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1] Explain with example Materialized evaluation and pipelining.

1)Materialized evaluation computes and stores intermediate results for reuse.
2)This approach creates persistent/temporary storage for each operation's output, which
subsequent operations can access.
Example:
CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW user_purchase_summary AS
SELECT
u.id as user_id,
COUNT(*) as total_purchases,
SUM(CASE WHEN p.status = 'cancelled' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END) as cancelled_purchases
FROM users u
JOIN purchases p ON p.user_id = u.id;
This materialized view precomputes user purchase metrics. When queried, it retrieves
stored results instead of recalculating joins and aggregates.
Characteristics:

Cost: Includes disk writes for intermediate results (e.g., 𝛤(𝑏ᵣ) seeks for 𝑏ᵣ buffer blocks).
Use Cases: Reusable aggregations, dashboards, or complex queries with shared sub-results.
Trade-off: Faster read times but higher storage/maintenance overhead.
Pipelining
Pipelining processes data incrementally by streaming results between operations without
materializing intermediates. Stages execute concurrently, passing output directly to
subsequent steps.
Example:
A query execution plan for SELECT * FROM orders WHERE total > 100 ORDER BY date:
Characteristics:
Performance: Reduces latency by overlapping operations (e.g., filtering while sorting).
Resource Use: Minimizes disk I/O but risks pipeline stalls if stages are unbalanced.
Use Cases: High-throughput OLTP systems, real-time analytics.

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2] List the desirable properties of decomposition. Explain loss less join with
example.
Desirable Properties of Decomposition: Decomposition in DBMS involves breaking a
relation into smaller relations to improve database design. A good decomposition must
satisfy the following properties:
Lossless Join: Ensures that no information is lost when decomposed relations are joined
back together.
Guarantees that the original relation can be reconstructed from the smaller relations using a
natural join operation.
Dependency Preservation: All functional dependencies of the original relation should be
preserved in the decomposed relations.
This ensures that constraints on data integrity can be enforced without needing to
recombine relations.
Attribute Preservation: Every attribute from the original relation must appear in at least one
of the decomposed relations.
This prevents any loss of attributes during decomposition.
Minimization of Redundancy: Reduces duplicate data, thereby minimizing storage
requirements and preventing anomalies like insertion, deletion, and update issues.
A decomposition is lossless if joining the decomposed tables reconstructs the original table
without losing any information.
Example:
R (A, B, C) with functional dependencies:
A→B→C
We decompose R into two relations: R1(A, B) with A→BR2(B, C) with B→C Now, if we
perform a natural join between R1 and R2 on attribute B, we get back the
original relation R (A, B, C) This ensures that no data is lost during decomposition.
Key Condition for Lossless Join:
1. The decomposition is lossless if at least one of the following holds:
2. The common attribute between decomposed relations is a super key in one of the
relations.
3. Functional dependencies ensure consistency during join operations.

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3] Consider the following Book Relation.

Book (Book_id, Title, Author, Publisher, Year, Price)
Write relational algebra expression for the following.

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4] What are the measure of query cost?

Measures of Query Cost
1)Query cost refers to the resources required to execute a query in a database system.
2) It is used to evaluate and compare different query execution plans to select the most
efficient one.
3)The measures of query cost can be categorized based on the resources being utilized:
1. Disk Access Costs
Block Transfers: The number of blocks transferred from disk to memory is a key measure.
Each block transfer incurs a cost based on the time required for the transfer (tT).
Disk Seeks: The number of disk seeks, which involves locating the position of data on the
disk, is another measure. Each seek has an associated average cost (tS).
The formula for calculating disk access costs is:
Cost=b⋅tT+S⋅tS Where b is the number of block transfers, and S is the number of seeks.
2. CPU Costs
Processing Time: The CPU time required to process rows, perform computations, and
execute operations like joins or aggregations.
CPU costs are often simplified or ignored in theoretical models but are considered in real
systems.
3. Network Communication Costs
In distributed or parallel database systems, the cost of transmitting data across nodes or
servers is significant. This includes latency and bandwidth usage during data transfer.
4. Query Execution Time
Total elapsed time for answering a query, including all operations (disk access, CPU
processing, etc.).
This measure aggregates all contributing factors to provide an overall estimate.
5. Relative Query Cost
When comparing multiple queries in a batch, relative costs are expressed as percentages of
the total batch cost. This helps identify which part of a query contributes most to resource
consumption.
By analysing these measures, database systems can optimize query execution plans to reduce
resource usage and improve performance.

