Lateral load resisting Structural systems

LATERAL LOAD RESISTING STRUCTURAL

SYSTEMS FOR TALL BUILDINGS

Priyan Mendis and Anil Hira

SUMMARY

The significance of lateral loading increases with increasing height, in terms of serviceability,
strength and stability limit states. Although for normal buildings the structural system is
generally governed by non-structural factors, for the taller and more slender buildings the
structural form becomes increasingly important. This necessitates the structural engineer to
choose the appropriate structural form at a very early stage of the design development and to
have a greater interaction with the other disciplines.

For very tall buildings the structural engineer will work closely with the architect from the initial
conceptual stage. Often the structural aspects will dictate the Architectural form of the building.
This lecture will introduce the basic lateral load resisting structural systems and some basic
guidelines on the structural efficiency of each system. The principal conclusion for such systems
was the need to provide sufficient stiffness to satisfy the deflection criteria. The final selected
system adopted for any particular building depends on many factors but as emphasised in this
course the lateral loads play a significant role in determining an efficient and cost effective
solution.

For any building, there are an infinite number of solutions involving a multitude of combinations
of the basic systems. This lecture will discuss the more commonly adopted combinations with
particular reference to its structural efficiency in terms of building height.

1. INTRODUCTION

Tall building development involves various complex factors, such as economics, aesthetics,
technology, municipal regulations, and politics. Among these, economics has been the primary

1|Page
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

governing factor. However, construction of this new building type itself would not have been
possible without supporting technologies. Structural systems for tall buildings have undergone
dramatic changes since the demise of the conventional rigid frames in the 1960s as the
predominant type of structural system for steel or concrete tall buildings. However, the structural
form of a tall building is influenced strongly by its function, whilst having to satisfy the
requirements of strength and serviceability under all probable conditions of gravity and lateral
loads.

Most of the tall buildings are constructed using steel, concrete or composites materials
(combination of steel and concrete). Since the lateral resistance is the most important parameter
in structural systems in tall buildings, these systems can be classified as interior and exterior
structural systems. This classification is based on the distribution of the components of the
primary lateral load-resisting system over the building. A system is categorized as an interior
structure when the major part of the lateral load resisting system is located within the interior of
the building. Similarly, if the major part of the lateral load-resisting system is located outside of
the building perimeter, a system is categorized as exterior.

In the previous lectures it has been noted that the vertical load effects essentially increase
linearly with building height however the effects due to lateral loads increase more rapidly with
increasing building height. It has been shown in simplistic terms assuming an idealistic uniform
structural system up the height of the building, the following relationships hold.

The base overturning moment (M)

(1)

Deflection at the top of building (D)

∆ (2)

2|Page
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

2. BASIC STRUCTURAL SYSTEM TO RESIST LATERAL LOADS

Before discussing LLRSS for buildings it is important to have a clear understanding of

the basic structural systems to transfer lateral loads acting on a building to the foundation.
The simple approach is to determine the ways of transferring the actions due to lateral
loads from one storey to the storey below as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Concept of transferring lateral loads

The action comprises of transferring the lateral shear (sum of the lateral forces imposed on the
structure above the storey that is being considered) and the overturning moment (sum
of the product of lateral forces above the storey being considered times the distance to
load from the storey being considered). The basic structural systems to transfer the lateral
loads from one level to the next can be broken into four basic systems. They are:

 Flexural cantilever - (see Figure 2) The lateral load is resisted by cantilever action,
via flexural action (bending) of the vertical elements, which can be columns or wall
elements. The relative deflection of the storey will be dependent on the EI value of
the element. Conversely the load attracted by the vertical element will depend on the

3|Page
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

flexural stiffness. ie

Assuming that the vertical elements between a floor are the same material the load
resisted by each of the elements will be proportional to the "I" value.

Figure 2: Cantilever

In typical high-rise buildings, wall elements fall in this category where the lateral deflection is
primarily due to flexural deformation.

 Shear action – Similar to cantilever elements except the lateral load is resisted by
cantilever action via shear deformation. The relative deflection of the storey is primarily
dependent on the “EA” value of the element.
Squat reinforced concrete walls, where the length of the wall is relatively large compared
with the height of the wall.

