Guiding Question

How can the systems approach be used to model environmental issues at different levels of
complexity and scale?

Systems Theory

Systems theory is a tool to help look at the holistic nature of a system such as the function of a
natural system or the mechanics and purpose of a human constructed system. Traditionally, the
study of science has broken down systems in a reductionist manner in order to simplify their
study, e.g. what does a wolf eat? In a holistic approach, it is not just the wolf that is studied but all
its prey, the interactions of those organisms in the entire food web, the feedback relationships
between the organisms and the impact they have on their environment. This allows leverage
points to be identified in the system, possible tipping points and thus management strategies that
might be worthy of trialling.

Systems theory can help in the study of socio-ecological systems by providing conceptual
models that help with the analysis of these complex issues, for example, allowing perspectives to
be used as lenses for a system.

What is a System?

A system is a set of interacting or interdependent components producing a functional whole that

together produce emergent properties. On their own, the components do not produce these
properties. Examples include how predator-prey relationships can oscillate (the numbers of
predators and prey change as a result of each other) and trophic cascades where a change in
one part of the food web creates a cascade of changes throughout the food web and even
beyond into the ecosystem.

System Boundaries

In order to study a system, one must first define its boundaries as systems can greatly vary in
scale.

Systems operate within boundaries which can be defined. The boundary defines the limits within
which the components interact, and thus it defines the scale of the system and the way in which
systems are related together. These are human constructs and thus simplifications of the world.
Environmental Systems are physical systems with physical boundaries. Some boundaries are
sharp, such as coastlines or a lake shore, or a frontal weather system, which marks the boundary
between warm and cold air masses. Other boundaries are less sharp and more transitional, such
as the gradual change in vegetation towards a desert margin.

In this image (CC BY-SA 4.0) we see the three

aqueducts that supply the water of Southern California. This watershed is a system on a regional
scale with boundaries that can be defined by the water that enters these aqueducts.

Scale of Systems
The Earth itself is a very large system with its boundaries defined by the atmosphere surrounding
it but also encompassing the biosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the geosphere and the
anthroposphere.

Biosphere: the part of the earth where living organisms (life) exists

Atmosphere: the layer of air surrounding the Earth’s surface

Hydrosphere: the layer of water on and near the Earth’s surface (this includes the frozen water)
Cryosphere: the layer consisting of frozen water, including frozen ground

Geosphere: the layer that includes all the rocks and minerals from the centre of the Earth to the
non-living parts of the soil

Anthroposphere: encompasses the total human presence throughout the Earth system
including our culture, technology, built environment, and associated activities[1]

Global Scale Systems

The Gaia Hypothesis is an example of a global model of our global system. Other systems on a
global scale include atmospheric circulation, ocean currents, thermohaline circulation and the
biogeochemical cycles.

Regional Scale Systems

These could include a rainforest or a river including its catchment area.

 Small Scale Systems

A bromeliad in a cloud rainforest acts as a small ecosystem for other organisms. A garden pond
is a small scale system.

The Gaia Hypothesis and Daisy World

The Gaia Hypothesis is an example of a planetary sized system.

James Lovelock developed his Gaia hypothesis during

the 1970s publishing several books and papers on the topic. The Gaia hypothesis proposes that
the Earth functions as a living system, having a homeostatic mechanism which regulates
conditions on the planet. It was introduced to explain how atmospheric composition and
temperatures are interrelated through feedback control mechanisms. There are many variations
of the Gaia theory as further developed by James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis.

The hypothesis is useful when thinking about the Earth as a system and particularly in view of
the global changes occurring today. Several eminent scientists such as Richard Dawkins don't
agree with Lovelock's proposals but others would argue that it is a useful way of debating the
global system with feedback mechanisms maintaining an equilibrium.

You can read more about the Gaia Hypothesis at this Harvard Wikipedia Page which opens a
pdf file.

As part of the supporting evidence for the Gaia hypothesis, Lovelock developed a computer
simulation with Andrew Watson called Daisyworld. This model demonstrates how emergent
properties can develop from the interaction between non-living and living components of a
system. Feedback loops develop to maintain a constant environment.

To read more about Daisyworld try here.

Here’s James Lovelock talking about the model:

https://youtu.be/I47vhzErOCE?si=p_Ql_9yma7yIJQbl

And here's an explanation of his model:

https://youtu.be/CU7Keei-Cls?si=cE2CuslxfyWQogQH

Exchange across System Boundaries

Systems can be open on closed and are defined by whether energy and or matter cross their
boundaries.

An open system exchanges both energy and matter

across its boundary and almost all systems are open. An natural ecosystem is an open system,
e.g. your local wood or lake.
 A closed system exchanges only energy across its
boundary. The global geochemical cycles approximate to closed systems. Biosphere 2 is an
example of a closed system.

This TED Talk from Jane Poynter talks about her experiences in Biosphere 2 and what that
information could be used for in the future (about 15 minutes).
https://youtu.be/a7B39MLVeIc?si=Uw3Jx4Bb6BIJOaY6

Structure of a System

A system has stores and flows, with flows providing inputs and outputs of energy and matter.
These flows can move in and out of a system (if open), crossing the system boundary or they
can be internal to the system.

inputs: import material and energy across the system boundary

outputs: export material and energy across the system boundary

flows: flows and pathways within the system along which the energy and materials pass – can
be transfers or transformations

stores: storage areas within the system where energy and material can be stored for various
lengths of time before being released back into the flows

In system diagrams, stores are usually represented as rectangular boxes and flows as arrows,
with the direction of each arrow indicating the direction of each flow. The size of the boxes and
the arrows may be representative of the size or magnitude of the storage or flow.

Simplified system diagram of a forest:

In this simplified system diagram of a forest, there are inputs and outputs of energy and matter.
The boxes represent the stores in the system and the arrows represent the flows both in and out
of the systems and within the system but as it is a model it does not represent all the complexity
in the system.

Flows are processes that may be either transfers or transformations.

Transfers involve a change in location of energy or matter

Transformations involve a change in the chemical nature, a change in state or a change in

energy.

System Diagram of Water Cycle:

In the diagram of the water cycle,transformations are marked with a yellow dot. The purple dots
represent transfers.