Photosynthesis

Plant Cell Chloroplasts

 All green parts of a plant have chloroplasts.
 It is the light energy absorbed by chlorophyll that drives the
synthesis of organic molecules in the chloroplast.
 are found mainly in the cells of the mesophyll, the tissue in the
interior of the leaf.

Light-Dependent Reactions
 The sun emits energy through electromagnetic radiation.
 This electromagnetic radiation exists in various wavelengths.
 One type emitted by the sun is visible light, while another type
includes Xrays and ultraviolet radiation that can be harmful.
 Some organisms like green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria contain
chlorophyll a pigment which is responsible for photosynthesis.
 Photosynthetic plants have a mixture of different pigments in their
leaves giving plant flexibility in absorbing energy from a wide range
of visible light wavelengths.

Photosynthesis involves two stages:

 first stage is light dependent reaction
 second stage is Calvin cycle

The Calvin cycle

 refers to the light-independent reactions in photosynthesis that take
place in three key steps.
 • Although the Calvin Cycle is not directly dependent on light, it
is indirectly dependent on light since the necessary energy carriers
(ATP and NADPH) are products of light-dependent reactions.

Stages of Calvin Cycle

Carbon Fixation
 the first stage of the Calvin cycle, light independent reactions are
initiated; CO2 is fixed from an inorganic to an organic molecule.

Reduction
 ATP and NADPH are used to reduce 3PGA into G3P; then ATP and
NADPH are converted to ADP and NADP+, respectively.

Regeneration of RuBP
  , RuBP is regenerated, which enables the system to prepare for
more CO2 to be fixed.

Key Items:

Light-independent Reaction
 chemical reactions during photosynthesis that convert carbon
dioxide and other compounds into glucose, taking place in the
stroma

RuBisCo (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase)

 a plant enzyme which catalyzes the fixing of atmospheric carbon
dioxide during photosynthesis by catalyzing the reaction between
carbon dioxide and RuBP

RuBP (ribulose bisphosphate)

 an organic substance that is involved in photosynthesis, reacts with
carbon dioxide to form 3-PGA

Cellular Respiration

Aerobic respiration
  is the aerobic catabolism of nutrients to carbon dioxide, water, and
energy, and involves an electron transport system in which
molecular oxygen is the final electron acceptor.
 It is an exergonic pathway that requires molecular oxygen (O2).
 Aerobic respiration also produces much more ATP than anaerobic
respiration.

Anaerobic Respiration
 exergonic pathways do not require oxygen and include anaerobic
respiration and fermentation.
 It occurs more quickly than aerobic respiration.

Fermentation
 is a process that makes a small amount of ATP from glucose without
using electron transport chain.
 Ethyl alcohol and lactic acid are produced by this process in plants
and animals, respectively.

There are three stages or phases of cellular respiration:

1) glycolysis
 which is the splitting of glucose into pyruvate which helps drive the
synthesis of a small amount of ATP
2) Krebs Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle
 is a chemical cycle occurring in the matrix of the mitochondria that
breaks the remains of sugars down to CO2

3) Electron Transport Chain

 is a series of oxidation-reduction reaction that release energy in the
membrane of mitochondria and chloroplast to produce ATP.

Alcohol Fermentation
 Pyruvic acid → CO2 + acetaldehyde + NADH → ethanol + NAD+

Lactic acid fermentation

 is the type of anaerobic process humans undergo if there is a
shortage of oxygen.
 It is the fermentation method used by animals and certain bacteria,
like those in yogurt.

Notes:

The overall reaction is:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 yields 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (as ATP). Glucose
(C6H12O6) is oxidized to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2)
is reduced to produce water (H2O).This type of ATP production is seen in
aerobes and facultative anaerobes.
Aerobic respiration involves four stages:
 glycolysis, a transition reaction that forms acetyl coenzyme A;
 the citric acid (Krebs) cycle, and an ;
 electron transport chain and;
 chemiosmosis.

Some prokaryotes are able to carry out anaerobic respiration, respiration

in which an inorganic molecule other than oxygen (O2) is the final
electron acceptor.

Some bacteria called sulfate reducers can transfer electrons to sulfate

(SO4 2-) reducing it to H2S. Other bacteria, called nitrate reducers, can
transfer electrons to nitrate (NO3) reducing it to nitrite (NO2-). Other
nitrate reducers can reduce nitrate even further to nitrous oxide (NO) or
nitrogen gas (N2).

Like aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration involves glycolysis, a

transition reaction, the citric acid cycle, and an electron transport chain.

Cellular respiration that proceeds in the absence of oxygen is anaerobic

respiration.

Cellular respiration that proceeds in the presence of oxygen is aerobic

respiration.

Anaerobic respiration evolved prior to aerobic respiration.

