24ESC131/231 Basic Electronics Dept.

ECE

MODULE-2 FUNDAMENTALS OF TRANSISTORS AND OSCILLATORS IN

ELECTRONICS

BJT as an Amplifier: Biasing DC load line, Need for biasing, Single stage CE amplifier
using Voltage divider bias.

Oscillator: Barkhausen criterion, Conceptual discussion of Crystal controlled

oscillator.

MOSFET: Introduction to MOSFET theory, Operation and characteristics of

Enhancement MOSFET for n channel, MOSFET as a switch. Comparison between BJT
and MOSFET.

2.1.1 Biasing DC Load Line

Biasing – Applying power supply for the device

DC Load Line - The dc load line for a transistor circuit is a straight line drawn on the
transistor output characteristics.

For a common-emitter (CE) circuit, the load line is a graph of collector current (IC)
versus collector-emitter voltage (VCE), for a given value of collector resistance (RC) and
a given supply voltage (VCC). The load line shows all corresponding levels of IC and
VCE that can exist in a particular circuit.

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Figure 1 - DC load line drawn upon transistor common-emitter output characteristics.

If the base-emitter voltage (VBE) is zero, the transistor is not conducting and IC= 0.
Substituting the VCC and RC values in the above equation

VCE = 20 V — (0 X 10 kΩ) = 20V

• Plot point A on the common-emitter characteristics in Fig. 1 at IC= 0 and VCE =

20 V. This is one point on the dc load line.

If IC = 2 mA

VCE = 20 V — (2mA X 10 kΩ) = 0V

• Plot point B on the common-emitter characteristics in Fig. 1 at IC= 2mA and

VCE = 0 V. This is one point on the dc load line.

The straight line drawn through points A and B is the dc load line for Rc = 10 kΩ and
VCC = 20 V. If either of these two quantities is changed, a new load line must be
drawn.

The dc load line represents all corresponding IC and VCE levels that can exist in the
circuit as shown in figure 1.

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1) Draw the new dc load line for the circuit in Fig.1 when RC = 12 kΩ.

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2.1.2 Need for Biasing

Transistor biasing is the process of setting the correct DC voltage or current to a

transistor so it can function properly in an electronic circuit. Biasing is necessary to
ensure that the transistor operates in the active region (Q-Point) and produces an
undistorted output signal.

Figure 3 - The Q-point does not have to be at the centre of the dc load line. But its
position determines the maximum symmetrical collector-emitter voltage swing.

2.1.3 Biasing DC Load Line – (Q-point)

The dc bias point or quiescent point (Q-point) (also known as the dc operating point)
identifies the transistor collector current and collector-emitter voltage when there is
no input signal at the base terminal. Thus, it defines the dc conditions in the circuit.

Figure 3 - Transistor collector-emitter voltage (VCE) ranges from approximately VCC

to zero when IC goes from zero to VCC/RC.

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2) The transistor circuit in Fig. has the collector characteristics. Determine the circuit
Q-point and estimate the maximum symmetrical output voltage swing.

Note that VCC = 18 V, RC = 2.2 kΩ, and IB = 40 µA.

Draw the dc load line through points A and B.

The Q-point is at the intersection of the load line and the Ip = 40 µA characteristic. The
dc bias conditions are IC 4.1 mA and VCE = 9V. The maximum symmetrical output
voltage swing is ∆VCE = ±9V.

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2.1.4 Single stage CE amplifier using Voltage divider bias.

The main types of transistor biasing are:

• Fixed bias

Also known as base resistor bias, this method uses a resistor between the base and
the collector supply voltage.

• Voltage divider bias

Also known as self-bias or universal bias, this method uses a voltage divider circuit
to control the input current.

• Collector-to-base bias

Also known as biasing with collector feedback resistor, this method uses a collector
feedback resistor.

• Emitter bias

This method uses both positive and negative supply voltages to provide bias
stability.

Voltage-Divider Bias

A voltage-divider bias circuit is shown in Fig. 4a, and the current and voltage
conditions throughout the circuit are illustrated in Fig. 4b. It is seen that, as well as the
collector resistor (RC), there is an emitter resistor (RE) connected in series with the
transistor.

Figure 4 - Voltage-divider bias circuits. The emitter current remains constant at IE =

(VB — VBE)/RE.

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Voltage-divider bias circuits are normally designed to have the voltage-divider

current (I2) very much larger than the transistor base current (IB). In this situation, VB
is largely unaffected by IB. so, VB can be assumed to remain constant.

With VB constant, the voltage across the emitter resistor is also a constant quantity

This means that the emitter current is constant:

The collector current is approximately equal to the emitter current, so I C is held at a

constant level. Again, if we refer to the transistor collector voltage is

The collector-emitter voltage is

VCE can also be determined as

Clearly, with IC and IE constant, the transistor collector-emitter voltage remains

constant.

