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What Is Socio-Economic
Development?
Socio-economic development is a process that seeks to identify both the social and the
economic needs within a community, and seek to create strategies that will address
those needs in ways that are practical and in the best interests of the community over
the long run. The general idea is to find ways to improve the standard of living within
the area while also making sure the local economy is healthy and capable of sustaining
the population present in the area. Socio-economic development occurs in
neighbourhoods in metropolitan areas, sections of smaller cities and towns, and even in
rural settings.

There are a number of factors that must be considered as part of any socio-economic
development effort. Understanding the current circumstances that prevail in the area is
the first step toward regional development. By assessing the potential of human
capital in the area, allowing for the current unemployment rate and when laws and
regulations are currently in place that may be impeding the introduction of new industry
into the area, it is possible to begin developing a plan that will ultimately mean more
jobs, stable employment for more households, and more money flowing through the
local economy.
Socio-economic development focuses on specific issues such as poverty and
resource scarcity.
Along with finding ways to stabilize the economy and create more jobs, socio-economic
development also considers the availability of essential services within the area. This
includes the presence of schools and colleges to teach children and prepare young
people for careers. Attracting services such as medical practitioners and health facilities
to the area is also important. Creating and maintaining a viable law enforcement
agency that helps to maintain order and protect citizens is also very important to the
task. Doing so helps to make the community more desirable and helps to minimize the
possibility of people leaving to seek those same services elsewhere.

Typically, socio-economic development involves making changes in current laws and

regulations in order to attract new growth and enhance the standard of living for local
residents. Changes in laws can make it easier for new industry to move into the area
and offer employment at equitable wages. This in turn can aid in motivating the
creation of more services that citizens can enjoy, allowing the area to prosper. With the
right type of motivation and improvements to the infrastructure, residents are not
tempted to move away in order to earn a living or enjoy desirable services, and there is
a good chance more people will move into the area and provide further stimulation for
the local economy. While there is no one right way to pursue socio-economic
development, the process is essential to preventing decline and the eventual extinction
of a community.

Sociology

Definition: it is the study of social behavior or society, including its origins,

development, organization, networks, and institutions. It is a social science that uses
various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of
knowledge about social order, disorder, and change. Many sociologists aim to conduct
research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus
primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter
ranges from the micro-sociology level of individual agency and interaction to the macro
level of systems and the social structure.

Economics

Definition: Economics is essentially a study of the usage of resources under specific

constraints, all bound with an audacious hope that the subject under scrutiny is a
rational entity which seeks to improve its overall well-being.

Two branches within the subject have evolved thus: microeconomics (individual
choices) which deals with entities and the interaction between those entities, while
macroeconomics (aggregate outcomes) deals with the entire economy as a whole.

The aim of studying economics is to understand the decision process behind allocating
the currently available resources, the needs always unlimited but resources being
limited to ensure the maximum satisfaction is obtained.

Development

We will now start our lesson by defining first the concept of development and then
underdevelopment. The concept of development is somehow problematic to define. The
term development has been given many meanings, which are not always clearly
specified in practice or in research. Phillips (1990:6) states that these meanings can
include:
• general improvement in progress

• economic growth

• increased labour productivity

• satisfaction of basic human needs

• modernization including education healthcare

• positive social change.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZwXn2HxDhQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ODyOEgwaWfk

Underdevelopment: Let us now define the concept of underdevelopment. Jhingan

(1986:11) observes that there is not a single definition, which is so comprehensive as to
incorporate all the features of an underdeveloped country. It is, however important to
note that underdevelopment does not denote absence of development. This is because,
as Rodney (1989:21) notes, every people have developed in one way or another and to
a greater or lesser extent. So underdevelopment is a relative phenomenon. It therefore
can best be explained in terms of comparison of levels of development. This is actually
in noting that different societies have different needs as well as capacities and
capabilities as well as different levels of resource endowment. Thus, there are more
developed societies and less developed or underdeveloped societies.

At the international level, an underdeveloped country may have the following as some
of its basic characteristics: -

• a relatively low per capita production

• a relatively higher proportion of the population working in agriculture

• relatively high unemployment and underemployment

• a relatively higher rate of population growth • a relatively lower life expectancy

• a higher rate of infant mortality • a relatively lower rate of literacy and a smaller
percentage of young people in schooling and training at all level
• relatively few doctors per head of population and less access to basic health care and
services and sanitation.

