Chapter 1 Introduction to Process Control

Mulat Tigabu

Addis Abeba Science and Technology

University (AASTU)
Department of Electromechanical Engineering
Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

February 12, 2025

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Course Organization
Prerequisite:- Control Systems
Credit Hour 3hrs/ Lecture 2hrs / Tutorial 0 and Laboratory 3hrs.
Grading System :-
Test - 10 %
Project - 40 %
Final Exam - 50 %
A Telegram channel will be created for this course to facilitate
communication.
Programming language/environment: MATLAB!!!
https://www.mathworks.com/academi
https://matlabacademy.mathworks.com/
Software used for Industrial automation part
https://rockwellautomation.custhelp.com/app/answers/
answer_view/a_id/636488/~/
rslogix-5000-and-studio-5000-logix-designer-software-downl
https://www.siemens.com/global/en/products/automation/
topic-areas/tia.html
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Course Objectives

This course mainly provides students with the knowledge and skills required
to analyze a process in the industry. The students will have the ability to
apply different controller types and designing an automated system using
PLC and SCADA.
CLO1:-List the basic components of process control loops and
compare, evaluate different feedback controllers performance using
MATLAB.
CLO2:-Apply multi-loop control systems in process control problems.
CLO3:-Design an automated system using PLC, HMI and SCADA.
CLO4:-Work collaboratively on a team to successfully complete a
design.

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Course Content
1 Introduction To Process Control
Definition of process control
Importance of process control
Components of Control Loops
Introduction to energy and mass balance
2 Feedback Controllers
On-Off Controller
Proportional, Integral, Derivative (PID) characteristics
PID Tuning
Performance evaluation of different controllers using MATLAB
3 Multiloop Systems
Cascade Control
Feed forward Control
FeedForward Plus Feedback Control
Ratio Control
Selective Control/Override Control
Time Delay Compensation
MATLAB Realization of Multi Loop System
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PLC And HMI
Introduction to Relay Control System
Programmable Logic Control (PLC)
PLC Components
PLC Programming Languages
PLC Wiring and Installation
PLC Programming for Pneumatics and Hydraulics System
Human Machine Interface (HMI)
SCADA And DCS
Basics of SCADA system and Data Acquisition
Elements of Data Acquisition Systems
SCADA System Components
Distributed Control System
Industrial Networking and Communication
Introduction
Serial Communication
Industrial Ethernet

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Textbooks and References

1 Fundamentals of Process Control. Principles and Concepts 2021

(Bouwman P.)
2 Johnson Curtis, Prentice hall of India, 7th edition, Process Control
3 B. Wayne Bequette Process Control Modeling, Design, and Simulation
(2023, Pearson)
4 Frank D. Petruzella Programmable Logic Controllers (2016,
McGraw-Hill Education)
5 James A. Rehg, Glenn J. Sartori Programmable Logic Controllers
Pearson New International Edition (2013, Pearson)
6 Frank Lamb - Industrial Automation Hands On (2013, McGraw-Hill
Professional)

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Table of Contents

1 Course Arrangement

2 Definition of Process Control

3 Importance of Process Control

4 Components of Control Loops

5 Development of Dynamic Models

Energy Balance
Mass Balance

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Definition of Process Control
Process control is the branch of automatic control concerned with
production plants in the chemical, petrochemical, food and related
industries.
Process control plays a critical role in ensuring proper operation of the
plant, in terms of safety, product quality and profitability. Even though
chemical processes are of different physical nature when compared to
robots, unmanned vehicles and aircrafts, missiles and spacecrafts, the
underlying principles of automatic control are the same.
Process control is the automatic control of an output variable by
sensing the amplitude of the output parameter from the process and
comparing it to the desired or set level and feeding an error signal
back to control an input variable.
The primary objective of process control is to maintain a process at
the desired operating conditions, safely and economically, while
satisfying environmental and product quality requirements.
The term process dynamics refers to unsteady-state (or transient)
process behavior.
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Process controls is a mixture between the statistics and engineering
discipline that deals with the mechanism, architectures, and algorithms
for controlling a process. Some examples of controlled processes are:
Controlling the temperature of a water stream by controlling the
amount of steam added to the shell of a heat exchanger.
Operating a jacketed reactor isothermally by controlling the mixture of
cold water and steam that flows through the jacket of a jacketed
reactor.
Maintaining a set ratio of reactants to be added to a reactor by
controlling their flow rates.
Controlling the height of fluid in a tank to ensure that it does not
overflow.
Process: The conversion of feed materials to products using chemical
and physical operations. In practice, the term process tends to be used
for both the processing operation and the processing equipment.
There are three broad categories of processes: continuous, batch,
and semibatch.