Overview of Cellular Respiration

 Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol.
 The Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria.
 Oxidative phosphorylation via the electron transport chain is carried
out on the inner mitochondrial membrane.
 Chemiosmosis takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Cellular Respiration Equation

 C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 12 H2O + 36 ATP
 NADH FADH2 ATP
Glycolysis 2 2
Kreb’s Cycle 8 2 2
ETC 32-34
Total 10 2 36-38

Cellular respiration
 uses energy in glucose to make ATP. Aerobic (“oxygen-using”)
respiration occurs in three stages:
o glycolysis
o the Krebs cycle
o electron transport.
In glycolysis
 glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvate.
 This results in a net gain of two ATP molecules.

Life first evolved in the absence of oxygen, and glycolysis does not require
oxygen. Therefore, glycolysis was probably the earliest way of making ATP
from glucose.
The Krebs cycle and electron transport occur in the mitochondria.

The Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix, and electron transport takes
place on the inner membrane.

During the Krebs cycle

 pyruvate undergoes a series of reactions to produce two more
molecules of ATP and also several molecules of NADH and FADH2.

During electron transport

 energy from NADH and FADH2 is used to make many more
molecules of ATP.

In all three stages of aerobic respiration, up to 38 molecules of ATP may

be produced from a single molecule of glucose.

Some organisms can produce ATP from glucose anaerobically. One way is
by fermentation.

There are two types of fermentation:

 lactic acid fermentation
 alcoholic fermentation.
Glycolysis
 first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular
metabolism.
 consists of an energy-requiring phase followed by an energy-
releasing phase.
 series of reactions that extract energy from glucose by splitting it
into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvates.
 ancient metabolic pathway, meaning that it evolved long ago, and it
is found in the great majority of organisms alive today.
 central pathway for the glucose catabolism in which glucose (6-
carbon compound) is converted into pyruvate (3-carbon compound).
 takes place in both aerobic and anaerobic organisms and is the first
step towards the metabolism of glucose.
 The glycolytic sequence of reactions differs from one species to the
other in the mechanism of its regulation and the subsequent
metabolic fate of the pyruvate formed at the end of the process.
 In aerobic organisms, glycolysis is the prelude to the citric acid cycle
and the electron transport chain, which together release most of the
energy contained in glucose.
 It is also referred to as Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas or EMP pathway, in
honor of the pioneer workers in the field.
 A summary of the process of glycolysis can be written as follows:
C6H12O6 + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ → 2C3H4O3 + 2H2O + 2ATP +
2NADH + 2H+
 In words, the equation is written as:
Glucose + Adenosine diphosphate + Phosphate + Nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide
↓
Pyruvate + Water + Adenosine triphosphate + Nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide + Hydrogen ions

Process of Glycolysis

1. Hexokinase
2. Phosphoglucoisomerase
3. Phosphofructokinase
4. Aldolase
5. Phosphotriose isomerase
6. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
7. Phosphoglycerate kinase
8. Phosphoglycerate mutase
9. Enolase
10. Pyruvate kinase

Kreb’s Cycle
 The occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and generates a pool of
chemical energy (ATP, NADH, and FADH2) from the oxidation of
pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis.
 The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or the
tricarboxylic acid cycle, is at the center of cellular metabolism,
playing a starring role in both the process of energy production and
biosynthesis. It finishes the sugar-breaking job started in glycolysis
and fuels the production of ATP in the process. It is also a central
hub in biosynthetic reactions, providing intermediates that are used
to build amino acids and other molecules. The citric acid cycle
enzymes are found in all cells that use oxygen, and even in some
cells that don't.
 Pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria and loses carbon
dioxide to form acetyl-CoA, a 2-carbon molecule. When acetyl-CoA is
oxidized to carbon dioxide in the Krebs cycle, chemical energy is
released and captured in the form of NADH, FADH2, and ATP.

Powerhouse of Energy
 The citric acid cycle provides the electrons that fuel the process of
oxidative phosphorylation—our major source of ATP and energy.
 As the acetyl group is broken down, electrons are stored in the
carrier NADH, and delivered to Complex I.
 These electrons then fuel the production of a proton gradient by two
proton pumps: cytochrome bc1 and cytochrome c oxidase.
 This proton gradient then powers the rotation of ATP synthase,
building ATP.
 All of this action occurs in our mitochondria—the citric acid cycle
enzymes are inside the mitochondria, and the protein pumps are in
the mitochondrial membrane.

ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM

 The electron transport chain is the last component of aerobic
respiration and is the only part of glucose metabolism that uses
atmospheric oxygen.
  Oxygen continuously diffuses into plants; in animals, it enters the
body through the respiratory system.
 Electron transport is a series of redox reactions that resemble a
relay race or bucket brigade in that electrons are passed rapidly
from one component to the next, to the endpoint of the chain where
the electrons reduce molecular oxygen, producing water.
 There are four complexes composed of proteins, labeled I through
IV, and the aggregation of these four complexes, together with
associated mobile, accessory electron carriers, is called the electron
transport chain.
 The electron transport chain is present in multiple copies in the
inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes and the plasma
membrane of prokaryotes.
 Note, however, that the electron transport chain of prokaryotes may
not require oxygen as some live in anaerobic conditions.
 The common feature of all electron transport chains is the presence
of a proton pump to create a proton gradient across a membrane.