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5] Define query processing. What are the steps involved in query processing?
Query Processing in DBMS
1)Query processing refers to the systematic approach of converting a user's high-level query
(e.g., SQL) into an executable form that the database system can understand and process
efficiently.
2) It involves multiple steps to ensure accurate data retrieval or manipulation while
optimizing performance.
Steps Involved in Query Processing
Parsing and Translation: The query is first parsed to check its syntax and semantics. This
step ensures that the query is syntactically correct and meaningful.
The parser converts the query into an internal representation, often in the form of relational
algebra or a parse tree.
Checks performed during parsing include:
Syntax Check: Verifies the syntactic correctness of the query.
Semantic Check: Ensures that the query references valid database objects (e.g., tables,
attributes).
Shared Pool Check: Determines whether the query has already been processed (soft
parsing) or needs full processing (hard parsing).
Optimization: The query optimizer evaluates multiple execution strategies and selects the
one with the lowest cost.
Optimization considers factors such as available indexes, table sizes, and statistical data
stored in the database catalog.
The output of this phase is an optimal query execution plan.
Row Source Generation: The optimizer's selected execution plan is transformed into an
iterative execution plan by the row source generator.
This iterative plan is essentially a binary program that can be executed by the SQL engine to
retrieve or manipulate data.
Execution
The execution engine runs the query using the generated plan.
During this phase, actual data retrieval or manipulation occurs, and results are produced.
Result Formatting
Once execution is complete, the results are formatted according to user requirements (e.g.,
simple lists or complex reports) before being presented.

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6] Consider following relational table. Find nontrivial and trivail functional

dependency.

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7] Explain 1st, 2nd, 3rd normal form with example.

1NF (First Normal Form)
1NF is the foundational normal form. To be in 1NF, a table must meet the following criteria
Each column must contain only atomic (indivisible) values.
There should be no repeating groups of columns.
Example

2NF (Second Normal Form)

For a table to be in 2NF, it must:
Be in 1NF.
Have a primary key
All non-key attributes must be fully functionally dependent on the entire primary key.
Example

3NF (Third Normal Form)

For a table to be in 3NF, it must Be in 2NF.
Have no transitive dependencies. A transitive dependency occurs when a non-key attribute
depends on another non-key attribute.
Example

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8] What do you mean by normalization? Explain different anomalies

Normalization Explained: Normalization is the process of organizing data to reduce
redundancy and improve consistency, efficiency, and integrity. It is commonly applied in
databases, data analysis, and machine learning. In databases, normalization involves
structuring tables to eliminate duplicate data and anomalies, ensuring that relationships
between data are logical and efficient. In statistics, normalization often refers to adjusting
values measured on different scales to a common scale or aligning probability distributions.
Types of Anomalies: Anomalies are inconsistencies or issues that arise in unnormalized
data. The three main types of anomalies are:
Insertion Anomaly: Occurs when new data cannot be added due to missing or incomplete
information.

Example: A database requires a primary key for every record, but if no value is provided, the
record cannot be inserted.
Deletion Anomaly: Happens when deleting a record unintentionally removes related data.
Example: Deleting a customer record might also delete all associated orders.
Update/Modification Anomaly:
Arises when updating data leads to inconsistencies because related records are not updated
simultaneously.
Example: Changing an employee's salary in one record but not in others can cause errors in
reporting.
How Normalization Resolves Anomalies
Database normalization uses normal forms to address these anomalies:
First Normal Form (1NF):
Ensures atomicity (each field holds a single value) and eliminates repeating groups.
Fixes insertion anomalies by requiring unique identifiers (primary keys) for records.
Second Normal Form (2NF):
Eliminates partial dependencies (attributes dependent on part of a composite key).
Resolves update anomalies by ensuring all attributes depend entirely on the primary key.
Third Normal Form (3NF):
Removes transitive dependencies (non-key attributes depending on other non-key
attributes).
Prevents deletion anomalies by organizing data into separate tables linked by foreign keys.

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9] Compare BCNF and 3NF.

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10] Which are different ways of evaluation of expression? Explain any

one with example.
Different Ways of Evaluation of Expressions
Expression evaluation is crucial in database systems and programming, ensuring efficient
and accurate computation.
Expression Parsing and Syntax Analysis: Breaking down expressions into syntax trees for
validation and error detection.
Expression Simplification and Optimization: Reducing complexity through algebraic
simplifications and constant folding.
Short-Circuit Evaluation: Minimizing computations by stopping evaluation once the result is
determined in logical expressions.
Vectorised Expression Evaluation: Processing multiple rows simultaneously using batch
processing or SIMD instructions.
Caching and Reuse of Expression Results: Storing previously computed results for reuse to
avoid redundant calculations.
Explanation of Short-Circuit Evaluation with Example
Short-circuit evaluation is a technique used in logical expressions where the evaluation stops
as soon as the result is determined. This saves computational resources.
Example:
Consider the logical expression:
SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE Age > 30 AND Salary > 50000;