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Process Classification
Based on how the state variables of the process change with time, the
processes are differentiated between transient (unsteady-state) and
steady-state processes. For a system undergoing a steady-state
process, all variables of the system remain constant through time
(they are independent in relation to time). However, for transient
processes, the variables of the processes are functions of time.
A continuous process can be defined as the process that has inlet
streams and outlet streams transporting species continuously into and
out of a process all the time. Nonstop production is known as
continuous drift process because the materials that are being
processed are constantly in motion, undergoing chemical reactions, or
being subjected to mechanical or heat treatment. Continuous
processes utilize process control to automate and control operational
variables such as flow rates, tank levels, pressures, temperatures,
and machine speeds. Examples of continuous processes are oil
refinery, pulp and paper, natural gas processing, wastewater
treatment, and power generation.
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A chemical that is needed in a small amount or only as desired is
frequently made by a batch process, in which production does not go
on all the time. Pharmaceutical medicines are made by batch
processes. A batch procedure is a system in which the feed streams
are fed to the process to get it started. When the system is charged
with the feed, then the system carries on the required processes on the
feed until all of the required processes are done and the products then
are removed from the reactor. Examples of batch processes are
cooking, brewing, and specialty chemicals.
A semibatch process is not batch and not continuous; it is a hybrid
of the continuous and the batch process. It acts as a continuous
process for the streams entering the process and as a batch process
when all the products are removed at once, and vice versa. Like batch
reactors or batch processes, semibatch reactors or processes uses
similar reactor equipment, and they take a place in a single stirred
tank. The flexibility of adding more reactants over time through
semibatch operation has several advantages over a batch reactor.

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Continuous Processes
Tubular heat exchanger. A process fluid on the tube side is cooled
by cooling water on the shell side. Typically, the exit temperature of
the process fluid is controlled by manipulating the cooling water flow
rate. Variations in the inlet temperatures and the process fluid flow
rate affect the heat exchanger operation. Consequently, these variables
are considered to be disturbance variables.
Continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR). If the reaction is highly
exothermic, it is necessary to control the reactor temperature by
manipulating the flow rate of coolant in a jacket or cooling coil. The
feed conditions (composition, flow rate, and temperature) can be
manipulated variables or disturbance variables.
Thermal cracking furnace. Crude oil is broken down (“cracked”)
into a number of lighter petroleum fractions by the heat transferred
from a burning fuel/air mixture. The furnace temperature and amount
of excess air in the flue gas can be controlled by manipulating the fuel
flow rate and the fuel/air ratio. The crude oil composition and the
heating quality of the fuel are common disturbance variables.
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Kidney dialysis unit. This medical equipment is used to remove
waste products from the blood of human patients whose own kidneys
are failing or have failed. The blood flow rate is maintained by a
pump, and “ambient conditions,” such

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Definitions and Terminology
In controlling a process there exist two types of classes of variables.
Input Variable This variable shows the effect of the surroundings on
the process. It normally refers to those factors that influence the
process. An example of this would be the flow rate of the steam
through a heat exchanger that would change the amount of energy
put into the process. There are effects of the surrounding that are
controllable and some that are not. These are broken down into two
types of inputs.
Manipulated inputs: variable in the surroundings can be control by
an operator or the control system in place.
Disturbances: inputs that can not be controlled by an operator or
control system. There exist both measurable and immeasurable
disturbances.
Output variable Also known as the control variable These are the
variables that are process outputs that effect the surroundings. An
example of this would be the amount of CO2 gas that comes out of a
combustion reaction. These variables may or may not be measured.
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Single input-Single Output (SISO) for one control(output) variable
there exist one manipulate (input) variable that is used to affect the
process
Multiple input-multiple output(MIMO) There are several control
(output) variable that are affected by several manipulated (input)
variables used in a given process.
Cascade: A control system with 2 or more controllers, a "Master" and
"Slave" loop. The output of the "Master" controller is the setpoint for
the "Slave" controller.
Dead Time: The amount of time it takes for a process to start
changing after a disturbance in the system.
Derivative Control: The "D" part of a PID controller. With
derivative action the controller output is proportional to the rate of
change of the process variable or error.
Error: In process controls, error is defined as:
Error = setpoint − processvariable.
Integral Control: The "I" part of a PID controller. With integral
action the controller output is proportional to the amount and duration
of the error signal.

