Ay 1: The Evolving Universe

Spring 2025
Prof. Dimitri Mawet

Lecture 1: quick early history. Relation to physics.

Types of observations. Limitations of our
observations.
 • Prof. Dimitri Mawet (Lectures plus oversight)
• Graduate Teaching Assistant: Aniket Sanghi
(recitations plus some office hours)
• Undergraduate Teaching Assistants
(grading and office hours):
The team • Cecilia Kate Abramson: cabramso@caltech.edu
• Diya Tulasi Kumar: dkumar@caltech.edu
• Luke Lamitina: llamitin@caltech.edu
• Giulia Murgia: gmurgia@caltech.edu
• Saina Nikmehr: snikmehr@caltech.edu
• Siddharth Boyeneni: sboyenen@caltech.edu
 • Lecture times: Mondays and Wednesdays
2:00pm-2:55pm
• Recitations: nominally Fridays 2:00pm-
2:55pm
• In person: Hameetman (Cahill)
• Course will be structure into ~15 thematic
Logistics lectures
• Class website is on Canvas
• Lecture slides and recitation notes will be
posted weekly
• Visit to Palomar Observatory
(look for poll in coming week or two)
 Poll for
alternate
recitation
time
 Syllabus
Week Dates Lecture Topics Readings Homework

1 03/31–04/04 Astronomy as a science, Exploration, Recitation Lectures 1–2 HW1

2 04/07–04/11 Kepler’s laws, Newton, Telescopes, Recitation Lectures 3–4 HW2
3 04/14–04/18 Detectors, EM radiation processes, Recitation Lectures 5–6 HW3

4 04/22–04/26 ISM, Star formation, Planetary systems, Exoplanets, Recitation Lectures 6–7 Midterm Exam
5 04/28–05/02 Stellar structure, Sun, HR diagram, Midterm Exam period Lecture 8 Midterm Exam due 05/02
6 05/05–05/09 Stellar evolution endpoints, Extreme objects, Recitation Lecture 9 HW4
7 05/12–05/16 Neutron stars, Pulsars, Black holes, Milky Way, Recitation Lectures 10–11 HW5
8 05/19–05/23 Galaxies, Formation & evolution, Recitation Lectures 12–13 All HWs due

9 05/26–05/30 Memorial Day, Cosmology basics, Dark matter & energy Lectures 14–15 Final paper due 05/30 (Seniors only)
10 06/02–06/06 Finals office hours Finals & Final paper due 06/06
Textbook
• There is no assigned textbook, but just about any modern introductory textbook on astronomy
may be useful.
• Our Library has many of them, including the following free electronic textbooks (see class website
on Canvas for links):
• Karttunen, H., et al., "Fundamental Astronomy", Springer (2018)
• Lang, K., "Essential Astrophysics", Springer (2018)
• Fraknoi, A., Morrison, D., & Wolff, S., "Astronomy", Open Textbook Library (2016)
• Generally, the lectures, the posted slides, and links and additional readings on Canvas can be
considered as an effective textbook for this class.
• Make extensive use of the on-line resources, and Wikipedia in particular. Suggestions for
additional links are more than welcome.
• You are welcome to experiment with ChatGPT or equivalent but be sure to always recoup any
information with reputable sources (textbooks, peer-reviewed papers, etc).
Assessment rubric
• 50% homeworks (~5 short and easy homeworks)
• 25% take-home midterm
• 25% final paper and presentation
• Possible subjects will be posted after the mid-terms
• Sets will be available on Fridays and due one week later.
• Homeworks need to be submitted to Canvas at the due date, unless specified otherwise.
• Late homework penalty (up to one week late): 50% of that homework's score.
No homeworks will be accepted beyond 1 week past the due date.
• Excuses: Missed section and late homework penalties will be waived for documented medical reasons.
Other valid excuses may be accepted at the instructor's discretion.
• Attendance and Participation
• You are expected to attend and actively participate in all lecture and recitation sessions.
• Collaboration Policy
• You are encouraged to work with each other. The Canvas forum for each week is a useful place for posing questions to the entire class. Zoom,
Skype, etc are also useful for working with each other. Let us know how we can create spaces for you all to work together remotely!
• You can discuss homework with other students, but everyone has to write up their own solutions. You may not share with each other partial or
complete solutions. You may not consult any prepared solutions for problems from Caltech or external sources. As a guideline for the
collaboration policy, you should be able to reproduce any solution you hand in without help from anyone else. No collaboration is allowed for
the midterm or final exams.
Questions?
Learning outcomes for today
• What is Astronomy?
• Brief introduction to the development of Astronomy from the pre-history to the dawn of the
scientific age
• Modern Astronomy
What is Astronomy?
 • Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial
objects—such as stars, planets, galaxies, and
phenomena occurring beyond Earth's
atmosphere—as well as their origins, evolution,
and physical properties.