4|Page
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

Figure 3: Shear Action

 Frame action – (see Figure 4). This system consists of columns and beams connected
rigidly. The lateral load resistance is provided by the flexural resistance provided by the
columns, beams and the joints. Buy considering the actions in Figure 4, lateral stiffness
will also be dependent on the axial stiffness of the vertical elements.
Such a system has the advantage in high rise construction due to maximum flexibility in
architectural planning, as the frames can be located along the perimeter or internally with
minimal interference with space.

Figure 4: Frame Action

5|Page
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

 Braced action – (see Figure 5) The lateral load is transferred by direct axial tension and
compression by triangulated member arrangement. A greater stiffness is associated with
this system compared with the others in terms of mass of material to achieve the stiffness.
It is by far the most efficient system as all the stiffness is provided by axial stiffness.
Although very efficient it has one big drawback as it imposes many constraints on the
architectural planning and in many cases is not practical.

Figure 5: Braced Action

The basic structural systems given above to transfer lateral load from one level to the level below
can be extended vertically and horizontally with the objective to transfer the lateral loads down
to the ground.

3. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS FOR BUILDINGS

The structural system for buildings will comprise of one of the systems or more likely a
combination of the systems discussed in this lecture. There are many factors that will dictate the
likely system. The primary structural skeleton of a tall building can be visualized as a vertical
cantilever beam with its base fixed in the ground. This tall cantilever structure should resist
gravity loads as well as lateral loads cause due to wind and earthquake. Therefore the structure
should have sufficient stiffness against the lateral loads. The structural system for buildings will

6|Page
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

comprise of one of the systems or more likely a combination of the systems describe below.
There are many factors that will dictate the likely system. Some of the factors include,
 Height of the building
 Magnitude of the design wind loads
 Magnitude of the seismic load
 Architectural considerations
 Limitation on size of the members
 Ductility of the frame
 Material availability
 Specialised labour availability

Over the past few decades, different types of categories have been identified to classify tall
building structural systems. These are:

i. flat slab and columns

ii. shear walls
iii. rigid frames
iv. braced frames
v. coupled wall systems
vi. tube structures
vii. core + outrigger system
viii. space structures
ix. hybrid (combined use of any two or more structural systems).

In total, 73% of the tall buildings built in the 2000s have adopted a core + outrigger system, and
approximately 50% of them are constructed with concrete as per CTBUH 2010 report (Ref 3).

3.1 FLAT SLAB AND COLUMNS

The simplest of structure consist of a flat slab and columns. The LLRSS relies on framing action
between the column and the flat slab. The flat slab essentially acts as the beam. The column

7|Page
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

spacing are typically small, to achieve the necessary stiffness in the slab (the lack of depth in the
slab is compensated by shorter span) for the framing action to be effective (Figure 6).
The system is efficient for reinforced concrete structures less than 10 storeys and is economical
for residential and hotel type structures where minimising the inter-storey height offers
significant economy. The application of this system to areas of high wind loads and/or seismic
loads is limiting, due to the inefficient framing action offered by the system.

Figure 6: Flat slab (Ref. 1)

3.2 SHEAR WALLS

This structural system is an extension to the flat slab structure discussed in the previous section
with the inclusion of shear wall elements. The wall elements entirely form the LLRSS, with the
slab and columns utilised to resist vertical loads only. (Figure 7)

8|Page
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

Figure 7: Shear wall system (Ref. 1)

The wall elements act as individual cantilevers, and attract loads in proportion to the flexural
stiffness. Due to the large stiffness offered by, the cantilever walls, building heights up to 20-30
storeys can adopt this system. The obvious disadvantages of this system are the constraints the
walls put on the Architectural planning. As a result this system is restricted to residential and
hotel buildings where the walls serve simultaneously as an acoustic and fire barrier between
tenancies and rooms respectively as well its structural function.

Contrary to what the name suggests the major component of the lateral stiffness is typically
offered by flexural stiffness with a minor contribution from shear stiffness. The wall elements
can in fact be a configuration of walls forming part of a stairway or lift core, where the cell acts
as a cantilever.