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PID Controller: PID controllers are designed to eliminate the need
for continuous operator attention. They are used to automatically
adjust system variables to hold a process variable at a setpoint. Error
is defined above as the difference between setpoint and process
variable.
Proportional Control: The "P" part of a PID controller. With
proportional action the controller output is proportional to the amount
of the error signal.
Setpoint:The setpoint is where you would like a controlled process
variable to be.

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Terminology in Control

Feedback loop: is the signal path from the output back to the input
to correct for any variation between the output level from the set level.
In other words, the output of a process is being continually monitored.
The error between the set point and the output parameter is
determined, and a correction signal is then sent back to one of the
process inputs to correct for changes in the measured output
parameter.
Controlled or measured variable: is the monitored output variable
from a process, and the value of the monitored output parameter is
normally held within tight given limits.
Manipulated variable: is the input variable or parameter to a process
that is varied by a control signal from the processor to an actuator. By
changing the input variable, the value of the measured variable can be
controlled.

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Set point: is the desired value of the output parameter or variable
being monitored by a sensor. Any deviation from this value will
generate an error signal.
Instrument: is the name of any various device types for indicating or
measuring physical quantities or conditions,performance, position, or
direction, and the like.
Sensors: are devices that can detect physical variables, such as
temperature, light intensity, or motion, and have the ability to give a
measurable output that varies in relation to the amplitude of the
physical variable. The human body has sensors in the fingers that can
detect surface roughness, temperature, and force. A thermometer is a
good example of a line-of-sight sensor, in that it will give an accurate
visual indication of temperature. In other sensors such as a diaphragm
pressure sensor, a strain transducer may be required to convert the
deformation of the diaphragm into an electrical or pneumatic signal,
before it can be measured.

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Transducer: are devices that can change one form of energy to
another, e.g., a resistance thermometer converts temperature into
electrical resistance, or a thermocouple converts temperature into a
voltage. Both of these devices give an output that is proportional to
the temperature. Many transducers are grouped under the heading of
sensors.
Converters: are devices that are used to change the format of a
signal without changing the energy form, i.e., a change from a voltage
to a current signal.
Actuators: are devices that are used to control an input variable in
response to a signal from a controller. A typical actuator will be a flow
control valve, which can control the rate of flow of a fluid in proportion
to the amplitude of an electrical signal from the controller. Other
types of actuators are magnetic relays that turn on and off electrical
power, such as power to the fans and compressor in an air-conditioning
system in response to signals from the room temperature sensors.

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Controllers: are devices that monitor signals from transducers and
take the necessary action to keep the process within specified limits
according to a predefined program by activating and controlling the
necessary actuators.The controller compares the amplitude of the
signal from the sensor to a predetermined set point, which in is the
amplitude of the signal of the hot water sensor. The controller will
then send a signal that is proportional to the difference between the
reference and the transmitted signal to the actuator telling the
actuator to open or close the valve controlling the flow of steam to
adjust the temperature of the water to its set value.
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs): are used in process
control applications, and are microprocessor-based systems. Small
systems have the ability to monitor several variables and control
several actuators, with the capability of being expanded to monitor 60
or 70 variables and control a corresponding number of actuators, as
may be required in a petrochemical refinery. PLCs have the ability to
use analog or digital input information and output analog or digital
control signals.
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Error Signal: An is the difference between the set point and the
amplitude of the measured variable. A correction signal is the signal
used to control power to the actuator to set the level of the input
variable.
Transmitters: are devices used to amplify and format signals so that
they can transmit data over long distances without loss of accuracy.
The transmitted signal can be in one of several formats, i.e.,
pneumatic, digital, analog voltage, analog current, or as a radio
frequency (RF) modulated signal. Digital transmission is preferred in
newer systems since the controller is microprocessor based. Analog
data transmission: is still used over short distances, and in some
systems both analog data and digital data are combined.

