Cambridge (CIE) A Level Your notes

Biology
Variation
Contents
Variation: Phenotype
Variation: Discontinuous & Continuous
Variation: t-test Method
Variation: t-test Worked Example

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 1
 Variation: Phenotype
Your notes
Variation: Phenotype
The observable characteristics of an organism are its phenotype
Phenotypic variation is the difference in phenotypes between organisms of the same
species
In some cases, phenotypic variation is explained by genetic factors
For example, the four different blood groups observed in human populations are
due to different individuals within the population having two of three possible
alleles for the single ABO gene
In other cases, phenotypic variation is explained by environmental factors
For example, clones of plants with the same genetic information (DNA) will grow to
different heights when grown in different environmental conditions
Phenotypic variation can also be explained by a combination of genetic and
environmental factors
For example, the recessive allele that causes sickle cell anaemia has a high
frequency in populations where malaria is prevalent due to heterozygous individuals
being resistant to malaria
The complete phenotype of an organism is determined by the expression of its
genotype and the interaction of the environment on this:
Phenotype = Genotype + Environment

Genetic variation
Organisms of the same species will have very similar genotypes, but two individuals
(even twins) will have differences between their DNA base sequences
Considering the size of genomes, these differences are small between individuals
of the same species
The small differences in DNA base sequences between individual organisms within a
species population are called genetic variation
Genetic variation is transferred from one generation to the next and it generates
phenotypic variation within a species population
The following processes cause genetic variation as they result in a new combination
of alleles in a gamete or individual:
Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes during metaphase I
Crossing over of non-sister chromatids during prophase I
Random fusion of gametes during fertilisation
Mutation results in the generation of new alleles

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 2
 The new allele may be advantageous, disadvantageous or have no apparent
effect on phenotype (because the genetic code is degenerate
Your notes
New alleles are not always seen in the individual that they first occur in
They can remain hidden (not expressed) within a population for several
generations before they contribute to phenotypic variation
Genes can have varying effects on an organism's phenotype
The phenotype may be affected by a single gene or by several
The impact that the gene has on the phenotype may be large, small and/or
additive
Sources of genetic variation table
Process Mechanism Consequences

Independent Random alignment of chromosomes Genetic variation

assortment of results in different combinations of between gametes
homologous chromosomes and different allele
chromosomes during combinations in each gamete
metaphase I

Crossing over of non- The exchange of genetic material Genetic variation

sister chromatids between non-sister chromatids leads between gametes
during prophase I to new combinations of alleles on
chromosomes. It can also break the
linkage between genes

Random fusion of Any male gamete can fuse with any Genetic variation
gametes during female gamete between zygotes (and
fertilisation resulting individuals)
(Random mating in a species
population)

Mutation Random change in the DNA base Genetic variation

sequence results in the generation of between individuals
a new allele. Mutation must exist within a species
within gametes for it to be passed on population
to future generations

Environmental Factors
The environment that an organism lives in can also have an impact on its phenotype
Different environments around the globe experience very different conditions in terms
of the following:
Length of sunlight hours (which may be seasonal)
Supply of nutrients (food)

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 3
 Availability of water
Temperature range Your notes
Oxygen levels
Changes in the factors above can affect how organisms grow and develop
For example, plants with a tall genotype growing in an environment that is depleted
in minerals, sunlight and water will not be able to grow to their full potential size
determined by genetics
Variation in phenotype caused solely by environmental pressures or factors cannot be
inherited by an organism's offspring
Only alterations to the genetic component of gametes will ever be inherited

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Some questions in the exam may ask you to explain why the variation in phenotype
due to genetics is inherited but the variation in phenotype due to environmental
factors is not. This is because genetic variation directly affects the DNA of the
gametes but variation in phenotype caused by the environment does not.

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 4
 Variation: Discontinuous & Continuous
Your notes
Variation: Discontinuous & Continuous
The term variation refers to the differences that exist between at least two things (be it a
level, presence, quantity or feature of something)
Concerning natural selection, variation refers to the differences that exist between
individuals of a species
This may also be referred to as intraspecific variation
The variation observed in the phenotypes of organisms can be due to qualitative or
quantitative differences

Discontinuous variation
Qualitative differences in the phenotypes of individuals within a population give rise to
discontinuous variation
Qualitative differences fall into discrete and distinguishable categories, usually with no
intermediates (a feature can’t fall in between categories)
For example, there are four possible ABO blood groups in humans; a person can
only have one of them
It is easy to identify discontinuous variation when it is present in a table or graph due to
the distinct categories that exist when data is plotted for particular characteristics

Discontinuous Variation Example

The population variation in blood types: an example of discontinuous variation with

qualitative differences

Continuous variation

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 5
 Continuous variation occurs when there are quantitative differences in the phenotypes
of individuals within a population for particular characteristics
Your notes
Quantitative differences do not fall into discrete categories like in discontinuous
variation
Instead, for these features, a range of values exists between two extremes within which
the phenotype will fall
For example, the mass or height of a human is an example of continuous variation
The lack of categories and the presence of a range of values can be used to identify
continuous variation when it is presented in a table or graph

