STATISTICS

Statistics may be defined as the science of collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data.

Primary Data Graphical Representation Histogram

Primary Data When an investigator collects
of Statistical Data
A histogram or frequency histogram is a graphical representation of a
Statistical Data data himself with a definite plan or design • Bar Graph frequency distribution in the form of rectangles with class intervals as
in his (her) mind, it is called primary data. • Histogram bases and heights proportional to corresponding frequencies such that
Statistical data are of two types: • Frequency polygon there is no gap between any two successive rectangles.
(i) Primary data (ii)Secondary Data • A histogram is a two-dimensional diagram.
Secondary Data • Construction of a histogram for the following frequency distribution

Secondary Data: Data which are not originally

Bar Graph separately :

collected rather obtained from published or • A bar graph is a pictorial representation of the numerical data by (i) A continuous grouped frequency distribution with equal
unpublished sources are known as secondary a number of bars (rectangles) of uniform width erected horizontally class-intervals.
Class mark data. or vertically with equal spacing between them. (ii) A continuous grouped frequency distribution with unequal
• Each rectangle or bar represents only one value of the numerical class-intervals.
The mid- value of a class is called the class data and so there are as many bars as the number of values in the (i) Construction of a histogram of a continuous grouped frequency
mark. numerical data. distribution with equal class-intervals.
lower limit + upper limit
Class mark = • While constructing bar graphs the following points Algorithm:
2 should be kept in mind: STEP I: Take a graph paper and draw two perpendicular lines, one
(i) The width of the bars should be uniform throughout. horizontal and one vertical, intersecting at O (say). Mark them as
Discrete Frequency (ii) The gap between one bar and another should be uniform OX and OY.
STEP II: Take horizontal line OX as X-axis and vertical line OY as
Distribution throughout.
Y-axis.
Example: STEP III: Choose a suitable scale along X-axis and represent
Class size The process of preparing this type of distribution is
class-limits.
very simple. The construction of a discrete Academic
1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-2000 2000-2001 STEP IV: Choose a suitable scale along Y-axis and mark frequencies
The difference between the upper and the frequency distribution from the given raw data is Year
along Y-axis.
lower class limits. done by the use of the method of tally marks. In the
Number of 50 75 125 150 200 STEP V: Construct rectangles with class intervals as bases and
h=(upper limit of a class)–(lower limit of class) first column of the frequency table we write all
students respective frequencies as heights.
possible values of the variable from the lowest to
the highest. Example:
Example: Following example of the number of
children in 20 families: 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1, 1, 4, 5, 2, 4, 2, 2, Mark: 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80
1, 3, 3, 2, 5 The data may be put in the form of a
discrete frequency distribution as follows: No. of Students 4 10 16 22 20 18 8 2
Range (Frequency):
No. of chidlren Tally Bars Frequency
The difference between the highest and
lowest values of the observations is called 1 IIII 5
Represent this data in the form of histogram.
range. 2 IIII I 6
3 IIII 4
4 III 3 22

Number of students
5 II 2 20
Note: The above method of condensing the raw 16
Number of data is convenient only where the values in the raw
12
class intervals data are largely repeating and the difference
between the greatest and the smallest observations 8
is not very large.
Range 4
No. of class intervals =
Class size
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Marks
Continuous Or Grouped (ii) Construction of a histogram of a continuous grouped frequency
Frequency Distribution Example:
distribution with unequal class intervals:
Algorithm:
Frequency If the number of observations in data is large and the Weekly wages
10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-40 40-60 60-80 STEP I: Take a graph paper and draw two perpendicular lines, one
difference between the greatest and the smallest (in Rs.) horizontal and one vertical, intersecting at O (say). Mark them as OX
The number of times an observation occurs and OY.
observations is very large, then we condense the data No. of workers
in the given data, is called the frequency of 7 9 8 5 12 12 8 STEP II: Take horizontal line OX as X-axis and vertical line OY as Y-axis.
into classes or groups. (Frequency)
the observation. STEP III: Choose a suitable scale along X-axis and represent class-limits
Example: For the following data, draw a histogram and
a frequency polygon: on it.
Let the marks obtained by 30 students of a class in a y STEP IV: Determine a class-internal which has the minimum class size.
test be 39, 25, 5, 33, 19, 21, 12, 48, 13, 21, 9, 1, 10, 8, 12, 17, 19, 10 STEP V: Compute the adjusted frequencies of each class by using the
17, 41, 40, 12, 46, 37, 17, 27, 30, 6, 2, 23, 19. following formula:
8
minimum
Frequency Distribution No. of chidlren Tally Bars Frequency
Number of workers