Astronomy and • Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that

applies the laws and principles of physics to
astrophysics: understand the nature, behavior, and interactions
of celestial objects and phenomena, such as stars,
definition galaxies, black holes, and the universe itself.
The evolution of the Universe - Cosmology
Galaxies, Galaxy clusters and interactions
Interstellar and intergalactic medium
Stars,
stellar structure,
stellar evolution,
and compact
objects (white
dwarfs, neutron
stars, black holes)
Solar system: Sun, planets, moons, minor bodies
(asteroids, Kuiper belt objects, comets)
Exoplanets
 Let’s shrink the Earth to the size
of this full stop.
(reduce by 25 billion)
• Sun would be 5 cm across and located
The sheer scale of 6 meter away
• The nearest star would be 1600 km
the cosmos defies away (LA to Seattle)
• The Milky Way would be 50 million km
human across
• The Observable universe would be 30
comprehension billion km across

How many stars are in the

observable Universe?
 Let’s shrink the Earth to the size
of this full stop.
(reduce by 25 billion)
• Sun would be 5 cm across and located
The sheer scale of 6 meter away
• The nearest star would be 1600 km
the cosmos defies away (LA to Seattle)
• The Milky Way would be 50 million km
human across
• The Observable universe would be 30
comprehension billion km across

How many stars are in the

observable Universe? ~1024
(1 septillion) stars
Scale of the Universe
Astronomy has continuously redefined our place in the Universe

Geocentrism - Ptolemy (200 AD) Heliocentrism - Copernicus (1514 AD)

Current view – Cosmological principle
In modern physical cosmology, the cosmological principle is the notion that the spatial distribution
of matter in the universe is homogeneous and isotropic when viewed on a large enough scale.
There is no preferred center.
Quizz time: homogeneous and/or isotropic?
Quizz time: homogeneous and/or isotropic?
History of Astronomy
Neolithic (4000
BCE to 1000 BCE)
• Limited knowledge of Neolithic
astronomy
• Megalithic structures show evidence
of astronomical awareness:
• Stonehenge (England) and Newgrange (Ireland)
• Built between 4000–2500 BCE

• Structures aligned with sun and stars

• Likely used for:
• Navigation
• Agricultural timing (seasons)
• Ritual and religious calendars
Babylonian Astronomy
(records to 1800 BCE)

• The Babylonians were among the first to

make detailed observations of the
heavens.
• They developed a sophisticated system of
astronomy based on observations of the
stars and planets, and created the first
accurate calendar system.
• They also developed a method for
predicting eclipses, which they believed
were omens of important events.
Greek astronomy
(800 BCE to 100 BCE)
• Early Greek astronomy (8th century BCE): linked
celestial phenomena to gods and mythology.
• Thales of Miletus (585 BCE): initiated non-theistic
explanations of natural phenomena.
• Pythagoras (~6th century BCE): introduced
mathematical models for planetary movements.
• Aristotle (~350 BCE): proposed a geocentric universe
with Earth at the center.
• Ptolemy (~150 CE): refined Aristotle’s model,
explaining planetary motions using epicycles and
deferents.
• Legacy: Greek astronomical ideas greatly influenced
medieval Islamic and later Western astronomy.
The Antikythera mechanism is an Ancient Greek hand-powered orrery, described as the
oldest known example of an analogue computer used to predict astronomical positions and
eclipses decades in advance.
Hipparchus
(190 – 120 BCE)
• Star Catalog: Compiled one of the earliest detailed star
catalogs, noting star positions and brightness.
• Precession of the Equinoxes: Discovered Earth’s slow
axis shift, changing star positions over time.
• Trigonometry: Developed foundational trigonometric
methods and tables to calculate celestial motions.
• Improved Geocentric Model: Enhanced accuracy of the
Earth-centered model, especially lunar movements and
seasonal lengths.
• Eclipse Predictions: Refined methods to more accurately
predict lunar and solar eclipses.
Quizz time: what is the Earth circumference and radius?