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Example
Show the block diagram of a closed-loop flow control system. Identify the
following elements: (a) the sensor, (b) the transducer, (c) the actuator, (d)
the transmitter, (e) the controller, (f) the manipulated variable, and (g)
the measured variable.

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Solution

(a) The sensor is labeled pressure cell in the diagram. (b) The transducer is
labeled converter. There are two transducers—one for converting pressure
to current and the other for converting current to pressure to operate the
actuator. (c) The actuator in this case is the pneumatic valve. (d) The
transmitter is the line driver. (e) The controller is labeled as a PLC. (f)
The manipulated variable is the differential pressure developed by the fluid
flowing through the orifice plate constriction. (g) The controlled variable is
the flow rate of the liquid.

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Composition of systems
Process (Object): This represents the material equipment along with
the physical and/or chemical operations which take place. The car
and its physical operation compose the object of the steering system.
The heat transfer between the reactor and cooling jacket constitutes
the process in the second example.
Measuring instrument or sensor. Sensors are used to measure
physical and/or chemical variables, and are the main sources of
information about what is going on in the process. In the above
examples, the driver’s eyes measure the direction and speed of the car,
and the thermocouple measures the temperature of the reactor.
Controller: The controller receives information from the measuring
devices and after calculation decides what action should be taken. In
other words, it is a decision-maker which implements a control law. In
a steering system, the driver’s brain makes decisions and is therefore a
controller. The comparator and the amplifier would be included in the
controller of the second example.
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Final control element This device (also called an actuator or an executive
component) manipulates a process variable. The flow control valve in the
engineering example is the final control element. In the steering system,
the driver’s arms and feet are final control elements.

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General Concepts and Terminology
Manipulated variable This is a variable in a control system that we
can change in order to keep the system in a desired operating region.
In the steering example, the angle of the steering wheel and the
displacements of the brake pedal and gas pedal are manipulated
variables. The manipulated variable in the reactor example is the
cooling water flow rate.
Controlled variable or Output. This is the variable in a control
system that we will attempt to control, either by trying to keep it
constant or by having it follow an assigned signal. The direction and
the speed of the car, and the temperature of the reactor in the
examples are all controlled variables.
Input. This refers to any variable which influences the system when it
changes in value. The desired direction and speed, as well as random
wind gusts, can be considered inputs in the steering system. In the
reactor example, the prespecified temperature in the reactor, the flow
rate and temperature of mixed raw material at the inlet, and the
ambient air temperature are all input variables.
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Setpoint (Reference input). A setpoint is an input representing the
desired value of a system output. In a feedback system, the measured
output is compared with the setpoint and the difference between them
is used to actuate the controller. The desired direction and speed in
the car steering system are both setpoints. The target value of the
reactor temperature is the setpoint in the engineering example.
Actuating error. This is the difference between the setpoint and
measured output, and serves as input to the feedback controller. In
the car steering system, the actuating error is the difference between
the desired speed (direction) and the measured car speed (direction).
In the other example, it is the difference between the prespecified
temperature and the measured reactor temperature.
Disturbance. Any input that cannot be manipulated is classified as a
disturbance variable. For example, bad road conditions will interfere
with the direction and speed of the car, and are therefore
disturbances. The ambient temperature is a disturbance in the reactor
example. The temperature and flow rate of the mixed raw material
must also be considered as disturbance variables,
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Importance of Process Control

The development of a control strategy consists of formulating or identifying

the following:
Control objective(s)
Input variables
Output variables
Constraints
Operating characteristics
Safety, environmental, and economic considerations
Control structure
The first step of developing a control strategy is to formulate the
control objective(s). A chemical-process operating unit often consists
of several unit operations.
Input variables can be classified as manipulated or disturbance
variables. A manipulated input is one that can be adjusted by the
control system (or process operator).

