1. What is the difference between DELETE, TRUNCATE and DROP commands?

DROP DELETE TRUNCATE

It completely It removes one or It removes all the
removes the table more records from rows from the
Definition
from the the table. existing table
database.
Type of It is a DDL It is a DML It is a DDL
Command command command command
It completely It doesn’t free the It doesn’t free the
removes the allocated space of allocated space of
Memory
allocated space the table. the table.
Management
for the table from
memory.
Removes the Doesn’t affect the Doesn’t affect the
Effect on
entire table table structure table structure
Table
structure.
It is faster than It is slower than the It is faster than
DELETE but slower DROP and both the DELETE
than TRUNCATE TRUNCATE and DROP
Speed and as it firstly deletes
commands as it commands as it
Performance the rows and then deletes one row at a deletes all the
the table from the time based on the records at a time
database. specified without any
conditions. condition.
Not applicable as Can be used It can’t be used as
Use with
it operates on the it is applicable to
WHERE clause
entire table the entire table
DELETE We need ALTER We need table
permission is permission on the ALTER permission
required to delete schema to which to use the
the rows of the the table belongs TRUNCATE
Permission
table. and CONTROL command.
permission on the
table to use the
DROP command.
DELETE FROM DROP TABLE TRUNCATE TABLE
Syntax table_name table_name; table_name;
WHERE condition;
2. Why do we need query op miza on?
Query Processing: Query processing refers to ac vi es including transla on of
high-level languages (HLL) queries into opera ons at physical file level, query
op miza on transforma ons, and actual evalua on of queries.

Steps in Query Processing:

 Func on of query parser is parsing and transla on of HLL query into its
immediate form rela on algebraic expression.
 A parse tree of the query is constructed and then translated in to rela onal
algebraic expression.
The goal of query op miza on is to reduce the system resources required to fulfil
a query, and ul mately provide the user with the correct result set faster.
1. First, it provides the user with faster results, which makes the applica on
seem faster to the user.
2. Secondly, it allows the system to service more queries in the same amount
of me, because each request takes less me than unop mized queries.
3. Thirdly, query op miza on ul mately reduces the amount of wear on the
hardware (e.g. disk drives), and allows the server to run more efficiently
(e.g. lower power consump on, less memory usage).
There is the various principle of Query Op miza on are as follows −
 Understand how your database is execu ng your query − The first phase of
query op miza on is understanding what the database is performing.
Different databases have different commands for this. For example, in
MySQL, one can use the "EXPLAIN [SQL Query]" keyword to see the query
plan. In Oracle, one can use the "EXPLAIN PLAN FOR [SQL Query]" to see the
query plan.
 Retrieve as li le data as possible − The more informa on restored from the
query, the more resources the database is required to expand to process and
save these records. For example, if it can only require to fetch one column
from a table, do not use 'SELECT *'.
 Store intermediate results − Some mes logic for a query can be quite
complex. It is possible to produce the desired outcomes through the use of
subqueries, inline views, and UNION-type statements. For those methods,
the transi onal results are not saved in the database but are directly used
within the query. This can lead to achievement issues, par cularly when the
transi onal results have a huge number of rows.
There are various query op miza on strategies are as follows −
 Use Index − It can be using an index is the first strategy one should use to
speed up a query.
 Aggregate Table − It can be used to pre-popula ng tables at higher levels so
less amount of informa on is required to be parsed.
 Ver cal Par oning − It can be used to par on the table by columns. This
method reduces the amount of informa on a SQL query required to process.
 Horizontal Par oning − It can be used to par on the table by data value,
most o en me. This method reduces the amount of informa on a SQL query
required to process.
 De-normaliza on − The process of de-normaliza on combines mul ple tables
into a single table. This speeds up query implementa on because fewer table
joins are required.
 Server Tuning − Each server has its parameters and provides tuning server
parameters so that it can completely take benefit of the hardware resources
that can significantly speed up query implementa on.
3. Consider the rela on R(A, B, C, D, E) with the set of f = (A->C, B->C, C->D, DC
-> C, CE -> A).Suppose the rela on has been decomposed by rela ons
R1(A,D), R2(A, B), R3(B, E), R4(C, D. e),R5(A, E). Is this decomposi on
lossless or lossy? Jus fy your answer.
The decomposi on is dependency preserving and lossless.

