Photosynthesis Overview:

●​ The only reason life is possible on earth is because the sun provides a constant input of
energy in the form of light
●​ Certain organisms, such as plants and some bacteria/protists, can trap the sun’s energy
and convert it io chemical energy (storing it in the chemical bonds of carbohydrates)
●​ Photosynthesizers = AUTOTROPHS

Photosynthesis: Converts light energy with the help of carbon dioxide and water into chemical
potential energy and oxygen inside a plant
●​ 6 CO2 + 6H2O + solar energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Light and Energy from the Sun:

●​ Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation (EMR)

○​ Electromagnetic Radiation: Energy that travels in waves in units called photons
■​ Photon: A packet of energy at a given wavelength
■​ Each photon has a particular wavelength measured in nanometers
●​ Short (violet) = high energy
●​ Long (red) = low energy

●​ Most of the spectrum is invisible to humans, except for those wavelengths in the visible
light range

●​
●​ Light can be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected when interacting with molecules
●​ Objects selectively absorb, transmit, or reflect certain frequencies of light

●​ Absorption: When atoms and molecules vibration frequency matches the frequency of
the light, it is taken in ; absorbed

●​ Transmission: When electrons vibrate and jump into another level and then jump back
down at a different frequency and is reemitted as a light wave
●​ Reflection: When the frequency of the light does not match the vibrating frequency of the
atom/molecule so the wave is reflected back at us (so we see that color)

●​
●​ Plants look green to us because wavelengths from 500 nm to 600 nm are not absorbed
but rather reflected back at us, so we see the color that is reflected back at us
○​ For example, plants look green because the wavelength of green is not absorbed
by plants, but it is reflected back into us.
Site of Photosynthesis:

●​ Chloroplasts:
○​ Organelle found in the mesophyll tissues of a leaf that performs photosynthesis
○​ Most synthetic cells have anywhere from 40 to 200 chloroplasts
○​ Contains a double membrane
○​ Fluid inside is stroma
○​ Inside the chloroplasts are thylakoid, flattened membrane sacs, in stacks called
grana
○​ Typical chloroplast contains 60 grana with 50 thylakoids each
○​ Inside each thylakoid is thylakoid lumen (fluid)
○​ Contains chlorophyll molecules and other pigments that capture light
(photosystems)

●​ Outer/Inner Membrane: Acts much like a cell membrane (border of organelle)

 ●​ Granum: Stack of thylakoids
●​ Thylakoid membrane: Site of photon capture and photolysis (contains chlorophyll)
●​ Lumen: The inside of the thylakoids where the chlorophyll is located
●​ Lamella: Membrane linkages between thylakoids

●​ Chlorophyll:
○​ Molecule responsible for photosynthesis
○​ Green coloured pigment
○​ Absorbs light energy to begin the process of photosynthesis
○​ 2 types (a and b)

Photosynthesis Molecular Components:

●​ Redox Reactions:
○​ Oxidation: An atom or molecule is oxidized when it loses an electron (+ charge)
○​ Reducation: An atom or molecule is reduced when it gains an electron (- charge)

●​ **Reducing power = compounds contain more energy in their reduced state

●​ Photo-oxidation:
○​ In some circumstances, the absorption of light by a molecule will give sufficient
energy to an electron to move the electron far enough away from its nucleus to
be captured by another molecule
○​ The molecule that accepts this high energy electron is called the electron
acceptor
○​ Molecule that absorbs the proton then loses the electron = OXIDIZED
○​ Molecule that gains the electron = REDUCED

●​ Energy Rich Molecules:

○​ Three main energy containing molecules formed during photosynthesis

●​ ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

○​ ATP is the usable form of chemical energy within cells
○​ Cells convert glucose into ATP to do work such as:
■​ Active transport
■​ Synthesizing compounds (ie. enzymes, nucleic acids)
■​ Contraction of muscles
■​ The movement of cilia/flagella
○​ When one of the three phosphates is split from ATP in a chemical
reaction, energy is released that is harnessed by the body
○​ Each phosphate can be removed, releasing energy at each step
○​ The chemical energy released when the bond to the third phosphate
group is broken allows most life sustaining cellular activities to take place.
 ●​ NADPH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate)
○​ An electron carrier/donor
○​ NADP^+ + H^+ + 2e-
○​ Gaining an electron is reduction and reduction = greater power