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Example: Surge Tank
Surge tanks are often used as intermediate storage for fluid streams being
transferred between process units. Consider the process flow diagram
shown in Figure 1–3, where a fluid stream from process 1 is fed to the
surge tank; the effluent from the surge tank is sent to process 2.There are
obvious constraints on the height in this tank. If the tank overflows, it may
create safety and environmental hazards, which may also have economic
significance. Let us analyze this system using a step-by-step procedure.

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Control objective: The control objective is to maintain the height
within certain bounds. If it is too high, it will overflow, and if it is too
low, problems with the flow to process 2 may occur. Usually, a specific
desired height will be selected. This desired height is known as the
setpoint.
Input variables: The input variables are the flow from process 1 and
the flow to process 2. Notice that an outlet flow rate is considered an
input to this system. The question is, which input is manipulated and
which is a disturbance? That depends. We discuss this problem
further in a moment.
Output variables: The most important output variable is the liquid
level. We assume that it is measured.
Constraints: A number of constraints exist in this problem. There is
a maximum liquid level; if it is exceeded, the tank will overflow. There
are minimum and maximum flow rates through the inlet and outlet
valves.

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Operating characteristics: We assume that this is a continuous
process, that is, that there is a continuous flow in and out of the tank.
It would be a semicontinuous process if, for example, there was an
inlet flow with no outlet flow (if the tank was simply being filled).
Safety, environmental, and economic considerations: These
aspects depend somewhat on the fluid characteristics. If it is a
hazardous chemical, then there is a tremendous incentive from safety
and environmental considerations to not allow the tank to overflow.
Indeed, this is also an economic consideration, because injuries to
employees or environmental cleanup costs money. Even if the
substance is water, it has likely been treated by an upstream process
unit, so losing water owing to overflow will incur an economic penalty.
Safety considerations play an important role in the specification of
control valves (fail-open or fail-closed).

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Feedback Control
Control Structure: There are numerous possibilities for control of this
system. We discuss first the feedback strategies, then the feedforward
strategies.

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Feedforward Control
The previous feedback control strategy was based on measuring the output
(tank height) and manipulating an input (the outlet flow rate). In this
case, the manipulated variable is changed after a disturbance affects the
output. The advantage of a feedforward control strategy is that a
disturbance variable is measured and a manipulated variable is changed
before the output is affected.

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Feedback and Feedforward Control
The main disadvantage to this approach is sensitivity to uncertainty. If the
inlet flow rate is not perfectly measured or if the outlet flow rate cannot be
manipulated perfectly, then the tank height will not be perfectly controlled.
With any small disturbance or uncertainty, the tank will eventually overflow
or run dry. In practice, FFC is combined with feedback control to account
for uncertainty.

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Components of Control Loops

Most basic process control systems consist of a control loop as shown

below, having four main components:
A measurement of the state or condition of a process
A controller calculating an action based on this measured value
against a preset or desired value (setpoint)
An output signal resulting from the controller calculation, which is
used to manipulate the process action through some form of actuator
The process itself reacting to this signal, and changing its state or
condition.
Two of the most important signals used in process control are called
Process variable or PV
Manipulated variable or MV

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In industrial process control, the PV is measured by an instrument in
the field, and acts as an input to an automatic controller which takes
action based on the value of it. Alternatively, the PV can be an input
to a data display so that the operator can use the reading to adjust
the process through manual control and supervision.
The variable to be manipulated, in order to have control over the PV,
is called the MV. For instance, if we control a particular flow, we
manipulate a valve to control the flow. Here, the valve position is
called the MV and the measured flow becomes the PV.
In the case of a simple automatic controller, the Controller Output
Signal (OP) drives the MV. In more complex automatic control
systems, a controller output signal may drive the target values or
reference values for other controllers.
The ideal value of the PV is often called the target value, and in the
case of an automatic control, the term setpoint (SP) value is preferred.

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The challenge for the process control designer is to maintain the controlled
process variable at the target value or change it to meet production needs,
whilst compensating for the disturbances that may arise from other inputs.
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So, for example, if you want to keep the level of water in a tank at a
constant height whilst others are drawing off from it, you will manipulate
the input flow to keep the level steady.