3.3 RIGID FRAME

Rigid frames usually composed of straight members connected by rigid (moment resisting)
connections. This rigid joint prevents relative translations and rotations of member ends
connected to it, so the joint is capable of transmitting forces and a couple between connected
members. In general, members in a frame are subjected to bending moment, shear and axial
tension and compression. This basic system is very popular for office buildings up to 20 storeys.
The frame system can easily be accommodated architecturally within the building frame without
interfering with the architectural planning for the building. The stiffness of the frame is

9|Page
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

dependent on the flexural stiffness of the beam and columns and the axial stiffness of the
columns. Therefore rigid frame systems are very efficient for resisting both lateral and vertical
loads. To maintain reasonable member sizes and reasonable column spacing this system is not
economical for buildings beyond 20 to 30 storeys, however it does depend on the level of the
design lateral loads.

Figure 8: Typical rigid frame

Figure 8 illustrates a typical frame building and the schematic load paths for a frame subjected to
lateral loads. This system is particularly common in reinforced concrete construction where the
rigid joints can easily be detailed with no complexities, unlike for steel construction where joint
detailing can be complex and expensive.

The size of members in a moment resisting frame, subjected to lateral loads, is often controlled
by stiffness rather than strength to control to control the deflection, especially with frames of
increasing height. The lateral stiffness of the frame is made up of two components
 Cantilever moment
 Shear racking

10 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

The components can be explained by considering a prismatic cantilever beam where the
deflection is made up of two components: bending deflection and shear deflection. For typical
cantilevers with span to depth ratio is greater than 10, bending deflections is the predominant
component and shear deflections are small and often ignored. The deflection characteristic of a
rigid frame on the other hand is just the opposite where the shear deflection of the frame (shear
racking) can amount to as much as 80% of the total and the remaining 20% is attributed to
flexural deflection. (Cantilever moment) The two components of the frame behaviour are
illustrated in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Cantilever moment and shear racking

By noting the behaviour of the frame it can be seen that the total stiffness (lateral load deflection
at the top of the building) is dependent on
a) Axial deformation of the column (15-20%)
b) Frame racking due to beam flexure (50-60%)
c) Frame racking due to column flexure (15-20%)

11 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

The maximum height for an efficient rigid frame system is approximately 30 stories after which
the required beam stiffness and column stiffness to limit the deflection due to shear racking starts
becoming excessive.

3.4 BRACED FRAMES

A braced frame attempts to improve upon the efficiency of a rigid frame by virtually eliminating
the bending of columns and beams. This is achieved by adding diagonals to the frame and hence
triangulating the frame and therefore allowing the applied horizontal forces to be resisted by
direct axial forces. The stiffness of the braced frames therefore is directly related to the axial
stiffness of the diagonals and column.

Similar to the rigid frames the stiffness of the braced frame can be broken into the two
components.
 Flexural deformation due to the axial extension and shortening of the columns and,
 Shear deformation due to the axial deformation of the chord members.

The above deformations are illustrated in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Braced frame deformations (a) Flexural deformation (b) shear deformation (c)
combined configuration (Ref. 1)

12 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

The bracing system is not just restricted to cross bracing. Other forms of bracing are illustrated in
Figure 11. Some of the configurations will attract gravity loading into the diagonals elements
whereas for some configurations the diagonals only attract lateral loads.

Figure 11: Different bracing types

The main disadvantage of braced frames is the architectural constraints and aesthetics. The
location of the braced frames is normally limited to the central core areas or the perimeter
facade. The latter is becoming less and less popular as clients demand greater structural free
facade to take advantage of the views. Braced frames within the core areas are more practical
however the stiffness is more limiting due to the reduced size of the frame. Combining this with
the fact that structural steel is normally not economical in this context due to lead times for
supply and complexity in connection this structural system is not popular in Australia.

3.5 COUPLED WALL SYSTEMS

A coupled wall system is a special combination of a shear wall (acting as a cantilever) and rigid
framed system. Essentially it is a series of very stiff cantilever columns comprising of wall
elements coupled by normally very stiff beams. The stiffness is normally provided by very short
spans. The coupling action provided by the beams dramatically increases the overall stiffness
compared with the corresponding system without the coupling beams (Figure 12). In many shear
wall buildings, a regular pattern of openings will be required to accommodate windows and
doors. Walls around elevators, stairs and utility shafts are an excellent means for this type of

13 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

lateral load resisting system. The load resisting mechanism in a coupled wall system is shown in
Figure 13.

