point on one tooth to the corresponding point
on an adjacent tooth measured on the pitch circle. Alternatively, it is the circumference
of the pitch circle divided by the number of teeth
πDP
Pc =
T
(Note: Mating gears have the same circular pitch)
Diametral pitch (PD ). Is the number of teeth per millimeter of p.c.d

T1 T2 π
PD = = =
Dp1 Dp2 Pc

The diametral pitch is a more convenient number to use in defining the size of a gear
than a physical dimension. It denotes the relative size of the teeth. Note that the smaller
the diametral pitch, the larger the teeth. Also, since circular pitch is defined as
πDP
Pc =
T

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and diametral pitch is given by
T
PD =
Dp

then the relationship between the circular pitch and pitch is obtained as

PD P c = π

Module (m). Is the number of millimeters of p.c.d per tooth

D1 D2 1
m= = =
T1 T2 PD
The module system is generally used in countries that have adopted the metric system.
Standard modules are 21 × 12 ∼ . . . 6 12 , 7 × 1 ∼ 16, 18, 20, 25, 30, 35
Base circle The circle from which an involute curve is generated
Involute This is the curve formed by the path of a point on a straight line called the
generatrix as it rolls along the convex base curve
Addendum (A) This is the height of tooth above pitch circle or the radial distance
between pitch and the top of the tooth. Standard addendum is equal to (m)
Addendum radius (RA ). The maximum radius of the gear.
Dedendum(B) This is the depth of tooth space between the pitch circle or the radial
distance between the pitch circle and the bottom of the tooth. Standard dedendum is
equal to (1.25m)
Dedendum Radius (RD ). The radius of the root circle.
Working depth (HK ). The sum of the addendums of two mating teeth. Standard
working depth=2(m).
Whole depth This is the total depth of the tooth space equal to addendum+dedendum.
It is equal to working depth+clearance
Tooth space. Distance between faces of adjacent teeth, measured along the pitch circle.
Clearance. The space measured on the line of centers between the addendum circle of
its mating gear.
Backlash. The difference between the tooth width and tooth space measured along the
pitch circle. Some backlash is necessary to compensate for inaccuracies in the forming
of the tooth to provide space for a lubricant and allow for thermal expansion. Without
backlash, gears could not mesh without jamming.
Face width. The thickness of the gear measured from the front face of the gear to the
back face. This is also termed the face of the gear.
Tooth face. The contacting surface of the tooth from the pitch circle to the addendum
circle.
Flank of tooth. The surface of the tooth from the pitch circle to the dedendum circle.
Fillet (F). The rounded corner between the flank and dedendum circle.
Top land. The top surface of a tooth.
Bottom land. The surface of the bottom of the tooth space.
Circular tooth thickness (or tooth thickness). The width of tooth measured along
the pitch circle.
Chordal tooth thickness. The length of the chord subtending the circular tooth
thickness arc.
Chordal addendum. The height from the top of a tooth to the chord subtending the
circular thickness arc.

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Center distance (C). Sum (for external gears) of difference (for internal gears) of the
pitch radii of two mating gears. For example, the center distance between two external
gears, 1 and 2, is given by
D1 + D2
C =
2
 
1 T1 T2
= +
2 PD PD
T1 + T2
=
2PD

Path of Contact. In general, the path of contact is the curve traced by the point of
contact of two teeth from the beginning to the end of engagement. In the case of involute
gears, the path of contact is along a straight line tangent to base circles.
An: of Contact: The path described by a point on tooth on pitch circle, from beginning
to the end of engagement of given tooth pair, is called an arc of contact.
Contact Ratio. In order to reduce average load shared by a pair of teeth, it is desirable
that on a time basis, more than one pair should remain in contact at all the time.
Contact ratio is defined as the average number of pairs of teeth which are in contact.
Mathematically,
Length of arc of contact
Contact ratio =
circular pitch
The contact ratio usually is not a whole number
Pressure angle (ψ). The pressure angle ψ is the angle which the common normal to
the contacting tooth profiles, at the point of contact, makes with the common n tangent
to the two pitch circles at the pitch point. This is also known as the angle of obliquity.
Significance of pressure angle can be understood by considering Fig. 14, which depicts
pitch circles of two mating gears and common normal to the contacting tooth profiles,
making angle ψ with the common tangent.