●​ Glucose:
○​ C6H12O6
○​ Transport Molecule (ex. Blood sugar)
○​ Energy storage

Stages of Photosynthesis:

●​ Photosynthesis consists of two separate sets of chemical reactions:

○​ Light - Dependent Reactions
■​ Requires light
■​ Solar energy is trapped and used to generate: ATP and NADPH
■​ Occurs in thylakoid membranes

○​ Light - Independent Reactions:

■​ Does not require light
■​ The energy of ATP and reducing power of NADPH are used to reduce
CO2 to make glucose
■​ Occurs in stroma

●​ Stages of each:
○​ Light dependent reactions:
■​ Stage 1: capture solar energy and transfer it to electrons
■​ Stage 2: use energy to make ATP
■​ Stage 3: Transfer electrons to make NADPH
○​ Light independent reactions:
■​ Forms glucose using CO2, using energy in ATP and high energy
electrons in NADPH
■​ ** Called carbon fixation - occurs through calvin cycle

Light Dependant Reactions:

●​ Stage 1: Capturing Solar Energy

○​ Chlorophyll molecules in thylakoid absorbs a photon (called photosystem II)
○​ This excites an electron
○​ Electron is released as water is split (photolysis)
 ■​ H2O → 2H+ + 2e- + O (half an O2)
■​ Oxygen gas is given off
○​ The excited electron then passes down the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) (a
series of membrane proteins), which releases energy in small portions

●​ Stage 2: ATP Creation (Chemiosmosis)

○​ The energy from the ETC is used by the membrane proteins to actively transport
H+ ions (from the splitting of the water) into the thylakoid lumen (center of
thylakoid)
○​ Build concentration gradient (increases H+)
○​ H+ ions flow back out through a special protein (ATP synthase to create ATP)
○​ Called chemiosmosis

●​ Stage 3: NADPH Creation

○​ After the ETC, the electrons repeat the process of absorbing more energy from
sunlight (photosystem I)
○​ High energy electrons are transferred to NADP+ and with H+ ions form NADPH
■​ NADP+ + H+ + 2e- → NADPH
○​ NADPH is an electron carrier (gained 2 electrons) = HAS REDUCING POWER

Light Independent Reactions:

●​ In the stroma, the energy of the ATP and the electrons from the NADPH are used to
reduce carbon dioxide to make G3P (or PGAL)
○​ G3P or (PGAL): A sugar used to create glucose
○​ This occurs through the calvin-benson cycle in the stroma

●​ Stage 1: Carbon Dioxide Fixation

○​ The carbon atom in CO2 is bonded to RuBP
■​ RuBP (ribulose bisphosphate): 5 carbon compound in the stroma
○​ This is catalyzed by Rubisco
■​ Rubisco (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase): an enzyme, possibly the
most abundant enzyme on earth (40 billion tons)
○​ The resulting 6 carbon compound is unstable and immediately breaks down into
two PGA molecules
■​ PGA (3-phosphoglycerate: 3 carbon compound

●​ Stage 2: Reduction
○​ The two PGA molecules are in a low energy state
○​ They are activated by ATP and then reduced by NADPH
○​ The result of these reactions are two molecules of G3P
■​ G3P or (PGAL): A sugar used to create glucose
○​ Some of the G3P leaves the cycle to make glucose, while the remaining G3P
move onto the third stage
 ●​ Stage 3: Replacing RuBP:
○​ The G3P (PGAL) molecules that are not used to make glucose are used to make
RuBP to continue the cycle
○​ ATP provides energy to create a 5 carbon RuBP from the 3 carbon G3P’s

●​ At this point, the cycle begins again with carbon fixation.

●​ 6 CO2 molecules are required to create 1 molecule of glucose (C6H12O6)
●​ Therefore, the cycle must be repeated six times
●​ Six cycles produce 12 G3P molecules, 10 of which regenerate RuBP for carbon fixation
and 2 of which are used to make glucose.