Figure 12: Coupled shear walls

Figure 13: Lateral load resistance of coupled wall system

3.6 TUBE STRUCTURES

As buildings get taller, above 50 stories, the stiffness of the central core is normally insufficient
in terms of stiffness due to the small lever arm between the compression and tension
components. To maximise the stiffness it is more efficient to utilise the perimeter of the building
(see Figure 14.) as a tube compared with using the core as a tube. For obvious reasons one
cannot have a continuous wall around the perimeter to form the tube, however there are two
practical options: Framed tube and braced tube.

14 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

Figure 14: Stiffness increased by utilising perimeter as a tube

3.6.1 Framed Tube

The perimeter of the building comprises of closely spaced columns and deep beams at each floor
level. The resulting system works as a giant vertical cantilever and is very efficient because of
the large separation between windward and leeward columns. For the tube action to prevail as
shown in Figure 15, the columns throughout the perimeter needs to be efficiently coupled with
each other, otherwise shear lag will take place. This can only be achieved by ensuring that the
columns are closely spaced and at the same time the beams are deep to maximise the coupling
action between adjoining columns. The lateral resistance of framed tube structures is provided by
very stiff moment resisting frames that form a tube around the perimeter of the building. The
gravity loading is shared between tube and interior columns.

A simplistic way to understand the behaviour of the tube is to consider the perimeter of the
building as a continuous wall (large square hollow section or rectangular hollow section) with a

15 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

regular pattern of holes punched in the walls forming the windows. The advantage of the tube is
the maximisation of the stiffness. Although this system has been adopted in famous buildings
such as the World Trade Centre, which collapsed in 2001, it has limitations in the newer
buildings as closely spaced columns are not encouraged and are undesirable.

Figure 15: Framed tube structures

3.6.2 Braced Tube

To improve the efficiency of the framed tube, which can suffer from shear lag to some degree, a
braced tube system can be adopted which involves introducing diagonals around the building
perimeter to minimise shear lag. As the diagonals of a braced tube are connected to the columns
at each intersection, they virtually eliminate the effects of shear lag in both the flange and web
frames. As a result the structure behaves under lateral loads more like a braced frame reducing
bending in the members of the frames. Hence, the spacing of the columns can be increased and
the depth of the girders will be less, thereby allowing large size windows than in the
conventional framed tube structures.

16 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

The principal advantage of this system is the possibility of using larger spans between the
columns. (see Figure 16). In terms of real estate value, larger spans between columns is an
important consideration however the presence of diagonals is still a major architectural
constraints limiting the application of this system in our new skyscrapers.

Figure 16: Braced tube structures

3.7 TUBE-IN-TUBE STRUCTURES

This is a type of framed tube consisting of an outer-framed tube together with an internal
elevator and service core. The inner tube may consist of braced frames. The outer and inner tubes
act jointly in resisting both gravity and lateral loading in steel-framed buildings. However, the
outer tube usually plays a dominant role because of its much greater structural depth. This type
of structures is also called as Hull (Outer tube) and Core (Inner tube) structures. A typical Tube-
in-Tube structure is shown in Figure 17.

17 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

Figure 17: Tube in tube structures

3.8 BUNDLED TUBE

The bundled tube system can be visualised as an assemblage of individual tubes resulting in
multiple cell tube. The increase in stiffness is apparent. For very tall structures, a single framed
tube is not adequate, since the width of the building at its base should be large to maintain a
reasonable slenderness (i.e., height-to-width) ratio such that the building is not excessively
flexible and does not sway too much. The system efficiency is considerably diminished in a
single framed tube of enormous height due to shear lag effect. For such a structure, the three-
dimensional response of the structure could be improved for strength and stiffness by providing
cross walls or cross frames in the building.

The system allows for the greatest height and the most floor area. This structural form was used
in the Sears Tower in Chicago. In this system, introduction of the internal webs greatly reduces
the shear lag in the flanges. Hence, their columns are more evenly stressed than in the single tube
structure and their contribution to the lateral stiffness is greater.

18 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

Figure 18: Tube in tube structures

3.9 STRUCTURES WITH OUTRIGGERS

This structural system involves coupling the central core elements with the perimeter structure
by a deep beam known as outriggers, at discrete levels up the height of the buildings illustrated
in Figure 19. The efficiency of the outrigger system is dependent on the flexural stiffness of the
girder and to a lesser extent the axial stiffness of the perimeter vertical element. To achieve the
required stiffness it is common to have girder of depth equivalent to two storeys.