Circuit Analysis

Voltage divider circuit analysis is classified into

1. Approximate circuit analysis.

2. Precise circuit analysis.

Approximate circuit analysis

If the transistor base current is assumed to be much smaller than the voltage-divider
current, as discussed above, the circuit currents and voltages can be readily
determined by the approximate circuit analysis as demonstrates below.

Analyse the voltage-divider bias circuit shown in Fig. 5 to determine the emitter
voltage, collector voltage, and collector-emitter voltage.

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Figure 5 – Voltage divider bias (approximate circuit analysis)

Precise circuit analysis

To analyse a voltage-divider bias circuit precisely, the voltage divider must be

replaced with its Thevenin equivalent circuit (V T in series with RT), as illustrated

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Figure 6 - Voltage divider bias (precise circuit analysis)

we can write the following equation for the voltage drops around the base-emitter
circuit:

Substituting IC = hFE IB,

2) Accurately analyse the voltage-divider bias circuit shown in Fig. to determine IC,
VE, VC, and VCE when the transistor hFE= 100.

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Refer Example 5-9 & 5-10 in the Electronic Devices and Circuits, David. A. Bell, 5th
edition, 2008.

Common-Emitter Circuit Analysis

Figure 7 – CE Amplifier - equivalent circuit & its waveform

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The common-emitter circuit has good voltage gain, with 180° phase shift, medium
input impedance, and relatively high output impedance. As a voltage amplifier, the
CE circuit is by far the most often used of the three basic circuit configurations.

3) The transistor in the CE circuit in Fig has the following parameters: hie = 2.1 kΩ,
hFE = 75, and hoe = 1 µS. Calculate the circuit input impedance, output impedance,
and voltage gain.

4) Refer the above figure, IC = 1.5 mA, RC = 4.7 kΩ, and RL = 56 kΩ. Estimate r’e, and
calculate the circuit voltage gain.

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2.2.1 Oscillators

An oscillator is a device that produces a periodic signal, such as a sine wave, square
wave, or triangle wave. A sinusoidal oscillator usually consists of an amplifier and a
phase-shifting network.

Figure 8 – Oscillator: Amplifier circuit with feedback

For a state of oscillation to be sustained in any sinusoidal oscillator circuit, certain

conditions, known as the Barkhausen criteria, must be fulfilled:

1. The loop gain must be equal to (or greater than) one.

2. The loop phase shift must be zero.

2.2.2 Oscillator Frequency Stabilization

The output frequency of oscillator circuits is normally not as stable as necessary for a
great many applications due to

1. Component values – Capacitor & Resistors

2. Changes in temperature
3. Component power dissipation

Oscillator frequency stability can be dramatically improved by the use of piezoelectric

crystals.

Piezoelectric Crystals:

If a mechanical stress is applied to a wafer of quartz crystal, a voltage proportional to

the pressure appears at the surfaces of the crystal (see Fig. 9a). The crystal also
vibrates, or resonates, when an alternating voltage with the natural resonance
frequency of the crystal is applied to its surfaces (Fig. 9b). All materials with this
property are termed piezoelectric. Because the crystal resonance frequency is
extremely stable, piezoelectric crystals are used to stabilize the frequency of
oscillators.

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Figure 9 – A piezoelectric crystal under stress produces a surface voltage. It also

vibrates when an ac voltage is applied to its surfaces.

Crystal Equivalent Circuits

The electrical equivalent circuit for a crystal is shown in Fig. 10a. The crystal behaves
as a series RLC circuit (RS, Ls, Cs) in parallel with the capacitance of the connecting
terminals (CP). The series RLC components are referred to as the motional resistance
(RS), the motional inductance (LS), and the motional capacitance (CS), because they
represent the piezoelectric performance of the crystal.

Figure 10 - The equivalent circuit for a piezoelectric crystal is a series RLC circuit
with a parallel capacitance.

The circuit has two resonance frequencies: (fs) and (fp). Cp, is sometimes referred to as
a parasitic capacitance. Because of the presence of Cp, the crystal has a parallel
resonance frequency (fp) when Cp resonates with the series circuit reactance, as well
as a series resonance frequency (fs) when LS and CS resonate. At series resonance the
device impedance is reduced to Rs, and at parallel resonance the impedance is very
high.

When a series RLC circuit is operating at its resonance frequency, the inductive and
capacitive reactance cancel each other, and the power supplied is dissipated in the

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resistance. If the power dissipation increases the temperature of a crystal, the

resonance frequency can drift by a small amount.

