GPS POSITIONING

Introduction to GPS

What is GPS?
„ NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global
Positioning System (NAVSTAR GPS, or commonly
known as GPS)
„ A satellite-based positioning system – using
satellites as ‘reference object’
„ A military-based system
„ Dual-mode service
„ Military and civilian/public services
„ PPS and SPS
Introduction to GPS

GPS applications:
„ Time determination & time transfer
„ Position determination
„ Speed/velocity/direction/orientation
„ Military
„ Nuclear explosion detection, etc.
„ Scientific
„ Atmospheric sounding, etc.
Introduction to GPS

Special characteristics of GPS:

„ Absolute positioning accuracy from meter to
decameter level and millimeter with relative
positioning
„ Speed, attitude and time determination
„ Application on land, sea, air and space
„ 24 hour operation in all weather conditions
„ 3-dimension position determination
Precise Positioning Service (PPS)

„ Authorized users with cryptographic equipment

and keys and specially equipped receivers.
PPS Predictable Accuracy
„ 22 meter Horizontal accuracy
„ 27.7 meter vertical accuracy
„ 200 nanosecond time (UTC) accuracy
 Standard Positioning Service (SPS)

„ For civil users worldwide with receivers capable of

receiving and using the SPS signal. SPS
Predictable Accuracy (before May 2001):
„ 100 meter horizontal accuracy
„ 156 meter vertical accuracy
„ 340 nanoseconds time accuracy
„ SPS Predictable Accuracy at 95% level (after May
2001)
„ 30 meter horizontal accuracy
„ 56 meter vertical accuracy
„ 240 nanoseconds time accuracy
 GPS Reference System

„ World Geodetic System 84 (WGS84) defined and

control by the US Defense Mapping Agency as a
global geodetic datum. Ref datum for all positioning
via GPS, i.e. ref system for GPS broadcast
ephemeris.
„ (Before 1987, WGS72 was used)
„ Is an Earth-fixed Earth centered (ECEF) coordinate
system.
„ Origin at center of mass of the Earth – origin point
of satellite orbit.
„ Z-axis parallel with Conventional terrestrial Pole
(CTP) as defined by BIH and IERS.
„ X-axis is the intersection of Meridian Ref Plane of
WGS84 with Equatorial Plane of CTP (ref
meridian of BIH/IERS).
„ Y-axis completing a Right Hand System, 90o
East of the X-axis along the CTP Equator.
WGS84 ECEF
 Parameter WGS84

„ Semi-major axis, a = 6378137m

„ Ellipsoid flattening, f=1/298.257223563

„ Angular velocity of the earth,

w=7292115x10-11 rad/sec
„ Gravitational constant, GM=3980005x10-8 m3/sec2
GPS Time System

„ GPS Time is kept via a standard (atomic clock) at

the Main Control Station (MCS) Colorado
Springs.
„ Time scale known as GPST (GPS Time)
„ GPST epoch set at UTC 0 hour 6 January 1980
„ No leap second added to GPST as in UTC
„ GPST time scale is linear
„ GPST + 19 second = TAI.
Applications of GPS
 GPS Applications

GPS applications can be classified as follows:

„ Surveying and Mapping, on land, at sea and from
the air. The applications are of relatively high
accuracy, for positioning in both the stationary and
moving mode. Includes geophysical and resource
surveys, GIS data capture surveys, etc.
„ Land, Sea and Air Navigation, including enroute as
well as precision navigation, cargo monitoring,
vehicle tracking, etc.
„ Search and Rescue Operations, including collision
avoidance and rendezvous functions.
„ Spacecraft Operations.
„ Military Applications.
„ Recreational Uses, on land, at sea and in the air.
„ Other specialized uses, such as time transfer,
attitude determination, automatic operation, etc.
 Land Applications