4. Write the features of tuple rela onal calculus.

Tuple rela onal calculus is a non-procedural query language used to retrieve

data from rela onal databases. It describes what data should be retrieved rather
than how to retrieve it. The key features of tuple rela onal calculus:

 Formalism: Tuple rela onal calculus is a formal language based on first-

order logic. It provides a formal framework for expressing queries in terms
of logical formulas.

 No Procedural Instruc ons: Unlike procedural languages like SQL, tuple

rela onal calculus does not specify how to retrieve data. Instead, it
specifies what data should be retrieved based on logical condi ons.
  Quan fiers: Tuple rela onal calculus uses quan fiers to specify
condi ons on tuples. The two main quan fiers used are the existen al
quan fier (∃) and the universal quan fier (∀). These quan fiers allow for
the expression of condi ons such as "there exists" and "for all."

 Variables and Constants: Tuple rela onal calculus uses variables to

represent tuples and a ributes in the database. These variables are used
in conjunc on with quan fiers to specify condi ons on tuples. Constants
can also be used to represent specific values.

 Atomic Formulas: Tuple rela onal calculus allows for the crea on of
atomic formulas, which are logical expressions that evaluate to true or
false. These atomic formulas are used to specify condi ons on tuples
based on a ribute values.

 Expressive Power: Tuple rela onal calculus is highly expressive and can
express a wide range of queries and condi ons. It can handle complex
condi ons involving conjunc ons, disjunc ons, and nega ons of atomic
formulas.

 Equivalence with SQL: Tuple rela onal calculus is equivalent in expressive

power to SQL (Structured Query Language). This means that any query
that can be expressed in tuple rela onal calculus can also be expressed in
SQL, and vice versa.

 Suitability for Theore cal Analysis: Tuple rela onal calculus is o en used
in theore cal discussions and formal analysis of rela onal databases due
to its formalism and expressive power. It provides a precise way to reason
about queries and database opera ons.

5. What is blocking factor in dbms?

In the context of databases, the blocking factor refers to the number of logical
database records stored in one physical block or page of storage. It is a measure
of how efficiently data is organized on disk.

1. Physical Storage: In a database system, data is stored on physical storage

devices such as hard disk drives (HDDs) or solid-state drives (SSDs). These
storage devices organize data into blocks or pages, each with a fixed size.
2. Logical Records: Within the database, data is organized into logical
records or tuples. Each tuple represents a single entry or row in a table.
3. Block Organization: To optimize disk access and reduce I/O overhead,
multiple logical records are often stored together in a single physical block
 or page. The number of logical records stored in each block is known as
the blocking factor.
4. Efficiency Consideration: The blocking factor is a critical consideration in
database design and performance optimization. A higher blocking factor
means that more logical records can be stored in each block, which can
improve data access efficiency by reducing the number of disk reads and
writes required to retrieve or modify data.
5. Trade-offs: However, increasing the blocking factor can also have trade-
offs. Larger blocks may lead to wasted space if they are not fully utilized,
and they may increase the likelihood of contention and locking issues in
multi-user environments. Additionally, larger blocks may require more
memory for buffer cache management.
6. Database Tuning: Database administrators often tune the blocking factor
based on the characteristics of the workload and storage system. By
adjusting the blocking factor, they can optimize disk access patterns and
improve overall database performance.

6. Difference between B Tree and B+ Tree

B tree B+ tree
B tree is a popular terminology that B+ tree is nothing but an
belongs to the computer science advancement of B tree that allows
family. It is a balancing tree that helps efficient and smooth insertion,
in maintaining and sorting data, and deletion, and sequential access.
also grants searches, insertions,
deletions, and sequential access.
In the case of B tree, the leaf nodes In the case of B+ tree, only the leaf
include data pointers. nodes include data pointers.
Here, the insertion may take longer. Here, the insertion is easier and faster
than the B tree.
In B tree, there is no duplicate of keys In B+ tree, duplicates of keys are
sustained in the tree. maintained.
The search process may take a longer Here the search is faster than the B
time because all the keys are not tree as the keys are present at leaf
obtainable at the leaf. nodes.
Deletion process is complicated. Deletion process is easier.
There are no redundant search keys The redundant search keys are
available. available.
In the B tree, all the leaf nodes are not On the B+ tree, all the leaf nodes are
saved as a structural linked list. saved as a structural linked list.