Continuous Variation Example

Population variation in height: an example of continuous variation with quantitative

differences

The Genetic Basis of Variation

Discontinuous variation refers to the differences between individuals of a species
where the differences are qualitative (categoric)
Continuous variation is the differences between individuals of a species where the
differences are quantitative (measurable)
Each type of variation can be explained by genetic and/or environmental factors

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 6
Genetic basis of discontinuous variation
This type of variation occurs solely due to genetic factors Your notes
The environment has no direct effect
At the genetic level:
Different genes have different effects on the phenotype
Different alleles at a single gene locus have a large effect on the phenotype
Remember diploid organisms will inherit two alleles of each gene; these alleles can
be the same or different
A good example of this is the F8 gene that codes for the blood-clotting protein Factor
VIII
The different alleles at the F8 gene locus dictate whether or not normal Factor VIII is
produced and whether the individual has the condition haemophilia

Genetic basis of continuous variation

This type of variation is caused by an interaction between genetics and the
environment
Phenotype = genotype + environment
At the genetic level:
Different alleles at a single locus have a small effect on the phenotype
Different genes can have the same effect on the phenotype and these add
together to have an additive effect
If a large number of genes have a combined effect on the phenotype they are
known as polygenes

The additive effect of genes

The height of a plant is controlled by two unlinked genes H / h and T / t
The two genes have an additive effect
The recessive alleles h and t contribute x cm to the plant's height
The dominant alleles H and T contribute 2x cm to the plant's height
The following genotypes will have the following phenotypes:
h h t t : x + x + x + x = 4x cm
H H T T : 2x + 2x + 2x + 2x = 8x cm
H h T t : 2x + x + 2x + x = 6x cm
H H T t : 2x + 2x + 2x + x = 7x cm
H h T T : 2x + x + 2x + 2x = 7x cm

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 7
 h h T t : x + x + 2x + x = 5x cm
H h t t : 2x + x + x + x = 5x cm Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Be careful when answering questions that involve polygenes or genes with an additive
effect. It is not a given that each gene will have the same effect on the phenotype as in
the example above so make sure to double check the information you have been
given in the question.

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 8
 Variation: t-test Method
Your notes
Variation: t-test Method
A statistical test called the t-test can be used to compare the means of two sets of
data and determine whether they are significantly different or not
The formula for the t-test will be provided in the exam, but formulae for how to
calculate the number of degrees of freedom is not provided in the exam and must
be learnt
The sets of data must follow a roughly normal distribution, and be continuous and the
standard deviations should be approximately equal
The standard deviation (s) must be calculated for each data set before the t-test can be
carried out
A null hypothesis should also be given
This is a statement of what we would expect if there is no significant difference
between two means, and that any differences seen are due to chance
If there is a statistically significant difference between the means of two sets of data,
then the observation is not down to chance and the null hypothesis can be rejected

Calculating the standard deviation

Using the t-test to compare two means

The steps below outline the general steps in a t-test; for a worked example, see the next
page
Null hypothesis: there is no statistically significant difference between the means of
sample 1 and sample 2
Step 1: Calculate the mean for each data set:
x̄ 1 is the mean for sample 1, and x̄ 2 is the mean for sample 2

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 9
 Step 2: Calculate the standard deviation for each set of data, s1 = standard deviation of
sample 1 and s2 = standard deviation of sample 2
Your notes

Sn =
∑ ( x − x⎯⎯ 2
)

n −1
Step 3: Square the standard deviation and divide by n (the number of observations) in
each sample, for both samples:

s 21 s 22
and
n1 n2
Step 4: Add the values from step 3 together and take the square root:

s 21 s 22
+
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜

⎝
n1 n2 ⎟

Step 5: Divide the difference between the two means (see step 1) with the value
calculated in step 4 to get the t value:

Step 6: Calculate the degrees of freedom (v) for the whole data set (remember the
formulae for this will not be given in the exam):

v = n1 − 1 + n2 − 1
( ) ( )

Step 7: Look at a table that relates t values to the probability that the differences
between data sets is due to chance to find where the t value for the degrees of freedom
(v) calculated lies

T values table

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 10
Degrees of freedom Value of t
Your notes
1 6.31 12.7 63.7 63.6

2 2.92 4.30 9.93 31.6

3 2.35 3.18 5.84 12.9

4 2.13 2.78 4.60 8.61

5 2.02 2.57 4.03 6.87

6 1.94 2.45 3.71 5.96

7 1.90 2.37 3.50 5.41

8 1.86 2.31 3.36 5.04

9 1.83 2.26 3.25 4.78

10 1.81 2.23 3.17 4.59

Probability that chance could have produced this value of t 0.10 0.05 0.01 0.001

Confidence level 10% 5% 1% 0.1%

Step 8: The greater the t value calculated (for any degree of freedom), the lower the
probability of chance causing any significant difference between the two sample means
Identify where the t value calculated lies with respect to the confidence levels
provided
If the t value is greater than the critical value (obtained from the table at a
probability level of 0.05) then any difference between the means of the two data
sets is said to be statistically significant
There is a less than 5 % probability that any difference is due to chance
The null hypothesis can be rejected
If the t value is less than the critical value (obtained from the table at a probability
level of 0.05) then there is no significant difference between the means of the two
data sets
The probability that any difference is due to chance is higher than 5 %
The null hypothesis is accepted