„ Surveying and mapping, including cadastral and urban

networks, data capture surveys for Geographic
Information Systems (GIS), engineering surveys,
photogrammetrical control (airborne and terrestrial),
and geophysical resource surveys.
„ Geodetic applications, including the establishment of
control networks over regional and continental extent,
height and geoid determination, precise engineering
and subsidence monitoring surveys.
„ Geodynamic applications, for measuring the relative
position of a regional network at regular intervals in
order to infer horizontal and vertical crustal motion.
„ Land navigation, to support emergency vehicles
(police, search & rescue, etc.) and for the monitoring
of cars, taxis, dangerous and valuable cargoes,
trucks and railways.
„ Transportation and communication, to support aids
for navigation for land, sea and air users, land
operations taking advantage of permanent GPS
stations, time transfer operations, etc.
„ Recreational uses, for hiking, orienteering, etc.
 Air Applications
„ Airport approach and landing – as an aid for all
categories of landing including instrumental landings
„ Domestic and intercontinental enroute navigation –
including helicopter operations
„ Air traffic control operations – dynamic routing, new
airport approaches
„ Search and rescue operations
„ Aerial photogrammetry – including laser profiling and
radar imaging
„ Airborne geophysical surveys – positioning and attitude
determination for gravimetry, magnetometers and RS
operations
„ Recreational applications – gliders, ballooning, etc.
Marine Applications

„ Open ocean and costal navigation – with or without

electronic charts
„ Harbour and inland waterway navigation – including
when visibility is low
„ Search and rescue operations
„ Ship monitoring system – for collision avoidance,
remote piloting, tracking of fishing fleets
„ Offshore geophysical survey – seismic and gravity
surveys
„ Engineering applications – drill rig, offshore structure
positioning
„ Hydrographic survey
„ Recreational applications – including fishing, etc.
Space Applications

„ Spacecraft launch and landing

„ Navigation, in-flight, re-entry and rendezvous –

for earth orbiting missions
„ Orbit determinations

„ Atmospheric sounding
 Military Applications

„ Enroute and low-level navigation – for tactical and

strategic operations
„ Target acquisition – forward observations, covert
operations
„ Photo reconnaissance and intelligent gathering
„ Remotely operated vehicles – for reconnaissance
„ Weapon guidance and control – smart bomb, missiles,
etc
„ Command and control - C3 applications, tracking battle
elements
„ Updating inertial navigation system
„ Fleet, air and land operations – the electronic battlefield.
GPS SURVEYING

Adopting the broadest definition of "GPS surveying", the

following classes of surveys can be identified:
„ Land Survey: applications which for the most part
are associated with surveying and mapping
operations.
„ Marine Survey: applications related to
hydrographic, oceanographic and exploration
geophysics survey operations.
„ Airborne Survey: applications associated with
aerial mapping, scientific and exploration
geophysics surveys.
Advantages of GPS over
Conventional Surveying Methods
There are several advantages of the GPS satellite surveying
technique:
„ Intervisibility between stations is not necessary
„ Because GPS uses radio frequencies to transmit the signals,
the system is independent of weather conditions
„ If the same field and data reduction procedures are used,
position accuracy is largely a function of interstation distance,
and not of network "shape" or "geometry".
„ Because of the generally homogeneous accuracy of GPS
surveying, geodetic network planning in the classical sense is
no longer relevant. The points are placed where they are
required (for example, in a valley), and need not be located at
evenly distributed sites atop mountains to satisfy intervisibility,
or network geometry, criteria.
„ Because of the two advantages of not requiring
intervisibility of stations, or following a conventional
network design strategy, GPS surveying is more efficient,
more flexible and less time consuming a positioning
technique than using terrestrial survey technologies.
„ GPS can be used around-the-clock.
„ GPS provides three-dimensional information.
„ High accuracies can be achieved with relatively little effort,
unlike conventional terrestrial techniques. The GPS
instrumentation, and to some extent the data processing
software, is similar whether accuracies at the 1 part in 104
or 1 part in 106 level are sought.
Disadvantages of GPS Surveying
„ Travel times between stations are cut in order to
match the savings in on-site time.
„ Logistical problems of transporting and supporting
several field parties are still formidable
„ Requires no obstruction to the signals. It cannot, of
course, be used underground, and may have limited
application in densely settled urban areas.
„ Two intervisible stations would have to established by
GPS in order to satisfy the requirement for azimuth
data for use by conventional (line-of-sight) survey
methods.
„ Results may need to be transformed into a local
geodetic system before they can be integrated with
results from conventional surveys.
„ GPS results are, in general, more accurate than the
surrounding control marks established by terrestrial
techniques over time. Comparison of GPS and
terrestrial results will be the source of confusion,
controversy and conflict for many years to come.
„ The GPS heights have to be reduced to a sea level
datum (more precisely, the geoid).
„ The GPS instrumentation is still comparatively
expensive.
„ GPS requires new skills to be learned, and new
procedures and strategies for planning, field
operation and data analysis to be developed.
 GPS Surveying vs GPS Navigation