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11] Define functional dependency. List various types of functional

dependency. Explain any one type of functional dependency.
Definition of Functional Dependency
1)A functional dependency is a constraint between two sets of attributes in a database. It
occurs when one set of attributes (called the determinant) uniquely determines another set
of attributes (called the dependent).
2)Functional dependencies are essential for designing efficient database schemas, ensuring
data integrity, and minimizing redundancy.
Types of Functional Dependencies
Trivial Functional Dependency: The dependent attribute is a subset of the determinant
(e.g., X → X).
Non-Trivial Functional Dependency: The dependent attribute is not a subset of the
determinant (e.g., X → Y where Y⊈X
Multivalued Dependency: One attribute determines multiple independent attributes.
Transitive Dependency: A dependency exists indirectly through another attribute (e.g., X →
Z via X → Y and Y → Z).
Partial Dependency: A dependency exists on part of a composite key.
Semi Non-Trivial Dependency: The determinant and dependent intersect but are not null.
Explanation of Transitive Dependency with Example
Transitive Dependency occurs when an attribute indirectly depends on another attribute
through a third attribute.
Example:
Consider a table with attributes StudentID, CourseID, and InstructorName. If:
StudentID → CourseID
CourseID → InstructorName

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12] State and explain Armstrong’s axioms and its properties.

Armstrong's Axioms and Their Properties
Armstrong's Axioms are a set of inference rules introduced by William W. Armstrong in 1974
to infer functional dependencies in relational databases. These axioms are sound (only valid
dependencies can be derived) and complete (all valid dependencies can be derived). They
form the basis for reasoning about functional dependencies and normalization.
Armstrong's Axioms

Reflexivity: If B⊆A, then A→B

Explanation: A set of attributes always determines its own subset.
Example: If A= {A, B}, then A→B holds.
Augmentation: If A→B, then AC→BC, where C is a set of attributes.
Explanation: Adding attributes to both sides of a dependency does not change its validity.
Example: If A→B, then A, C→B, CA, C→B, C.
Transitivity: If A→B and B→C, then A→C
Explanation: Dependencies can be chained together.
Example: If A→B and B→C, then A→C.
Properties of Armstrong's Axioms
Soundness: Only valid functional dependencies are derived using Armstrong’s rules.
Completeness: All possible functional dependencies implied by the given set can be derived
using these axioms.
Iterative Application: The axioms can be applied repeatedly to generate the closure of
functional dependencies (F+).
Utility in Normalization: Helps identify redundant dependencies and candidate keys, aiding
in schema design.

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13] Explain Difference between 4NF & BCNF.

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14] Describe the concept of transitive dependency. Explain how this concept
is use to define 3NF

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15] Why is query optimization important for databases?

Importance of Query Optimization in Databases
Query optimization is crucial for ensuring efficient data retrieval and overall database
performance. Here are the key reasons why query optimization matters:
Improved Performance:
Optimized queries reduce response times, ensuring faster data retrieval and enhancing
application performance.
This is especially critical for large datasets or complex queries involving joins, aggregations,
and subqueries.
Reduced Resource Usage:
Efficient queries consume fewer system resources, such as CPU, memory, and I/O
operations, reducing the load on the database server.
This leads to better utilization of hardware and software resources.
Cost Efficiency:
Lower resource consumption translates into reduced operational costs, particularly for
cloud-based databases where resources are billed based on usage.
Scalability:
Optimized queries allow databases to handle higher workloads effectively, enabling
scalability as data volume and user demands grow.
Enhanced User Experience:
Faster query execution ensures responsive applications, keeping users satisfied and
engaged.
Prevention of Errors and Failures:
Poorly optimized queries can lead to errors, excessive resource consumption, or even
system outages. Optimization helps mitigate these risks

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16] Explain role of “Selection” operation in query processing.

Role of Selection Operation in Query Processing
1)The selection operation in query processing is a fundamental component of relational
algebra and database management systems (DBMS).
2)It is used to retrieve specific rows from a database table that satisfy given conditions,
enabling efficient data filtering and retrieval.
Key Roles of Selection Operation
Data Filtering:
The selection operation extracts rows from a table that meet specified criteria, reducing the
dataset to relevant information.
Efficiency:
By retrieving only required rows, it minimizes resource usage and speeds up query
execution compared to processing entire datasets.
Focused Analysis:
It allows users to concentrate on specific subsets of data, facilitating targeted analysis and
decision-making.
Combination with Other Operations:
Selection is often combined with projection, join, and aggregation operations to form
complex queries for comprehensive data analysis.
Logical Conditions:
Supports relational conditions (e.g., =, >, <) and logical operators (AND, OR, NOT) for refining
selection criteria.
Example of Selection Operation
SQL Query Example:
SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE Age > 25 AND Country = 'USA';