The value of a process model is that it provides a means of showing the

way the output will respond to the actions of the input.
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This is done by having a mathematical model based on the physical
and chemical laws affecting the process. For example, in Figure below
an open tank with cross-sectional area A is supplied with an inflow of
water Q1 that can be controlled or manipulated.
The outflow from the tank passes through a valve with a resistance R
to the output flow Q2. The level of water or pressure head in the tank
is denoted as H. We know that Q2 will increase as H increases, and
when Q2 equals Q1 the level will become steady.
The block diagram version of this process is drawn in Figure below.
Note that the diagram simply shows the flow of variables into function
blocks and summing points, so that we can identify the input and
output variables of each block. We want this model to tell us how H
will change if we adjust the inflow Q1 whilst we keep the outflow valve
at a constant setting. The model equations can be written as follows:

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The first equation says the rate of change of level is proportional to the
difference between inflow and outflow divided by the cross-sectional area of
the tank. The second equation says the outflow will increase in proportion
to the pressure head divided by the flow resistance R.

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First Order Process Dynamic Characteristics

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Second Order Response

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General Modeling Principles

The model equations are at best an approximation to the real process.

Adage: “All models are wrong, but some are useful.”
Modeling inherently involves a compromise between model accuracy
and complexity on one hand, and the cost and effort required to
develop the model, on the other hand.
Process modeling is both an art and a science. Creativity is required
to make simplifying assumptions that result in an appropriate model.
Dynamic models of chemical processes consist of ordinary differential
equations (ODE) and/or partial differential equations (PDE), plus
related algebraic equations.
State the modeling objectives and the end use of the model. They
determine the required levels of model detail and model accuracy.

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Draw a schematic diagram of the process and label all process
variables.
List all of the assumptions that are involved in developing the model.
Try for parsimony; the model should be no more complicated than
necessary to meet the modeling objectives.
Determine whether spatial variations of process variables are
important. If so, a partial differential equation model will be required.
Write appropriate conservation equations (mass, component,
energy, and so forth).

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A Systematic Approach for Developing Dynamic Models

State the modeling objectives and the end use of the model. They
determine the required levels of model detail and model accuracy.
Draw a schematic diagram of the process and label all process
variables.
List all of the assumptions that are involved in developing the model.
The model should be no more complicated than necessary to meet the
modeling objectives.
Determine whether spatial variations of process variables are
important. If so, a partial differential equation model will be required.
Write appropriate conservation equations (mass, component,
energy, and so forth).

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Introduce equilibrium relations and other algebraic equations (from
thermodynamics, transport phenomena, chemical kinetics,
equipment geometry, etc.).
Perform a degrees of freedom analysis to ensure that the model
equations can be solved.
Simplify the model. It is often possible to arrange the equations so
that the dependent variables (outputs) appear on the left side and the
independent variables (inputs) appear on the right side. This model
form is convenient for computer simulation and subsequent analysis.
Classify inputs as disturbance variables or as manipulated variables.

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Development of Dynamic Models

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Energy Balance
In engineering, there are 4 common balance equations from
conservation principles including mass, momentum, energy, and
species.
General forms of each equation are shown below with the
accumulation term on the left and inlet (in), outlet (out), generation
(gen), and consumption (cons) terms on the right side of the equation.
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created
or destroyed; it can only change forms. Work and heat are the forms
energy can take to be transferred.
change of energy =energy entering - energy leaving

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Mass Balance
The law of conservation of mass states that mass is neither created
nor destroyed by chemical reactions or physical transformations.
According to the law, the mass of the products in a chemical reaction
must equal the mass of the reactants. We can state this
mathematically as follows:
rate of mass accumulated =rate of mass in - rate of mass out

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The inlet (qf) and outlet (q) volumetric flowrates, feed concentration
(Caf), and inlet temperature (Tf) can be adjusted. Initial conditions for
the vessel are V= 1.0 L, Ca = 0.0 mol/L, and T=350 K. There is no
reaction and no significant heat added by the mixer. There is a cooling
jacket that can be used to adjust the outlet temperature. Show step
changes in the process inputs.

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