Photosynthesis Overall

●​ Glucose production:
○​ Building one glucose () requires…
■​ Carbon from 6CO2
■​ Energy from 18 ATP
■​ Electrons and H+ ions from 12 NADPH

■​
 ■​

Cellular Respiration Overview:

●​ All organisms undergo cellular respiration

●​ Converts chemical energy (glucose) to usable energy (ATP)
●​ Occurs in the mitochondrion (and cytoplasm)

●​ Types of Cellular Respiration:

○​ Aerobic Cellular Respiration
■​ Takes place when O2 is PRESENT
■​ Complete oxidation (breakdown) of glucose to make ATP
■​ Produces:
●​ 36 ATP
 ●​ CO2
●​ H2O
■​ 4 Stages:
1 - Glycolysis
2 - Pyruvate Oxidation
3 - Krebs Cycle / Citric Acid Cycle
4 - Electron Transport Chain and Chemosynthesis

●​

●​ Anaerobic Cellular Respiration

○​ Takes place in ABSENCE of O2
○​ Produces:
■​ 2 ATP
■​ Lactic Acid / Ethanol & CO2
○​ Results in incomplete oxidation of glucose
○​ 2 Stages:
1 - Glycolysis
2 - Fermentation
 ○​ 2 Types of Anaerobic Cellular Respiration:
■​ Alcohol Fermentation:
●​ C6H1206 → 2 C2H50H + 2 CO2 + 2 ATP
■​ Lactic Acid Fermentation:
●​ C6H1206 → 2 C3H603 + 2 ATP
○​ Many forms of bacteria use this
■​ Deep-ocean
■​ Nitrogen fixing

Aerobic Cellular Respiration:

●​ Stage 1: Glycolysis
○​ All organisms carry out glycolysis
○​ Does NOT need O2
○​ Occurs in the cytoplasm (outside the mitochondria)
○​ Glycolysis means “sugar splitting”
○​ Glucose is split into 2 pyruvate molecules (C3H4O3)

●​ 1. Glucose Activation:
○​ The energy of two ATP molecules is used to convert glucose to the highly
reactive fructose bisphosphate, which splits into two reactive molecules of
G3P (PGAL).

●​ 2. Energy Harvest:
○​ The two G3P molecule undergo a series of reactions that generate four
ATP and two NADH molecules

●​ Overall:
○​ 2 ATP molecules are created
○​ 2 ATP used to create 4 ATP → -2 + 4 = 2
○​ 2 NAD+ are reduced to 2 NADH (from electrons and H+ released by
glucose)

●​ Net Production: Two ADP and Two NADH

●​ Stage 2: Pyruvate Oxidation

○​ When oxygen is available, pyruvate (the final product of glycolysis), enters the
mitochondrion
○​ One CO2 is removed from each pyruvate
○​ NAD+ is reduced to NADH
○​ Coenzyme-A (coA) attaches to the remaining 2 carbon portion to make acetyl
coA
○​ Times 2 (because 2 pyruvates)
 ○​
●​ Stage 3: Kreb’s Cycle:
○​ Occurs in the matrix
○​ Transforms the energy of glucose into reducing power of NADH and FADH2
(“electron suppliers”)
○​ Remaining carbon atoms of acetyl coA are fully oxidized into 2CO2
○​ One ATP, one FADH2 and 3 NADH are produced
○​ Times 2 (because 2 acetyl coAs)

●​ Stage 4: Electron Transport Chain (Oxidative phosphorylation)

○​ The vast majority of ATP in aerobic cellular respiration are produced in the
electron transport system (ETS) ( a series of membrane proteins in the cristae)
○​ High energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 produced in the krebs cycle are
passed to electron carrying molecules
○​ As these electrons are passed from one carrier to another, energy is released in
small amounts
○​ This energy is used to pump hydrogen ions across the membrane from the matrix
to the intermembrane space
○​ This build up of ions creates a hydrogen ion concentration gradient
○​ The ions can diffuse back across the but only through channels created by the
enzyme ATP synthase (look like lollipops under the microscope)
○​ This enzyme uses chemiosmosis to bind a phosphate group to ADP, forming
ATP!

●​ Chemiosmosis:
○​ H+ ions flow through the atp synthase (special protein) to power ATP
production
○​ O2 acts as the final acceptor and joins with H+ ions to make H2O
○​ Makes 32 ATP