Rough criteria can be use that:

„ accuracy. "high accuracy" for surveying, “low
accuracy” for navigation.
„ observation procedures. “unique/special procedures”
for surveying, “standard procedures” for navigation
„ GPS signals. “carrier phase” for surveying, “code” for
navigation.
„ Results processing. “not required urgently“ in
surveying, “real-time” in navigation.
„ Surveying - Has as its reason d'entre, the production
of a map.
„ Navigation – in situ position information reg, e.g..
marine and airborne operations.
„ (There is however a strong trend towards
"kinematic" GPS surveying in modern surveying
methods)
„ Points are generally stationary in surveying, dynamic
for navigation.
„ GPS data are collected over some "observation
session“ in surveying, point positioning for navigation.
 SURVEYING NAVIGATION
Accuracy High low
Point Stationary dynamic
observation unique/special standard procedures
procedures procedures
GPS signals Carrier phase code
Results not required urgently Real time
processing.
Has as its reason d'entre, In situ position
the production of a map. information reg, eg.
marine and airborne
operations.
GPS data Some observation Point positioning
collection session
How Good is GPS?
GPS Performance Measures

Aspects of GPS performance:

„ Accuracy, a certain level of performance when the
appropriate hardware, software and operational
procedures are followed.
„ Availability to users, across the globe and through
the day as it is needed.
„ Reliability of the system and results (a certain
"repeatability" of the positioning performance).
„ Integrity: a management issue concerned with
maintaining a specified level of performance.
„ Cost, of hardware and software as well as indirect
operational costs.
„ Competitive technologies: do they exist? what do
they offer in terms of superior performance?
FACTORS INFLUENCING GPS
ACCURACY
The main factors influencing GPS positioning accuracy
are:
„ Measurement errors and biases.
„ Absolute or differential positioning mode.
„ Satellite-receiver geometry.
„ Processing algorithms, operational mode and other
enhancements.
 Measurement errors and biases
„ GPS measurements are affected by biases and errors.
„ Biases may be defined as:
„ systematic errors that cause the true measurements to
be different from observed measurements by a "constant,
predictable or systematic amount“
„ for example, all distances being measured too short, or
too long.
„ Biases must somehow be accounted for in the measurement
model used for data processing if high accuracy is sought.
„ There are several sources of biases with varying
characteristics, such as magnitude, periodicity, satellite or
receiver dependency, etc.
Positioning Mode & Signal

„ Positioning mode
„Absolute & relative
„ Measurement signal
„ code & carrier phase
„ Measurement mode
„ static & kinematic
Satellite-receiver geometry

„ Satellite-receiver
geometry’s effect on
positioning accuracy:
„ Good geometry –
well-spread satellite
coverage
„ Bad geometry –
one-sided, closely
spaced satellite
coverage
 Processing algorithms, operational
mode and other enhancements
GPS accuracy is also dependent on a host of other
operational, algorithmic and other factors:
„ Whether the results are required in real-time, or if post-
processing of the data is possible.
„ The level of measurement noise has a considerable
influence on the precision attainable with GPS. Carrier
phase measurements are the basis for high accuracy
techniques, while pseudo-range measurements are
used for low accuracy applications.
„ The degree of redundancy in the measurements. For
example, the number of tracked satellites, the number
of observations (dual-frequency carrier phase, dual-
frequency pseudo-range data).
„ The algorithm type may also impact on GPS accuracy.
For example, "exotic" data combinations are possible
(carrier phase plus pseudo-range), Kalman filter solution
algorithms, more sophisticated phase processing
algorithms.
„ Techniques of data enhancements and aiding may be
employed. For example, the use of carrier phase
smoothed pseudo-range data, external data such as
from Inertial Navigation Systems (and other such
devices), additional constraints, etc.
Errors & Quality Measures

All measurements are subject to errors.