4) The Pierce oscillator in Fig. has a crystal with fs = 1 MHz and Rs = 700Ω. Calculate
the inductance offered by the crystal at the circuit oscillating frequency. Estimate the
peak power dissipated in the crystal.

2.3.1 MOSFET

A Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-effect Transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS

FET) is a field-effect transistor (FET with an insulated gate) where the voltage
determines the conductivity of the device.

It is used for switching or amplifying signals. The ability to change conductivity with
the amount of applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic
signals.

Why Choose MOSFET Over BJT?

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MOSFETs are particularly useful in amplifiers due to their input impedance being
nearly infinite which allows the amplifier to capture almost all the incoming signal.
The main advantage is that it requires almost no input current to control the load
current and that’s why we choose MOSFET over BJT.

Figure 11 – MOSFET Structure

It is a four-terminal device with Source (S), Drain (D), Gate (G), and body (B)
terminals. The body (B) is frequently connected to the source terminal, reducing the
terminals to three. It works by varying the width of a channel along which charge
carriers flow (electrons or holes).

The charge carriers enter the channel at the source and exit via the drain. The width
of the channel is controlled by the voltage on an electrode called Gate which is located
between the source and the drain. It is insulated from the channel near an extremely
thin layer of metal oxide.

A metal-insulator-semiconductor field-effect transistor or MISFET is a term almost

synonymous with MOSFET. Another synonym is IGFET for the insulated-gate field-
effect transistor.

Different Types of MOSFET

MOSFET works in two modes-

1. Depletion Mode: The transistor requires the Gate-Source voltage (VGS) to

switch the device “OFF”. The depletion-mode MOSFET is equivalent to a
“Normally Closed” switch.

2. Enhancement Mode: The transistor requires a Gate-Source voltage (VGS) to

switch the device “ON”. The enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to a
“Normally Open” switch.

Now with respect to the working principle, MOSFET is classified as follows:

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• P-Channel Depletion MOSFET

• P-Channel Enhancement MOSFET

• N-Channel Depletion MOSFET

• N-Channel Enhancement MOSFET

Figure 12 - P Channel MOSFET Depletion and Enhancement Mode

The drain and source are heavily doped p+ region and the substrate is in n-type.
The current flows due to the flow of positively charged holes, and that’s why
known as p-channel MOSFET.

When we apply negative gate voltage, the electrons present beneath the oxide layer
experience repulsive force and are pushed downward into the substrate, the
depletion region is populated by the bound positive charges which are associated
with the donor atoms.

The negative gate voltage also attracts holes from the P+ source and drain region
into the channel region.

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Figure 13 - N Channel MOSFET Depletion and Enhancement Mode

The drain and source are heavily doped N+ region and the substrate is p-type. The
current flows due to the flow of negatively charged electrons and that’s why
known as n-channel MOSFET.

When we apply the positive gate voltage, the holes present beneath the oxide layer
experience repulsive force, and the holes are pushed downwards into the bound
negative charges which are associated with the acceptor atoms.

The positive gate voltage also attracts electrons from the N+ source and drain
region into the channel thus an electron-rich channel is formed.

MOSFET Working Operation

The working principle of a MOSFET depends upon the MOS capacitor. The MOS
capacitor is the main part of MOS-FET. The semiconductor surface at the below
oxide layer is located between the source and drain terminals. It can be inverted
from p-type to n-type by applying positive or negative gate voltages.

When we apply positive gate voltage, the holes present under the oxide layer
experience a repulsive force, and holes are pushed downward with the substrate.

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The depletion region is populated by the bound negative charges that are
associated with the acceptor atoms. The electrons reach, and the channel is formed.
The positive voltage also attracts electrons from the n+ source and drain regions
into the channel.

Now, if a voltage is applied between the drain and source, the current flows freely
between the source and drain and the gate voltage controls the electrons in the
channel. If we apply negative voltage, a hole channel will be formed under the
oxide layer.

Applications

• Amplifiers

• Regulation for DC Motors

• Constructions of Chopper Amplifiers

• Switching and Amplifying Signals

2.3.2 MOSFET as a Switch

Using MOSFET as a switch involves changing its state from non-conducting to

conducting, controlled by the gate voltage relative to a threshold. In practical circuits,
the output voltage of a MOSFET switch alternates between high and zero, contingent
upon the gate voltage exceeding a certain threshold. Both n-channel and p-channel
MOSFETs can be configured to act as switches, each requiring specific voltage
conditions to operate. MOSFETs offer higher switching rates and better performance
in electronic circuits compared to bipolar junction transistors (BJTs).

Figure 14 – n – channel Enhancement & Depletion -type MOSFET as switch

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Figure 15 – p – channel Enhancement & Depletion -type MOSFET as switch

The table presented below summarizes the switching characteristics of MOSFET.