Let us caution that the processes of development and underdevelopment should

however not be seen as mutually exclusive, such that if a society or an economy is
developing aspects of underdevelopment may not be found. Theories of Development
Let us now move on to the next objective of this unit.

To look at some of the theories of development. There have been various

attempts and approaches to understand how the processes of development and
underdevelopment take place. Initially however, concern for development was within
the realm of economic development. Economists started theorizing about development
in the 18th century. We will group the theories into classical economic theory,
modernization and dependency theory. Let us now start with the classical economic
theories.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WMv8A9qg6jY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LBcUl8ZZGE4
Classical Economic Theories

Adam Smith, writing in 1776, is regarded as the father of classical economics. Smith, in
his renowned work, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,
1776, presented a recipe for economic growth. He noted that economic growth was
necessary to raise people’s welfare. Savings should be mobilized and invested as a way
of generating income. He also believed in the doctrine of natural law in economic affairs
and regarded every person as the best judge of his/her self-interest. He therefore called
for every person to be left to pursue his/her own advantage and market forces be left to
regulate economic activities – a laissez faire sort of system.

8 Subsequent scholars such as David Ricardo and Arthur Lewis subscribed to this
naked capitalist market-driven model of development. It was not until during the great
depression in the 1930s that it was found necessary to control market forces. John
Meynard Keynes in the 1950s submitted that government intervention in free trade was
necessary so as to regulate market forces and put order through taxation and use of
interest rates and in the process ensures people’s welfare was catered for. The
realization was essentially that market forces did not have people’s welfare at heart.

Modernization Theory Let us now introduce you to modernisation theory, which

emerged after the Second World War as an analytical tool to provide a framework in
which the transition from traditional to modern forms of society could be analyzed
(Taylor 1979:33). Thinking in the 1940s and 50s was that development was a linear
process, it was felt that the underdeveloped countries could follow the same path
followed by the more developed nations and become modern and therefore developed.
According to W. E. Moore, the concept of modernization denotes a total transformation
of a traditional or pre- modern society into the types of technology and associated
social organization that characterizes the advanced economically prosperous and
relatively politically stable nations of the western world. (Moore 1963:89).

Dependency Theory

which views the underdevelopment of developing countries as resulting mainly from

their dependence on the rich countries. This school of thought has its origins in Marxist
(Karl Marx 1850- 1880) thinking. Marx observed that with the international movement
of capital, colonies develop as outlets for excess goods of the industrial capitalist
economies. The colonies also supply raw materials. As the interaction of colonies with
the international capitalism proceeds and grows, indigenous production systems are
broken down and modeled to serve the needs of the local people. A phenomenon of
colonial capitalism ensues. Paul Baran (1982) widely regarded as the father of
dependency theory observes that such unequal relationships between the centre and
periphery renders attempts by poor societies to be self-reliant and independent in their
development efforts difficult and sometimes even impossible. Let us introduce you to
what a renowned dependency scholar said about dependency. Andre G. Frank (1967) a
renowned Latin American underdevelopment scholar argues that: The massive and
persistent poverty in Latin American countries is a result of exposure to economic and
political influences of advanced countries. The progression of industrial centres in the
world today means simultaneous underdevelopment of those countries whose economic
surplus the western countries exploit.

He rejected the progressive nature of capitalism as advocated by Marxism imperialism

and contended that as long as developing countries continue to be subject to the
dominance of western economic imperialism, their poverty will persist. Frank sees the
solution to this exploitation process as being in the cutting of the chain of dependency
through which surplus production is transferred. Frank says the solution lies in a
revolution of a socialist nature.

World Systems Theory A variant of dependency theory was postulated by Ibrahim

Wallerstein in the 1970s.

World System Theory.

This theory's focus is to explain world patterns of inequality. Wallerstein (1974) argues
that over the last five centuries, a world system based on the expansion of a capitalist
economy has developed. The world is thus not a bunch of independent societies but a
large system that unifies the world's societies and cultures into a single economic
system that is tied together through a complex global exchange system. The ensuing
world political organizations are essentially an inter-state system of completely
sovereign but capitalistic nation states. Each competing and feeding each other. The
capitalist world economy is made up of the core countries (same as A.G. Frank's
Metropolitan centre); the semi-periphery; the periphery and the external arena.