Traditionally errors have been classified into
three categories:
„ Random Errors
„ Systematic Errors
„ Gross Errors
Random Errors
„ Random measurement errors are, as their name
implies, essentially unpredictable (in magnitude and
sign) and are basically due to:
a) the "resolution" of the measurement scale (or its "least
count"),
b) random internal instrumental effects, and
c) some external but very local effects such as micro-
meteorological conditions, electrical connectors and
antenna quality, local signal interference, etc.
„ All of these, in essence, define the level of "instrumental
noise". In classical statistics the behaviour of random
errors can be studied using probability theory, and for
most cases in navigation and surveying such errors are
assumed to be "white", or have a Gaussian distribution
Systematic Errors

Systematic errors occur according to some pattern, for

example:
„ They may be of constant magnitude and sign.
„ They may be induced by the instrument, the
observer, the physical or environmental conditions.
„ They may be present in the observation model due to
entry of an incorrect parameter or constant.
„ They may be the result of incorrect application of
calibration data.
Gross Errors
„ Gross errors are the result of blunders or mistakes. If these
errors have large magnitudes they are usually easy to identify,
and hence can be easily removed. (Another name for gross
errors is outliers, and outlier detection is an important step in
any navigation or survey data processing procedure.) However,
not all gross errors may be large enough to be noticed and
hence they can still contaminate the final results.
„ (Unmodelled or residual biases referred to earlier as belonging
to the category of "errors" could be considered as being a type
of gross error. Although an unambiguous definition is not
possible, in these notes the following convention will be
adopted: unmodelled or residual biases which are smaller than
the magnitude of the measurement noise are "errors", while
those which are larger than the magnitude of the measurement
noise will be considered as being "gross errors".)
„ If systematic and gross errors have been removed, then the
accuracy will only be a function of the magnitude of random
errors.
POINT POSITIONING
ACCURACY PERFORMANCE
Measures of GPS Point Positioning
Accuracy
„ The uncertainty in position can be expressed as the
probability that the error will not exceed a certain
amount.
„ For example, in the case of a linear (one-
dimensional) accuracy measure:
„ one standard deviation (one sigma) ~ 68.27%
confidence interval
„ 2 sigma ~ 95.45%
„ 3 sigma ~ 99.73%
„ In general, the 95% confidence level is taken as the
measure of adequate accuracy, and this corresponds
to 1.96 standard deviations
„ Traditionally navigation users have expressed
horizontal position uncertainties in the form of circles
and 3-D position uncertainties as spheres.
„ The radial or distance "root mean square" error,
which can be determined for the 2-D case from the
horizontal component standard deviations (the 3-D
case would involve three standard deviation quantities)
σE and σN:

„ The probabilities described by:

„ 1.DRMS ~ 68.27%
„ 2.DRMS ~ 95.44%
Precise Positioning Service (PPS)

„ Authorized users with cryptographic equipment

and keys and specially equipped receivers.
PPS Predictable Accuracy
„ 22 meter Horizontal accuracy
„ 27.7 meter vertical accuracy
„ 200 nanosecond time (UTC) accuracy
 Standard Positioning Service (SPS)

„ For civil users worldwide with receivers capable of

receiving and using the SPS signal. SPS
Predictable Accuracy (before May 2001):
„ 100 meter horizontal accuracy
„ 156 meter vertical accuracy
„ 340 nanoseconds time accuracy
„ SPS Predictable Accuracy at 95% level (after May
2001)
„ 30 meter horizontal accuracy
„ 56 meter vertical accuracy
„ 240 nanoseconds time accuracy