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17] Define Boyce Codd normal form. How does it differ from 3NF? Why is
considered a stronger form of 3NF.
Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) is a database normalization technique that ensures a table
is in Third Normal Form (3NF) and, additionally, requires that for every non-trivial functional
dependency X→Y, X must be a superkey (or a candidate key) of the table. This means that if
one attribute determines another, it should uniquely identify a row in the table.
Difference Between BCNF and 3NF
Dependency on Candidate Keys:
3NF ensures that there are no transitive dependencies, meaning a non-key attribute cannot
depend on another non-key attribute.
BCNF is stricter, requiring that every determinant in a functional dependency must be a
candidate key (or superkey), eliminating partial dependencies and ensuring that every
dependency is directly tied to a key.
Redundancy Elimination:
3NF reduces redundancy by eliminating transitive dependencies but may still allow some
redundancy if a non-key attribute depends on part of a composite key.
BCNF further reduces redundancy by ensuring that all dependencies are tied to candidate
keys, thus eliminating more types of redundancy.
Normalization Hierarchy:
BCNF is considered a stronger form of 3NF because it imposes additional constraints to
ensure that every determinant is a key, which helps in maintaining data integrity and
reducing anomalies.
Why BCNF is Considered a Stronger Form of 3NF
BCNF is considered stronger than 3NF for several reasons:
Stricter Conditions:
BCNF requires that every determinant in a functional dependency be a superkey, which is
not a requirement in 3NF. This stricter condition helps eliminate more types of redundancy
and anomalies.
Improved Data Integrity:
By ensuring that all dependencies are tied to keys, BCNF maintains better data integrity and
consistency compared to 3NF.
Reduced Anomalies: BCNF reduces the risk of update, insertion, and deletion anomalies
more effectively than 3NF by eliminating partial dependencies and ensuring that all
dependencies are directly tied to keys.

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18] What is query processing? Explain query processing steps with neat
sketch.
1)Query processing refers to the sequence of activities involved in retrieving data from a
database based on a user's query.
2) It converts high-level queries (e.g., SQL) into low-level instructions that the database can
execute efficiently. The goal is to ensure accurate and optimized data retrieval.
Steps of Query Processing
Parsing and Translation:
The query is checked for syntax and semantics.
It is translated into an internal representation, often in the form of a parse tree or relational
algebra expression.
Example: SQL query SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE Salary > 50000 is converted into
relational algebra.
Optimization:
Multiple query execution plans are considered.
The system selects the optimal plan based on cost estimation (e.g., I/O operations, CPU
usage).
Example: Choosing between index-based access or sequential scan.
Evaluation:
The chosen execution plan is run to retrieve the required data.
The database engine executes the query efficiently and returns the result.
Sketch of Query Processing Steps
Below is a simplified diagram illustrating query processing:
User Query (SQL)
↓
Parsing & Translation ↓
↓
Relational Algebra Expression Query Evaluation
↓
Query Optimization ↓
↓

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Optimal Execution Plan Result Output

19] Explain insertion, deletion and modifications anomalies with proper

example.
Anomalies in databases arise due to redundancy and poor design, leading to inconsistencies
and inefficiencies. Here are the three main types of anomalies:
1. Insertion Anomaly
Occurs when adding new data to a database is difficult or impossible without including
unrelated or redundant information.

2. Deletion Anomaly
Occurs when deleting a record unintentionally removes related data, leading to loss of
important information.

3. Modification (Update) Anomaly

Occurs when updating data requires multiple changes across rows, leading to
inconsistencies if not done correctly.

Importance of Resolving Anomalies

These anomalies hinder efficient database operations and compromise data integrity.
Normalization techniques (e.g., converting tables into higher normal forms like 3NF or
BCNF) address these issues by organizing data into separate tables with proper
relationships.

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20] State the need of normalization? Explain 2NF with suitable example.
Need for Normalization: Normalization is essential in database design for several reasons:
Eliminating Redundancy: Reduces duplicate data and saves storage space.
Improving Data Integrity: Ensures consistency and accuracy by organizing data logically.
Minimizing Anomalies: Prevents insertion, deletion, and update anomalies that can lead to
errors or data loss.
Optimizing Query Performance: Simplifies queries and improves execution speed by
structuring data efficiently.
Enhancing Scalability: Makes the database adaptable to changing business needs.
Explanation of 2NF with Example
Second Normal Form (2NF) builds upon the First Normal Form (1NF) by eliminating partial
dependencies. A relation is in 2NF if
It is in 1NF (all attributes are atomic).
Every non-prime attribute is fully functionally dependent on the entire primary key.

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