1. The core states: are those in which modern economic enterprise first emerged and
which subsequently underwent industrialization. E.g Britain, The Netherlands, and
France, and later Germany. Japan and the USA.

2. The semi periphery: is composed of societies situated in the south of Europe' around
the Mediterranean (such as Spain Italy Greece).

3. The periphery or the "outer edge" of the world economy was until two centuries ago,
mainly the Eastern fringes of Europe. Czech Slovak Slovenia Bosnia Romania Hungary
Austria among others

4. The External arena: Much of Asia and Africa.

Wallerstein argues that since the core countries dominate the world system, they are
able to organize world trade to favour their interests. In this system, are two distinct
classes of people: the owners of the means of production and those who do not own.

The Complexities of Architecture and Its Influence on Society

The Untold Architectural book by Ronald Harden shares the author’s architectural
project that contributed to the community’s improvement. This exhibits that its
significance goes beyond simply building shelters. Architecture does more for society.

Can people live in a society without architecture?

You’re probably heavily contemplating for an answer, imagining what the world or city
you’re in would be like without architecture. Highly likely, your answer would be no.
People can’t live without architecture simply because they haven’t been in a society
without it.

Architecture is the practice of designing and constructing buildings. One would argue
that perhaps ancient people can attest to living without it. After all, buildings didn’t
exist during their time. However, by its most basic definition, a building is a structure
with a roof and walls. Hence, any structure people have inhibited counts as a building
that’s a product of architecture.

Architecture and Society

Wherever one looks, they’re greeted with architecture. It’s a remarkable societal
element, reflecting its status and symbolizing people’s creativity and self-expression.

People determine society’s quality of life by the buildings surrounding the area and the
art that livens the land. Buildings may look like an empty four-walled shells. But they
reflect the society that built them and represent art that stands the test of time. From
the pyramids in ancient Egypt to the honeycomb-like city found in Turkey, they’ve been
created with purpose and significance.

Some reflect the power hierarchy during the era, helping define how people’s
psychology changes throughout time. Others are simply an expression of love or
respect. But generally, these ancient architectures have become a great source of
inspiration, paving the way for modern architecture.

Architecture’s Influence on Society

A perfect example to encompass what architecture provides society can be found in the
Untold Architectural book by Ronald Harden. The book compiles his previous works,
such as The Tampa Bay Performing Arts Center, Bloomingdale High Schools, and Mobley
Park. His projects have helped the community expand economically and culturally,
creating homes and cultural events for African-Americans and other communities.

Beyond being the inspiration for future crafts and a means of people’s expressions,
architecture has the power to change the world. It may not be through something
drastic and immediate as changing people’s behavior. But its influence on people’s
surroundings can contribute to how society is molded.

Social Causes

The world is unfair. It’s, unfortunately, a fact that everyone has already grown
accustomed to.

While some live lavish lives in magnificent places, others are exposed to horrible and
unimaginable situations. Architecture can be a powerful tool privileged people can
provide for the unprivileged to improve their lives. Indeed, building a structure
contributes little to alleviating the injustices these people experience and only provides
shelter among the various necessities they lack. But this behavior from the purest
intentions can inspire others to do the same to these communities.

Additionally, instead of only helping through donation drives and charity works, where
people can’t meet and collaborate, architecture can unite communities toward the goal
of changing lives and improving the future.

Global Warming

One of the intense problems people are experiencing revolves around the effects of
global warming. The world is becoming uninhabitable due to people’s ever-damaging
behaviors and activities.

They can help mitigate the effects of global warming by changing their habits and
reinforcing positive behaviors such as planting trees and recycling. But beyond these,
architecture can also play a significant role throughout this change. Instead of cutting
plants to make way for buildings, architects found a way to incorporate these plants
into their buildings, calling them green buildings.

This process is undeniably a sustainable and excellent alternative to traditional

architecture. Now, plants don’t need to be compromised for people’s interest. Fewer
natural resources are sacrificed for society’s improvement.

Psychology and Overall Health

Unlike in the past, when people spent most of their lives struggling under the sun’s
heat, at least 80% of the current population spend their days indoors, all made possible
by architecture. This led to people enjoying more benefits, not just physically, with
structures shielding them from harm’s way, but also stimulating their neurological
systems. The improvement of architectural designs made way for the creation of better
auditory, visual, and sensory stimuli.