Distance between Alexandria and Syene

~800 km
Eratosthenes
(276-197 BCE)
Aristarchus of Samos
(310 – 230 BCE)

• Heliocentric Model: Proposed the Sun-

centered solar system, correctly
ordering planets.
• Rejected Theory: Idea was
overshadowed by Aristotle and
Ptolemy’s geocentric models due to lack
of observed stellar parallax.
• Stars as Suns: Suggested stars were
distant suns, implying vast distances in
space.
Ptolemaic model (~100 AD)
• Each planet had its own orbit around the Earth with
its own epicycle
• By changing the period of the orbit and the
epicycle, the model could match observations
relatively well
• The Sun and the Moon traveled around the Earth in
perfect circles
• Model was composed of more than 80 circles, very
complicated!
• Survived for 1500 years!
Nearly all • Chinese Astronomy: Chinese astronomy has a long history dating back to at least
the 2nd millennium BCE. Important developments were made during the Han
dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) and Tang dynasty (618-907 CE).
civilizations had • Mayan Astronomy: The Mayans developed their astronomical knowledge over
developed a several centuries, with the height of their civilization occurring between the 3rd and
10th centuries CE.

relationship with • Indian Astronomy: Indian astronomy has a long and complex history dating back to
at least the 2nd millennium BCE. Important developments were made during the
the cosmos, Vedic period (c. 1500-500 BCE) and the Gupta Empire (c. 320-550 CE).
• Some Native American cultures, such as the Ancestral Puebloans of the American
often for Southwest, developed sophisticated astronomical observatories and used
astronomical alignments to mark important dates and events. The Ancestral
practical Puebloans built structures such as the Sun Dagger site, which consists of a set of
slabs that cast a series of light daggers onto a spiral petroglyph at certain times of
purposes (and the year. The Navajo of the American Southwest, had a deep spiritual connection to
the stars and other celestial bodies. Navajo traditions include the practice of gazing
at the stars to receive guidance and wisdom, and many Navajo ceremonies and
religion) rituals are closely linked to astronomical events.
Fast forward to the
dark ages in Europe
(500-1400 AD)
• Europe going through the Dark
Ages (wars, famines, plagues,
inquisitions)

• At the same time, Islamic nations

were undergoing enlightenment
and a golden age of astronomy

• Eastern observers, notably the

Chinese, monitored the
appearance of "guest stars" --
comets, novae and other
transients.
Nicholas Copernicus
(1473 - 1543):
De Revolutionibus Orbium
Coelestium (1543)

• Heliocentric model
• Still assumes circular orbits
• Still required epicycles
• Was hesitant to publish his work
due to possible backlash
• Published the year of his death
Tycho Brahe
(1546-1601)
• Astronomer, astrologer, alchemist
• Lost part of his nose in a duel with his cousin
• Last major naked-eye astronomer
• Accurate extensive astronomical observations
• Detected a ‘nova stella’ – contradicted Aristotle
 True or False
Did Tycho Brahe have a pet moose named Mons?
Johannes Kepler
(1571 - 1630)
• A student of Tycho Brahe’s
• Used ellipses instead of circles to describe
planetary orbits
• Believed in the harmony of spheres and
thought that “planet emitted a celestial
song as it moved through space, with the
speed of its motion creating different
pitches.”
• Developed a mathematical formalism for
the motion of the planets
• Kepler’s laws
• Also observed a naked eye supernova!
Galileo Galilei
(1564 – 1642)
• The first modern scientist
• Did not invent the telescope
• He did greatly improve it!
• Made some breakthroughs in
mechanics/physics – later refined
by Newton
• Dropped objects from the leaning
tower of Pisa
Galileo’s
troubles
with the
church
Challenged the current
paradigm with a new world
view
Isaac Newton
(1642 - 1727)
• The greatest classical physicist
• Developed calculus, laws of motion etc.
• Ushered in the scientific era
• Also invented the reflector telescope
• Experimented with prisms
Quizz: What is the lesson often
associated with the story of Isaac
Newton and the falling apple?