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 11
Using the table above, if a value of t was calculated to be 2.38 at 5 degrees of freedom,
then it lies between the critical values of 2.02 and 2.57
Your notes
Therefore, the probability that chance produced any difference between the two means
is between 5 and 10 %; this is a higher than 5 % probability that the difference is due to
chance
The null hypothesis would be accepted and it would be said that there is no significant
difference between the data sets

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If you need to calculate the t value you will be given the formula in the exam. Generally,
questions on the t-test require you to:
Know why a t-test is being used to analyse the data
State the null hypothesis
Know how the degrees of freedom are calculated
State the conclusion (are the differences between the two means significant or
not?)
You must be careful when giving conclusions to statistical tests; be sure to state that
the difference between data sets is significant, not just that the data is significant.

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 12
 Variation: t-test Worked Example
Your notes
Variation: t-test Worked Example

Worked Example
The ear lengths of two populations of rabbits were measured.
Ear lengths of population A (mm):
62, 60, 59, 61, 60, 58, 59, 60, 57, 56, 59, 58, 60, 59, 57
Ear lengths of population B (mm):
58, 59, 57, 59, 59, 57, 55, 60, 57, 58, 59, 58, 57, 58, 59
Use the t-test to determine whether there is a significant difference in ear length
between the two populations.

Solution
Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the ear lengths of the rabbits
in populations A and B
Sample sizes:
Population A: n1 = 15
Population B: n2 = 15
Step 1: Calculate the mean for each data set:
Mean for population A x̅1 = 885 ÷ 15 = 59 mm
Mean for population B x̅2 = 870 ÷ 15 = 58 mm
Step 2: Calculate the standard deviation (s) for each set of data

Population A Population B

Difference between Difference between Difference between Difference between

value and mean value and mean value and mean value and mean
(x - x̄ ) (x - x̄ )2 (x - x̄ ) (x - x̄ )2

62 - 59 = 3 9 58 - 58 = 0 0

60 - 59 = 1 1 59 - 58 = 1 1

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 13
 59 - 59 = 0 0 57 - 58 = -1 1
Your notes
61 - 59 = 2 4 59 - 58 = 1 1

60 - 59 = 1 1 59 - 58 = 1 1

58 - 59 = -1 1 57 - 58 = -1 1

59 - 59 = 0 0 55 - 58 = -3 9

60 - 59 = 1 1 60 - 58 = 2 4

57 - 59 = -2 4 57 - 58 = -1 1

56 - 59 = -3 9 58 - 58 = 0 0

59 - 59 = 0 0 59 - 58 = 1 1

58 - 59 = -1 1 58 - 58 = 0 0

60 - 59 = 1 1 57 - 58 = -1 1

59 - 59 = 0 0 58 - 58 = 0 0

57 - 59 = -2 4 59 - 58 = 1 1

Total ∑(x - x̄ )2 36 Total ∑(x - x̄ )2 22

To find the standard deviations divide the sum of each square by n - 1 for each data set, and
take the square root of each value

Population A (n1 = 15) Population B (n2 = 15)

n1 - 1 = 14 n2 - 1 = 14

∑(x - x̄ )2 = 36 ∑(x - x̄ )2 = 22

so 36 ÷ 14 = 2.57 so 36 ÷ 22 = 1.57

. = 1 . 60
2 57 . = 1 . 25
1 57

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 14
 s1 =
∑ x − ⎯⎯x
( )
2

= 1 . 60 s2 =
∑ x − ⎯⎯x
( )
2

= 1 . 25 Your notes
n −1 n −1
Step 3: Square the standard deviation and divide by n (the number of observations) in each
sample, for both samples:
Step 4: Add the values from step 3 together and find the square root
Step 5: Divide the difference between the two means by the value from step 4

Population A Population B

x̄ 1 = 59 x̄ 2 = 58

s1 = 1.60 s2 = 1.25

n1 = 15 n2 = 15

Step 6: Calculate the degrees of freedom (v) for all the data:

v = ( n1 −1 +) ( n2 − 1 = 14 + 14 = 28
)

Step 7: Look at a table that relates t values to the probability that the difference between
data sets is due to chance to find where the t value of 1.90 for 28 degrees of freedom (v)
calculated lies

Degrees of freedom Value of t

28 1.70 2.05 2.76 3.67

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 15
 Probability that chance would have produced this value of t 0.1 0.05 0.01 0.001
Your notes
Step 8: Draw a conclusion about the statistical relevance of the data
We are considering a confidence level of 0.05, corresponding to a critical value of at least
2.05. However, our t value is 1.90, less than the critical value. So the null hypothesis should be
accepted
This means the null hypothesis should be accepted, as there are no significant differences
between the two sets of results (any differences between the means of the ear length of
rabbits in the two populations are due to chance)

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 16