Social Interactions

Humans are social beings. They naturally crave the comfort and presence of other
people. The difference in their lifestyles would have long been isolated from each other.
But these buildings made opportunities for the opposite. Without architectural
structures like entertainment centers, hotels, or gardens, people won’t be encouraged
to interact with each other.
A society without architecture isn’t the only one without a touch of creativity or
personal expression. It also becomes one that’s void of life and love.

CONCEPTS OF DEVELOPMENT AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT

Introduction

In this lesson, we will learn the basic concepts of development and underdevelopment.
We will also briefly discuss some of the theories of development. These are the classical
theory, modernization and dependency theories. Some of the recent theories such as the
world systems theory will also be introduced.

Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able

to:

Development

We will now start our lesson by defining first the concept of development and then
underdevelopment.

The concept of development is somehow problematic to define. The term development

has been given many meanings, which are not always clearly specified in practice or in
research. Phillips (1990:6) states that these meanings can include:
 general improvement in progress
 economic growth
 increased labour productivity
 satisfaction of basic human needs
 modernization including education
 social change.

The above stated view of development ends up giving the features, goals and process of
development.
Note:

Development can be presented either as a desirable end

state or as a continuous process. It could also be seen quantitatively in
terms of tangible ends such as income per capita, Gross National Income,
physical manifestations such as kilometres of road, buildings, social

Let us also introduce you to a qualitative view of development where, the process and the
end-state of development are important. People are seen as both the ends and means of
development. Note what Walter Rodney says.

Rodney (1989:9) states that development at the individual level implies increased skill
and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well
being.

In talking of development of human beings, then what we are talking about is human
development. Since human beings and their needs keep on evolving as time moves on,
then development should be defined as a dynamic process that involves positive change
in the total life of a society. It is in this light we adopt the Gender Issues Awareness
Trainers 1994 definition of development which opens the scope of what development
ought to be: - a continuous process of positive change, collectively defined and aimed
at optimum distributive justice, economic growth and individual and collective self-
reliance in politics, economics and culture through the participation of that community
and of related communities.

Underdevelopment

Let us now define the concept of underdevelopment. Jhingan (1986:11) observes that
there is not a single definition, which is so comprehensive as to incorporate all the
features of an underdeveloped country

It is, however important to note that underdevelopment does not denote absence of
development. This is because, as Rodney (1989:21) notes, every people have developed
in one way or another and to a greater or lesser extent. So underdevelopment is a relative
phenomenon. It therefore can best be explained in terms of comparison of levels of
development. This is actually in noting that different societies have different needs as
well as capacities and capabilities as well as different levels of resource endowment.
Thus, there are more developed societies and less developed or underdeveloped societies.

However, underdevelopment as a concept has largely been associated with economic

backwardness, which is characterized by low incomes, poverty, low labour productivity,
and "backward" technology.
Generally, we can conclude that an underdeveloped society can be said to be developed,
but only to the extent that most material and welfare needs of the people are largely,
partly or wholly unmet.

At the international level, an underdeveloped country may have the following as some of
its basic characteristics: -
 a relatively low per capita production
 a relatively higher proportion of the population working in agriculture
 relatively high unemployment and underemployment
 a relatively higher rate of population growth
 a relatively lower life expectancy
 a higher rate of infant mortality
 a relatively lower rate of literacy and a smaller percentage of young people in
schooling and training at all level
 relatively few doctors per head of population and less access to basic health care
and services and sanitation

Let us caution that the processes of development and underdevelopment should however
not be seen as mutually exclusive, such that if a society or an economy is developing
aspects of underdevelopment may not be found.

Theories of Development

Let us now move on to the next objective of this unit. To look at some of the theories of
development.

There have been various attempts and approaches to understand how the processes of
development and underdevelopment take place. Initially however, concern for
development was within the realm of economic development. Economists started
theorizing about development in the 18th century.

We will group the theories into classical economic theory, modernization and
dependency theory. Let us now start with the classical economic theories.