The principle involved in this system is to utilise the central core to resist most of the lateral
forces, and to also provide vertical shear transfer from the core to the external columns by means
of stiff outrigger arms. Outrigger braced systems can generally improve the stiffness of a
building by a significant amount in comparison to the same system without outriggers acting as
the medium to connect the individual columns acting as tie downs.

19 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

Figure 19: (a) Outrigger braced structure (b) Response to lateral loading (c) Resultant bending
moment in core (Ref. 2)

The number of outriggers and the level they are located, depends on several factors. On
structural grounds alone, the optimum location depends on the number of outrigger levels
utilised, stiffness of the outrigger, and the stiffness of the perimeter vertical element and central
vertical element. For example for a single outrigger level with infinite stiffness the optimum
location is approximately halfway up the building. For overall economy the maximum number
of levels for outriggers rarely exceeds three normally due to the architectural constraints the
outriggers create. It is not uncommon to locate the outriggers at plant room levels where the
constraints are not so rigid.

The principal advantages of the outrigged structures are increased stiffness offered without the
need to have closely spaced perimeter columns or external braced facade which has a significant
architectural disadvantage.

The outrigger with belt trusses is an extension of the outrigged structure. The vertical perimeter
element carrying the axial forces generated from the coupling action of the outrigger, described
in the previous section, is a typical perimeter column. In the event the column cannot take these
additional forces without increasing the column size, which may be unacceptable, it is more
economical to distribute the forces to other adjoining columns. This can be done by introducing a

20 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

belt truss around the perimeter of the building to distribute the axial forces generated by the
coupling girder to other vertical elements.

It can be shown that by introducing a belt truss to share the axial loads to other columns, thus
increasing the axial stiffness, increases the overall efficiency of the coupling system
dramatically, hence increasing the axial stiffness of the vertical elements and thus increasing the
overall lateral stiffness. Figure 20 illustrates outrigger system with belt trusses.

Figure 20: Outrigger with belt truss

3.10 SPACE STRUCTURES

To obtain maximum stiffness for minimum material it is well known that a truss system is the
most efficient. One only has to consider transmission towers to verify this suggestion. It is only
in recent times that this fact has been utilised in tall building design. In terms of mass of structure
per stiffness a three dimensional mega-truss is the most efficient and effective LLRSS. The most
striking example of this system has to be the Bank of China Building located in Hong Kong. The

21 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

mass of structural steel per cubic metre volume of building is reputably to be 60 to 70% of the
norm, a substantial saving.
An additional feature of the Bank of China is the fact that the GLRSS compliments the efficient
LLRSS. The most efficient structural stiffness for a building can be obtained by providing
stiffness at the four corners of the building noting that lateral loads can occur in random
locations. The most efficient GLRSS to counteract the lateral loads is to get the gravity loads to
the four corners of the building to counteract the uplift forces. The Bank of China Building
follows these idealistic concepts. (Refer to Figure 21)

Figure 21: Bank of China building

3.11 CONCLUDING REMARKS

There are an infinite number of structural systems to resist lateral loads for any type of building,
however based on history and experience the structural forms can be categorised into distinct
groups, each with an applicable optimum height range as illustrated in the table below. It is
essential that the height range given is to be used for guidance only.

22 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

Table 1: Optimum height of buildings for structural systems

In tall building design it is important to recognise the importance of the interrelationships

between the many disciplines that participate to develop that final solution. The crucial
conceptual stage of the design process is often very short in duration. The distinctive features of
tall building design at conceptual stage are:
• close communication required with other disciplines, in particular the clients and
Architect. The structural system is based on minimum information and therefore
significant engineering judgement is required.
• short time duration during concept stage often precludes the luxury of carrying out
complex analysis etc.
• once the structural system is selected there is virtual impossibility of altering the system.
Regardless of all the factors that dictate the structural system it is fundamental th at the
select system satisfies all the structural criteria outlined earlier.
• Concrete Outriggers also can be considered for very tall buildings.

23 | P a g e
Lateral load resisting Structural systems

REFERENCES
1. Taranath B. S., "Structural analysis and design of tall buildings", McGraw-Hill Book
Company

2. Smith, S. B. and Salim, I. (1981) Parameter study of outrigger braced tall building structures.
American Society of Civil Engineers, 107, No ST10

3. CTBUH (2010) Case study- Shanghai tower. The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat

24 | P a g e