Figure 14: Illustration for significance of pressure angle

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Load from one member to the other is transmitted along common, normal to contacting
surfaces, let n − n be the common normal to the pinion and gear teeth profiles repre-
sented by pp and gg. Let Fn be the force transmitted from pinion to gear along n − n.
Resolving this force along the tangent t − t and also along common line of centres (radial
component), Fr
Ft = Fn cos ψ and Fr = sin ψ (1)
^
The component Ft produces driving torque (= Ft × R3 ) and is the useful component,
while the component Fr tends to separate the shafts at O2 and 03 apart. The component
Fr is undesirable as it produces bending in the shaft and increases bearing loads. From
purely load transmission point of view therefore, it is desirable to have pressure angle ψ
as small as possible (From other considerations however, a larger value of ψ is preferable).
If R2 , ω2 and t be the pitch circle radius. angular velocity and number of teeth on pinion
respectively and R3 , ω3 and T be the pitch circle radius, angular velocity and number of
teeth on gear respectively, then for common module m,
   
2R2 2R3
= =m (2)
t T

Further, from the definition of gear ratio,

T R3
Gear ratio G = = (3)
t R2
Again, for same pitch line velocity at pitch point,

vp = R2 ω2 = R3 ω3 (4)

Hence, from eqs. (3) and (4)

Gear ratioG = (T /t) = (R3 /R2 ) = (ω2 /ω3 ) (5)

o
The standard pressure angles are 14 12 and 20o

Example 1.1 A spur gear drive transmits a gear ratio of 4.0 over a centre distance of
500 mm. If module is 10 mm, determine the pitch circle diameters of pinion and gear. If
pinion transmits a torque of 6000 Ncm, find (i) pressure between the teeth and (ii) load
transmitted to bearing if pressure angle is 200 .

Solution

If D and d be the pitch circle diameters and T and t be the number of teeth on gear and
pinion respectively, then for a centre distance of C = 500 mm,

500 = (d + D)/2
1 1
= (mt + mT ) = (1 + T /t)
2 2
1
= (10)t(1 + G)
2
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As gear ratio G = 4.0, above ratio gives,
500 × 2
t= = 20
10 × (1 + 4)
And therefor
T = G × t = 80
Therefore
d = 20 × m = 200 mm
and
D = 80 × m = 800 mm

Further, assuming 100% transmission efficiency,

(Torque × ω)p = (Torque × ω)g

Hence, Torque on gear = (ω2 /ω3 ) × 6000 = 2400 N.cm

If Ft and Fr be the tangential and radial components of tooth load on gear and Fn be
the load transmitted by pinion
 
Torque on gear 24000
Ft = = = 600 N
D/2 80/2

Again from Eq. 1

(Ft /Fr ) = coth ψ

Fr = Ft tan ψ = 600 × tan 20o
Fr = 218.4 N
Fn = Ft / cos ψ = 638.5 N

1.3 Motion transmitted by two curved surfaces

vAx is the velocity of point A as seen from body x and vAy is the velocity of point A seen
from body Y . A is the point of contact. We can write the following.

vAx = ωx OA

vAy = ωy P A

Along the common normal the component of these velocities are:

vAxn = vAx cos α

vAyn = vAy cos β

If the two surfaces are to remain in contact, these two components must be equal

vAx cos α = vAy cos β

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 Common normal

Ȧx Ȧy
O
vAy D
vAx

ȕ
Į
Q P
X Y
A

Common tangent
to the curved surfaces

Figure 15:

ωx OA cos α = ωy P A cos β

But OA cos α = OC and P A cos β = P D. Therefore

ωx OC = ωy P D

ωx PD
⇒ = (6)
ωy OC

Further the triangles QOC and QDP are similar triangles

PD PQ
⇒ =
OC OQ

Hence expression 6 become

ωx PQ
= orωx OQ = ωy QP
ωy OQ
That is to say’
The ratio of the angular velocities of X and Y is inversely proportional to the ratio of
distances of P from O to Q or , the common normal at A intersects the line of centers
at Q , which divides the center distance inversely as the angular velocity. Thus, if the
velocity ratio is to be constant, the contact surfaces must be so shaped that the common
normal intersects the line of centers at a fixed point Q .
The motion transmitted from x to y will be identical to that transmitted by pure rolling
contacts between two cylindrical surfaces with axis through O and Q, and the line of
contact through Q . Q is the pitch point, and circles through P with OQ and QP as
the radii are pitch circles. The above is the basic condition which must be satisfied by
profiles adopted for teeth of the gears.

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