Classical Economic Theories

Adam Smith, writing in 1776, is regarded as the father of classical economics. Smith, in
his renowned work, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,
1776, presented a recipe for economic growth. He noted that economic growth was
necessary to raise people’s welfare. Savings should be mobilized and invested as a way
of generating income. He also believed in the doctrine of natural law in economic affairs
and regarded every person as the best judge of his/her self-interest. He therefore called
for every person to be left to pursue his/her own advantage and market forces be left to
regulate economic activities – a laissez faire sort of system.
Subsequent scholars such as David Ricardo and Arthur Lewis subscribed to this naked
capitalist market-driven model of development. It was not until during the great
depression in the 1930s that it was found necessary to control market forces. John
Meynhard Keynes in the 1950s submitted that government intervention in free trade was
necessary so as to regulate market forces and put order through taxation and use of
interest rates and in the process ensures people’s welfare was catered for. The realization
was essentially that market forces did not have people’s welfare at heart.

Modernization Theory

Let us now introduce you to modernisation theory, which emerged after the Second
World War as an analytical tool to provide a framework in which the transition from
traditional to modern forms of society could be analyzed (Taylor 1979:33). Thinking in
the 1940s and 50s was that development was a linear process, it was felt that the
underdeveloped countries could follow the same path followed by the more developed
nations and become modern and therefore developed.

According to W. E. Moore, the concept of modernization denotes a total

transformation of a traditional or pre- modern society into the types of technology and
associated social organization that characterizes the advanced economically
prosperous and relatively politically stable nations of the western world. (Moore
1963:89).

Dependency Theory

Lastly, we are going to introduce you to dependency theory, which views the
underdevelopment of developing countries as resulting mainly from their dependence on
the rich countries. This school of thought has its origins in Marxist (Karl Marx 1850-
1880) thinking. Marx observed that with the international movement of capital, colonies
develop as outlets for excess goods of the industrial capitalist economies. The colonies
also supply raw materials. As the interaction of colonies with the international capitalism
proceeds and grows, indigenous production systems are broken down and modeled to
serve the needs of the local people. A phenomenon of colonial capitalism ensues.

Paul Baran (1982) widely regarded as the father of dependency theory observes that such
unequal relationships between the centre and periphery renders attempts by poor societies
to be self-reliant and independent in their development efforts difficult and sometimes
even impossible.

Let us introduce you to what a renowned dependency scholar said about dependency.
Andre G. Frank (1967) a renowned Latin American underdevelopment scholar argues
that:
The massive and persistent poverty in Latin American countries is a result of exposure to
economic and political influences of advanced countries. The progression of industrial
centres in the world today means simultaneous underdevelopment of those countries
whose economic surplus the western countries exploit.
He rejected the progressive nature of capitalism as advocated by
Marxism imperialism and contended that as long as developing
countries continue to be subject to the dominance of western economic
imperialism, their poverty will persist.

Frank sees the solution to this exploitation process as being in the

cutting of the chain of dependency through which surplus production is
transferred. Frank says the solution lies in a revolution of a socialist
nature.

World Systems Theory

A variant of dependency theory was postulated by Ibrahim Wallerstein

in the 1970s. He called it the World System Theory. Let us briefly
discuss this theory.

This theory's focus is to explain world patterns of inequality.

Wallerstein (1974) argues that over the last five centuries, a world
system based on the expansion of a capitalist economy has developed.
The world is thus not a bunch of independent societies but a large
system that unifies the world's societies and cultures into a single
economic system that is tied together through a complex global
exchange system.

The ensuing world political organizations are essentially an inter-state

system of completely sovereign but capitalistic nation states. Each
competing and feeding each other. The capitalist world economy is
made up of the core countries (same as A.G. Frank's Metropolitan
centre); the semi-periphery; the periphery and the external arena.

1. The core states: are those in which modern economic enterprise first
emerged and which subsequently underwent industrialization. E.g
Britain, The Netherlands, and France, and later German. Japan and
the USA.

2. The semi periphery: is composed of societies situated in the south of

Europe' around the Mediterranean (such as Spain).

3. The periphery or the "outer edge" of the world economy was until
two centuries ago, mainly the Eastern fringes of Europe.

4. The External arena: Much of Asia and Africa.

Wallerstein argues that since the core countries dominate the world
system, they are able to organize world trade to favour their interests. In
this system, are two distinct classes of people: the owners of the means
of production and those who do not own.
In this lesson, we have looked at the concepts of development and
underdevelopment. We have seen that development and
underdevelopment are not mutually exclusive, rather they are relative
terms In a community there can be found aspects of development as
well as those denoting