CHEMIOSMOSIS
 In chemiosmosis, the free energy from the series of redox reactions
just described is used to pump hydrogen ions (protons) across the
membrane.
 The uneven distribution of H+ ions across the membrane
establishes both concentration and electrical gradients (thus, an
electrochemical gradient), owing to the hydrogen ions’ positive
charge and their aggregation on one side of the membrane.
 If the membrane were open to diffusion by the hydrogen ions, the
ions would tend to diffuse back across into the matrix, driven by
their electrochemical gradient.
 Recall that many ions cannot diffuse through the nonpolar regions of
phospholipid membranes without the aid of ion channels.
 Similarly, hydrogen ions in the matrix space can only pass through
the inner mitochondrial membrane through an integral membrane
protein called ATP synthase.
 Chemiosmosis is used to generate 90% of the ATP made during
aerobic glucose catabolism
 it is also the method used in the light reactions of photosynthesis to
harness the energy of sunlight in the process of
photophosphorylation.
 Recall that the production of ATP using the process of
chemiosmosis in mitochondria is called oxidative phosphorylation.
 The overall result of these reactions is the production of ATP from
the energy of the electrons removed from hydrogen atoms.
 These atoms were originally part of a glucose molecule. At the end
of the pathway, the electrons are used to reduce an oxygen
molecule to oxygen ions.
  The extra electrons on the oxygen attract hydrogen ions (protons)
from the surrounding medium, and water is formed.
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Anaerobic

Reactants Glucose and oxygen Glucose

Products ATP, water, CO2 ATP and lactic acid (animals);

or
ATP, ethanol, and CO2 (yeast)

Location Cytoplasm (glycolysis) and Cytoplasm

mitochondria

Stages Glycolysis (anaerobic), Krebs Glycolysis, fermentation

cycle, oxidative phosphorylation

ATP Large amount (36 ATP) Small amount (2 ATP)

produced

Metabolism

Catabolism
 Breaking down of molecules

Anabolism
 Building up of molecules

Fermentation
 is an anaerobic biochemical process.
 In fermentation, the first process is the same as cellular respiration,
which is the formation of pyruvic acid by glycolysis where net 2 ATP
molecules are synthesized.
 In the next step, pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid, ethanol or other
products. Here NAD+ is formed which is re-utilized back in the
glycolysis process.
Types of Fermentation
Homo fermentation
 only one type of product formation

Hetero fermentation
 more than one product formed

On the basis of the end product formed, fermentation can be categorized

as follows:

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation

 Lactic acid is formed from pyruvate produced in glycolysis. NAD+ is
generated from NADH.
 Enzyme lactate dehydrogenase catalyzes this reaction.
 Lactobacillus bacteria prepare curd from milk via this type of
fermentation.
 During intense exercise when oxygen supply is inadequate, muscles
derive energy by producing lactic acid, which gets accumulated in
the cells causing fatigue.

2. Alcohol Fermentation
 This is used in the industrial production of wine, beer, biofuel, etc.
The end product is alcohol and CO2.
 Pyruvic acid breaks down into acetaldehyde and CO2 is released.
 In the next step, ethanol is formed from acetaldehyde.
 NAD+ is also formed from NADH, utilized in glycolysis.
 Yeast and some bacteria carry out this type of fermentation.
 Enzyme pyruvic acid decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase
catalyze these reactions.

3. Acetic acid Fermentation

 Vinegar is produced by this process.
 This is a two-step process.
 The first step is the formation of ethyl alcohol from sugar
anaerobically using yeast.
 In the second step, ethyl alcohol is further oxidized to form acetic
acid using acetobacter bacteria.
 Microbial oxidation of alcohol to acid is an aerobic process.
4. Butyric acid Fermentation
 This type of fermentation is characteristic of obligate anaerobic
bacteria of genus clostridium.
 This occurs in retting of jute fiber, rancid butter, tobacco processing
and tanning of leather.
 Butyric acid is produced in the human colon as a product of dietary
fiber fermentation.
 It is an important source of energy for colorectal epithelium. Sugar
is first oxidized to pyruvate by the process of glycolysis and then
pyruvate is further oxidized to form acetyl-CoA by the
oxidoreductase enzyme system with the production of H2 and CO2.
 Acetyl-CoA is further reduced to form butyric acid. This type of
fermentation leads to a relatively higher yield of energy.
 3 molecules of ATP are formed.