a) Always eat your fruits and vegetables

b) Curiosity leads to discovery
c) Apples are good for your health
d) Gravity is just a theory
Modern Astronomy
Modern Astronomy/Astrophysics is a rigorous hard science

Observations Data Analysis Interpretation with Maths

as a tool and physics as an
interpretative framework

= Scientific method!
 The Nature of Astronomical Inquiry

• Unique scientific characteristics:

• Combines elements of history, geology, and paleontology (evolution and extinction of celestial objects)
• Primarily based on observations rather than controlled experiments
• Often studies unique, non-repeatable phenomena (e.g., Supernovae, Gamma-Ray Bursts, gravitational
microlensing events)
• Yet, many phenomena form repeatable classes

• Limitations and approaches:

• Observations represent narrow time-slices from the past (limited by speed of light)
• Uses symmetry principles (e.g., cosmological principles) to infer unobtainable information
• Astronomical timescales are much shorter than the universe's lifetime → introduces observational
biases

• "Fossil" evidence from observing the past:

• Infers cosmic evolution from indirect evidence (e.g., galaxy formation, Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation)
 Astronomy as a Branch of Physics

• Applies physics principles universally to interpret

astronomical data.
• Treats astronomical phenomena as "cosmic laboratories":
• Relativistic physics: Black holes and gravitational phenomena.
• Cosmic accelerators: Early universe conditions and particle physics.
• Extreme matter states: Neutron stars, quark stars, Gamma-Ray Bursts, plasma
physics.
• Gateway to new physics discoveries (e.g., dark matter, dark
energy).
• Progress driven by advancements in technology (telescopes,
detectors, computing).
 Astronomy probes physical
conditions and environments
that are impossible to reproduce
in labs on Earth

Question
Write down a few examples
 • Astronomy probes physical
conditions and environments that
are impossible to reproduce in labs
Astronomy/Astrophysics
on Earth:
is a core component of • Deep vacuums
modern physics • Extreme temperatures and energies
• Large-scale phenomenon and forces
(e.g. gravity)
• Relativistic effects
• Time machine
 Fundamental Limits to Measurements and
Selection Effects
• Quantum detection limits (e.g., photon-counting noise)
• Diffraction limits due to the wave nature of light (angular resolution)
• Opacity of Earth’s atmosphere and Galactic ISM (e.g., soft X-ray
absorption)
• Dust obscuration in galaxies
• Atmospheric and interstellar turbulence, degrading spatial information
• Foreground/background confusion (e.g., Cosmic Microwave
Background)
• Non-physical constraints: politics, funding, and social factors
The largest and most
advanced scientific
experiments are
astronomical facilities

• LIGO
• FAST radio telescope
• European ELT
• VLA
• DSA-2000
• HST
• JWST
Astronomy is
a rapidly
evolving field
 • Discovery of gravitational waves
Nobel Prizes • Discovery of the first exoplanets
• Galactic center black holes
 Astronomy drives technology,
inspires education, and
Benefits of expands human perspective.
Astronomy
to Society Its applications reach far
beyond space science into daily
life, industry, and philosophy.
 CCD sensors: From telescopes to
smartphone and medical cameras.

Wi-Fi: Algorithms inspired by radio

astronomy.
Technological
Advancements Adaptive optics: Used in laser eye
surgery and retinal imaging.

Big data techniques: Applied in AI,

finance, and healthcare.
 Major infrastructure projects (e.g., JWST,
SKA) drive innovation.

Economic Creates high-tech jobs across

engineering, software, and data science.
Impact
Astro-tourism boosts local economies
near observatories.
 Astronomy engages students and
the public in STEM fields.
Education
Planetariums and science centers
and educate millions worldwide.
Inspiration
Citizen science projects enable
public participation in real research.
 Studying other planets informs
understanding of Earth’s climate.

Environmental Space-based tech monitors weather,

Awareness agriculture, and natural disasters.

Astronomy fosters a global, long-

term view of planetary stewardship.
 Provides a cosmic perspective on
humanity's place in the universe.

Cultural and Shaped timekeeping and

Philosophical calendars across civilizations.
Value
Encourages global collaboration
and peaceful cooperation.