2.3.3 Comparison between MOSFET and BJT

Parameter BJT MOSFET

Full form BJT stands for Bipolar Junction MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide
Transistor. Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor.

Definition BJT is a three-terminal MOSFET is a four-terminal

semiconductor device used for semiconductor device which is
switching and amplification of used for switching applications.
signals.

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Types Based on the construction, BJTs Based on the construction and

are classified into two types: operation, the MOSFETs are
NPN and PNP. classified into four types: P-
channel enhancement MOSFET,
N-channel enhancement
MOSFET, P-channel depletion
MOSFET and N-channel
depletion MOSFET.

Terminals BJT has three terminals viz. MOSFET has four terminals, i.e.,
emitter, base and collector. source, drain, gate and body (or
substrate).

Charge In BJT, both electrons and holes In MOSFET, either electrons or

carriers act as charge carriers. holes act as charge carriers
depending on the type of
channel between source and
drain.

Polarity BJT is a bipolar device. MOSFET is a unipolar device.

Controlling BJT is a current controlled MOSFET is a voltage controlled

quantity device. device.

Input BJT has low input impedance. MOSFET has relatively high
impedance input impedance.

Temperature BJT has negative temperature MOSFET has positive

coefficient coefficient. temperature coefficient.

Switching The switching frequency BJT is For MOSFET, the switching

frequency low. frequency is relatively high.

Power BJT consumes more power than The power consumed by a

consumption MOSFET. MOSFET is less than BJT

Applications BJT is preferred for the low MOSFET is suitable for high
current applications. It is widely power applications. It is used
used as amplifiers, oscillators, in power supplies, etc.
and electronic switches.

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Questions:

1. Identify the components that constitute the dc load in a BJT bias circuit.
Explain the procedure for drawing the dc load line on the transistor CE
output characteristics.
2. Explain the selection of a Q-point for a transistor bias circuit, and discuss
the limitations on the output voltage swing.
3. Sketch a voltage-divider bias circuit using a npn transistor. Show all voltage
polarities and current directions.
4. Explain the operation of the voltage-divider bias circuit drawn for npn
transistor, and write approximate equations for VB, IE, IC, and VCE.
5. Explain the procedure for precise analysis of a voltage-divider bias circuit.
6. Sketch a voltage-divider bias circuit using a pnp transistor. Show all voltage
polarities and current directions, and discuss the circuit operation.
7. Sketch the circuit of a CE amplifier with a capacitor-coupled signal source
and capacitor-coupled load. Explain the need for coupling capacitors, and
discuss the correct polarity for connecting the capacitors.
8. Sketch the ac equivalent circuit for a CE circuit with collector-to-base bias,
a capacitor-coupled signal source, and a capacitor-coupled load.
9. Sketch a base-biased pnp transistor CE circuit. Include a capacitor-coupled
signal source and load resistor. Draw the h-parameter equivalent circuit
identifying all components. Write equations for Zi, Zo, and AV for the h-
parameter circuit.
10. State the Barkhausen criteria for a sinewave oscillator, and explain why they
must be fulfilled to sustain oscillations.
11. Describe a piezoelectric crystal as used with electronic circuits. Sketch the
crystal equivalent circuit and impedance/frequency graph. Explain the
behaviour of electronic crystals.
12. Show how piezoelectric crystals are employed for oscillator stabilization.
Explain.
13. Draw a cross-section diagram for an enhancement-mode MOSFET. Label all
parts of the device and explain its operation.
14. Sketch typical drain and transfer characteristics for an n-channel
DMOSFET. Show typical current and voltage scales and gate-source voltage
levels.
15. List comparison between BJT and MOSFET.

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Numerical

1. Plot the dc load line for the transistor circuit in Fig. on the output characteristics
shown (a) when VCC = 15 V and RC = 7.5 kΩ and (b) when VCC= 12 V and RC =
8 kΩ. Specify the Q-point in each case if IB = 20 µA.

2. The Voltage-divider bias circuit in Fig. has VCC=15 V, R1 = 68 kΩ, R2 = 3.3 kΩ,
R3 = 900Ω, R4 = 900 Ω, and hFE = 50. Analyse the circuit approximately to
determine the levels of IC and VCE.

3. Precisely analyse the circuit in Problem 2 to determine the maximum and

minimum levels of IC and VCE when hFE(max) = 60 and hFE(min) = 20.
4. A voltage-divider bias circuit has VCC = 15 V, RC = 2.7 kΩ, RE = 2.2 kΩ, R1= 22
kΩ, R2 = 12 k. Calculate VCE level.
5. The CE circuit in Fig. 6-48 has the following transistor parameters: hie = 1 kΩ,
hfe = 85, and hoe = 2 µS. Calculate Zi, ZO, and AV.
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