6 class size
Adjusted Frequency of a class = x Frequency of the class.
0-10 IIII I 6 class size
(i) Discrete frequency distribution. 4
(ii) Continuous or grouped frequency 10-20 IIII IIII I 11
These adjusted frequencies are the heights of each rectangle of
distribution. 20-30 IIII 5 2 histogram but widths will be according to class limits.
30-40 IIII 4 STEP VI: Choose a suitable scale for Y-axis and mark adjusted
40-50 IIII 4 0 10 15 20 25 30 40 60 80 x frequencies along Y-axis.
Weekly wages (in ₹ ) STEP VII: Construct rectangles with class intervals as bases and
respective adjusted frequencies as heights.
 Frequency Polygon
Measures of Central Tendency
• Frequency polygon is another method of representing frequency distributions
graphically.
• Frequency polygon of a given frequency distribution can be drawn in two
ways:
(i) By using histogram.
(ii) Without using histogram.
Mean Median
(1.1) Arithmetic Mean of Individual Observations or Ungrouped Data Definition: Median of a distribution is the value of the variable which divides the
(i) frequency polygon by using a histogram: Definition: If x1, x2, x3, …., xn are n values of a variable
Algorithm: _ X, then the arithmetic mean or distribution into two equal parts i.e., it is the value of the variable such that the
simply the mean of these values is denoted by X and is defined as number of observations above it is equal to the number of observations below it.
STEP I: Obtain the frequency distribution and draw a histogram representing it.
STEP II: Obtain the mid-points of the upper horizontal side of each rectangle. x1 + x 2 + x 3 + ..... + x n Median of An Ungrouped Data (Or Individual Observations)
STEP III: Join these mid-points of the adjacent rectangles of the histogram by X= If the values xi in the raw data are arranged in order of increasing or decreasing
dotted line segments. n
magnitude, then the middle, most value in the arrangement is called the median.
STEP IV: Obtain the mid - points of two class - intervals of zero frequency i.e., on
X-axis, one adjacent to the first, on its left and one adjacent to the last, on its (1.2) Arithmetic Mean of Grouped Data or Discrete Frequency Distribution Algorithm:
right. These class-intervals are known as imagined class intervals. In a discrete frequency distribution, the arithmetic mean may be computed by STEP I: Arrange the observations in ascending or descending order of magnitude.
STEP V: Complete the polygon by joining the mid-points of first and last class STEP II: Determine the total number of observations, say, n
any one of the following methods:
intervals to the mid-points of imagined class-intervals adjacent to them. STEP III: If n is odd, then
Example: For the following data, draw a histogram and a frequency polygon: (i) Direct Method
(ii) Short-cut Method
th
Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100 (iii) Step Deviation Method Median = Value of 
 n + 1  observation

(1.2.1)DIRECT METHOD  2 
No. of Definition: If a variate X takes values. x1, x2, …, xn with corresponding frequencies
5 10 4 6 7 3 2 2 3 9
(Students) f1, f2, f3, …, fn respectively, If n is even, then
then arithmetic mean of these values is X = 1 1
f x + f 2 x 2 + ... + f n x n ,
Y n f1 + f 2 + ... + f n n
th
n 
th
where N = ∑ i =1 f i = f1 + f2 + … + fn Value of   observation + Value of  + 1 observation
10 Median = 2 2 
9 2
8 Example: Find the mean of the following distribution:
Number of students

7 x: 4 6 9 10 15 Example: Find the median of the following data:

6 f: 5 10 10 7 8
25, 34, 31, 23, 22, 26, 35, 28, 20, 32
5 Solution: Calculation of Arithmetic Mean
Solution: Arranging the data in ascending order, we get
4 xi fi fix i 20, 22, 23, 25, 26, 28, 31, 32, 34, 35
3 4 5 20 Here, the number of observations n = 10 (even).
th th
2 6 10 60  10   10 
Value of   observation + Value of  + 1 observation
1 9 10 90  2  2 
∴ Median =
0 10 20 3040 50 607080 90100 X 10 7 70 2
15 8 120 Σfi x i 360 26 + 28
Marks Mean = X = = =9 ⇒ Median = = 27
N = Σf i = 40 Σfi x i = 360 Σf i 40 2
(ii) To construct a frequency polygon without using the histogram
Algorithm:
STEP I: Obtain the frequency distribution.
STEP II: Compute the mid-points of class intervals i.e., class marks.
STEP III: Represent class marks on X-axis on a suitable scale.
STEP IV: Represent frequencies on Y-axis on a suitable scale.
Mode
STEP V: Plot the points (xi, fi), where xi denotes class mark and fi corresponding
frequency. Definition: Mode is the value occurs most frequency in a set of observation.
STEP VI: Join the points plotted in step V by line segments. Algorithm:
STEP VII: Take two class intervals of zero frequency, one at the beginning and STEP I: Obtain the set of observations.
the other at the end. Obtain their mid-points. STEP II: Count the number of times the various values repeat themselves. In other
These classes are known as imagined classes.
words, prepare the frequency distribution.
Example: For the following data, draw a frequency polygon: STEP III: Find the value which occurs the maximum number of times i.e., obtain the
value which has the maximum frequency.
Age in
0-2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12 12-14 14-16 16-18 STEP IV: The value obtained in step III is the mode.
years
EXAMPLE: Find the mode from the following data:
Frequency 2 4 6 8 9 6 5 3 1 110, 120, 130, 120, 110, 140, 130, 120, 140, 120,
Solution: Arranging the data in the form of a frequency table, we have the modal
value is 120.
10
9 (9,9)
(7,8)
8 Value Tally bars Frequency
7
6 (5,6 ) (11,6) 110 || 2
120 |||| 4
Frequency

5 (13,5)
4 (3,4) 130 || 2
3 (15,3)
2 (1,2) 140 || 2
(17,1 )
1
(–1,0) (19,0)
1 3 5 7 9 111315 1719 Relation between mean, mode & median
Age (in years)

Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean.