Topic 1.

2 Systems
Guiding questions
• How can the systems approach be used to model environmental issues at different levels of
complexity and scale?

Understandings Class Home Got it

1.2.1 Systems are sets of interacting or interdependent components.
1.2.2 A systems approach is a holistic way of visualizing a complex set of interactions, and
it can be applied to ecological or societal situations.
1.2.3 In system diagrams, storages are usually represented as rectangular boxes and flows
as arrows, with the direction of each arrow indicating the direction of each flow.
1.2.4 Flows are processes that may be either transfers or transformations.
1.2.5 Systems can be open or closed.
1.2.6 The Earth is a single integrated system encompassing the biosphere, the
hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the geosphere, the atmosphere and the anthroposphere.
1.2.7 The concept of a system can be applied at a range of scales.
1.2.8 Negative feedback loops occur when the output of a process inhibits or reverses the
operation of the same process in such a way as to reduce change. They are stabilizing as
they counteract deviation.
1.2.9 As an open system, an ecosystem will normally exist in a stable equilibrium, either in
a steady- state equilibrium or in one developing over time (for example, succession), and
will be maintained by stabilizing negative feedback loops.
1.2.10 Positive feedback loops occur when a disturbance leads to an amplification of that
disturbance, destabilizing the system and driving it away from its equilibrium.
1.2.11 Positive feedback loops will tend to drive the system towards a tipping point.
1.2.12 Tipping points can exist within a system where a small alteration in one component
can produce large overall changes, resulting in a shift in equilibrium.
1.2.13 A model is a simplified representation of reality; it can be used to understand how a
system works and to predict how it will respond to change.
1.2.14 Simplification of a model involves approximation and, therefore, loss of accuracy.
1.2.15 Interactions between components in systems can generate emergent properties.
1.2.16 The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid
tipping points and maintain stability.
1.2.17 Diversity and the size of storages within systems can contribute to their resilience
and affect their speed of response to change (time lags).
1.2.18 Humans can affect the resilience of systems through reducing these storages and
diversity.

Models
There are a number of types of model such as:
• Physical models
• Computer simulations
• Mathematical models (often using computers if they are very complex)
• Diagrams (e.g. systems diagrams)

• Define models (Define: Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase or physical quantity)

Ans: A model is a simplified representation of reality; it can be used to understand how a system
works and to predict how it will respond to change.

• Outline why a systems diagram is considered to be a model (Outline: Give a brief account or
summary)

Ans:

• Identify the strengths and limitations of models. Use the points to guide you. (Identify: Find an
answer from a given number of possibilities)
• Simplifying a complex reality
• Predicting future changes
• Identifying patterns
• Visualising small or large systems

Strengths Limitations
Models can be oversimplified and inaccurate
Models simplify complex systems

If there are no figures on the models it gives a false

impression. Food webs just show the patterns of feeding
and no figures.
Models allow predictions to be made about how systems
will react in response to change

Results from models become more uncertain the further

they predict into the future.
Models are more easier to understand than the real system.

Can study things that are either too small or too large for us
to deal with. E.g. Atoms and our solar system. Results from models can be interpreted by different people
in different ways

• There are FIVE climate model simulations. Look at each one, evaluate each, and JUSTIFY which
model you think is the best for understanding climate change. (Evaluate: Assess the implications
and limitations)

Climate Model Strengths Limitations

Concord Consortium Climate Model
(https://learn.concord.org/resources/62
7/what-is-the-future-of-earth-s-climate)
PHET Greenhouse Gasses Simulation
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation
s/greenhouse-effect/about
STELLA Diagram of Climate Model
https://www.e-education.psu.edu/
earth103/node/790
UCAR Climate Model
(https://scied.ucar.edu/simple-climate-
model)
 Java Climate Model
https://jcm.chooseclimate.org/
Understanding Global Change -
BioInteractive
(https://www.biointeractive.org/
classroom-resources/understanding-
global-change)

• Suggest which climate model is the BEST for understanding climate change. (Suggest: Propose a
hypothesis or other possible answer)

Systems
• Define systems (Define: Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase or physical quantity)

Ans: System is an assemblage of parts and their relationship forming a functioning entirely or whole.
There are two major components to a system that are elements and processes.

• Compare reductionism with the systems approaches to scientific research. (you will need to look
this up) (Comapre: Give an account of similarities and differences between two (or more) items,
referring to both (all) of them throughout)

Ans: A systems approach is the term used to describe a method of simplifying and understanding a
complicated set of interactions, where as a reductionist approach means breaking a system down into its
parts and studying each one individually.
 • Complete the table below using THREE examples of systems

Behavior of parts taken Behavior of parts as a whole

Example of a system separately system
Bicycle Wheel spin in circles Bicycle moves forward
Pedals move up and down
Photosynthesis Leaf absorbs sunlight, roots absorbs Making food
water, Leaf absorbs carbon dioxide,
and releases oxygen.

Ocean
Forest Trees absorbs sunlight, release Create rainfall and oxygen.
oxygen, and also create rainfall.

• Define emergent properties. (Define: Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase or physical
quantity)

Ans: Emergent properties are properties of a system that appear as individual system components
interact; the components themselves do not have these properties

• The predator-prey simulation is often used as a classic example of an emergent property in

systems science and ecology. Emergence occurs when a system exhibits properties and behaviors
that are not evident from the properties of the individual parts of the system. In the context of a
predator-prey simulation, several elements contribute to this emergence. What do you think
would happen if we added a new kind of predator into the environment of animals eating each
other? How might this change the number of animals over time?"
• Imagine a forest where all the wolves are removed. How do you think this would affect the
populations of deer and plants in the forest? Explain the chain of effects that might occur.
(Explain: Give a detailed account, including reasons or causes.)

• Watch the video on Emergence https://youtu.be/16W7c0mb-rE. Outline the emergent

properties of the ants (Outline: Give a brief account or summary)

• Describe the 6 main systems (Describe: Give a detailed account)

• Watch the 2 videos on James Lovelock and Gaia Hypothesis. https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=44yiTg7cOVI, https://youtu.be/sCxIqgZA7ag.
• Summarize the Gaia hypothesis.
• In the Daisyworld model, white daisies reflect sunlight and black daisies absorb it.
Suggest how the populations of white and black daisies change as the temperature on
Daisyworld increases or decreases. Explain why these changes might occur.
 • Watch the video, Earth as a System https://youtu.be/BnpF0ndXk-8 . Identify the important
aspects of the video (Identify: Provide an answer from a number of possibilities.)

• Outline the various scales associated with an environmental system. Provide a name example for
each scale. (Outline: Give a brief account or summary.)

Systems Diagrams

• Systems consists of:

• Input –
• these are represented as a _______________

• they are describe as ____________________

• Output –
• these are represented as a _______________
 • they are described as ____________________

• Storage –
• these are represented as a _______________

• they are described as ___________________

• Flows –
• these are represented as a _______________

• they are described as ___________________

• Boundary –
• it is represented as a _______________

• it is described as __________________

• Look at the processes below. Copy each one into the correct column of the following table,
depending on whether they are a transfer or a transformation.

Transfers Transformations
• State how energy can be lost in a system. (State: Give a specific name, value or other brief
answer without explanation or calculation)

• Draw and label a systems diagram here, showing the inputs, outputs, storages, flows, transfers,
and transformations within a single leaf of a Pinus sylvestris. (Pine tree) (Draw: epresent by
means of pencil lines: Label: Add labels to a diagram)
Types of Systems

• Systems can be categorized depending on whether or not energy and matter are able to
enter/exit the system. Outline what is meant by the following in terms of energy and matter:
(Outline: Give a brief account or summary)

• Open system

Ans: Both energy and matter are exchanged between the system and its surroundings.

• Closed system

Ans: Energy, but not matter, is exchanged between the system and its surroundings.

• Isolated system

Ans: Neither energy nor matter are exchanged between the system and its surroundings.

• State whether the following are open, closed or isolated systems. (State: Give a specific name,
value or other brief answer without explanation or calculation)

Type of system Description

plants fix energy from light entering the system during photosynthesis

nitrogen cycle
Biosphere 2
a fish bowl
birds migrating to a remote oceanic island
a thermoflask
• Watch the video on Biosphere 2 https://youtu.be/a7B39MLVeIc. Answer the following questions
• Outline the main goals of the Biosphere 2 project (Outline: Give a brief account or
summary.)

• State the challenges Biosphere 2 faced with oxygen levels during the missions. How
were they resolved (State: Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without
explanation or calculation)

• Suggest why biodiversity important in closed ecosystems like Biosphere. (Suggest:

Propose a solution, hypothesis or other possible answer.)

• Suggest how changes in biodiversity affect the sustainability of such systems. (Suggest:
Propose a solution, hypothesis or other possible answer.)
Feedback Loops

• Define equilibrium (Define: Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase or physical quantity)

Ans: An equilibrium refers to a state of balance occurring between the separate components of a system.
Open systems (such as ecosystems) usually exist in a stable equilibrium

• State two examples and explanation of each of the above types of equilibrium. Examples
are included for each.(State: Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without
explanation or calculation)

Type of Example Explanation

Equilibrium
Steady A country’s A place will have births and
state population deaths, but will
ultimately remain unchanged
(assuming the two
are in balance).

Static A hat on a hook

• Is a simple ecosystem or a more complex ecosystem more likely to maintain a stable

equilibrium when faced with disturbance? Explain your answer, using examples. .
 (Explain: Give a detailed account of causes, reasons or mechanisms)

• Watch the Ted Video on Feedback Loops https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=inVZoI1AkC8

• Define the negative feedback loop. (Define: Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase
or physical quantity)

• Using the predator-prey relationship, explain how predator-prey relationships can keep
populations relatively constant through negative feedback. (Explain: Give a detailed account of
causes, reasons or mechanisms)

• State how Daisy World is an example of negative feedback (State: Give a specific name, value or
other brief answer without explanation or calculation.)

• Watch this video on Global Climate change https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oTkc4B4D71w

• Define positive feedback (Define: Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase or physical
quantity)
Ans: Positive feedback is any mechanism in a system that leads to additional and increased change away
from equilibrium, Positive feedback loops amplify changes within a system.

• Outline global warming as an example of a positive feedback loop. (Outline: Give a brief
account or summary)

Ans: Global temperature rises causing ice caps to melt. Dark soil is exposed so more solar radiation is
absorbed. This reduces the albedo (reflecting ability of a surface) of the earth so global temperature
rises. Rising global temperatures melt ice caps, which expose dark soil, that results in more solar
radiation being absorbed which is dropped in albedo, that causes global temperature to rise, you can see
that the same change can result in positive or negative feedback. This is one reason why predicting
climated change is so difficult.

• Draw and label a diagram to represent a positive feedback mechanism involving the albedo
effect (Draw: Represent by means of pencil lines: Label: Add labels to a diagram)

• A causal loop diagram is a "snapshot of all relationships that matter." It is a visual representation
of key variables. Draw and label an example below (Draw: Represent by means of pencil lines:
Label: Add labels to a diagram)
 • An IB student has a lot of work to do and gets stressed. As a result, they might struggle to focus
on their work, and delay in completing it. The workload piles up more and more because they
aren’t getting through it, making them more stressed. Suggest the type of feedback mechanism
being described here? Explain your answer. (Suggest: Propose a hypothesis or other possible
answer)

• Here are a number of examples of how both positive and negative feedback mechanisms might
operate in the physical environment. No one can be sure which of these effects is likely to be
most influential, and consequently we cannot know whether or not the Earth will manage to
regulate its temperature, despite human interference with many natural process
• Label each example as either positive or negative feedback (Label: Add labels to a
diagram)

As carbon dioxide levels in As the Earth warms the rate of photosynthesis in

the atmosphere rise the plants increases, more carbon dioxide is therefore
temperature of the Earth removed from the atmosphere by plants, reducing
rises. the greenhouse effect and reducing global
temperatures.
 As the Earth warms: Ice cover melts, exposing soil or water. Albedo
decreases (albedo is the fraction of light that is
reflected by a body or surface). More energy is
absorbed by Earth’s surface. Global Temperature
rises. More ice melts.
As the Earth warms, upper Methane gas is released in an anoxic environment.
layers of permafrost melt, The greenhouse effect is enhanced. Earth warms,
producing waterlogged soil melting more permafrost.
above frozen ground.
As Earth warms, increased Clouds increase albedo, reflecting more light away
evaporation produces more from Earth. Temperature falls. Rates of evaporation
clouds. fall.
As Earth warms, organic More carbon dioxide is released. Enhanced
matter in soil is greenhouse effect occurs. Earth warms further. Rates
decomposed faster: of decomposition increase.
As Earth warms, Icecaps enlarge. More energy is reflected by
evaporation increases: increased albedo of ice cover. Earth cools. Rates of
Snowfall at high latitudes evaporation fall.
increases.
As Earth warms, polar Warm ocean currents such as Gulf Stream are
icecaps melt releasing large disrupted by additional freshwater input into the
numbers of icebergs into ocean. Reduced transfer of energy to poles reduces
oceans. temperature at high latitudes. Ice sheets reform and
icebergs retreat. Warm currents are re-established.

Tipping Point
The costs of tipping points, both from environmental and economic perspectives, could be severe, so
accurate predictions are critical. Models that predict tipping points are, therefore, essential and have
alerted scientists to potential large events. Continued monitoring, research, and modelling is required to
improve predictions.

• Define the following terms (Define: Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase or physical
quantity)
• Resilience
Ans: Any system, ecological, social or economic, has a certain amount of resilience
This resilience refers to the system’s ability to maintain stability and avoid tipping points.

• Stability
Ans:

• Tipping point
• Draw and label a graph showing how a tipping point happens. (Draw: Represent by means of
pencil lines: Label: Add labels to a diagram)

• Select one of the major Earth System (Arctic sea ice, ice sheets, the El Niño phenomenon, the
Amazon rainforest). State how it might affect changes in global climate patterns. (State: Give a
specific name, value or other brief answer without explanation or calculation)
• Watch the video, “How Wolves Changed The River” https://youtu.be/ysa5OBhXz-Q then
analysle the graph

• With reference to the graph, suggest why the beaver and bison population increase as
the wolf populations increased.

• Outline how the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park lead to changes
in river geography,

• State the role trophic cascades play in this ecological transformation

• List the chain of effects that resulted from the reintroduction of wolves in Yellowstone,
highlighting how it impacted both the biological and physical aspects of the ecosystem?"

• Global climate change is an example of a disturbance on the environment that humans are
causing. Most scientists agree that the planet is warming, and that humans are the cause of it.
However, the future consequences are still debated. Some people may argue that the Earth
 environment as a whole is very resilient because it is such a complex system, though others may
argue it is not resilient enough to withstand the disturbances we are putting on the system.
Using climate change as an example, explain why it is so difficult to predict the tipping point of a
complex system. (Explain: Give a detailed account of causes, reasons or mechanisms)

Resilience
• Predict which situation(s) resilience is a: (Predict: Give an expected result)
• BENEFICIAL thing to have

• DETRIMENTAL thing to have

• List the factors affecting ecosystem resilience. Place a STAR or mark of some sort next to those
factors that are affected by humans. (List: Give a sequence of names or other brief answers with
no explanation)
• Explain how the size of storages and the diversity of a system can affect its resilience. (Explain:
Give a detailed account of causes, reasons or mechanisms)

• Watch this video clip “What Will Earth Look Like When These 6 Tipping Points Hit?
https://youtu.be/MBKZWKeKYqE and read the article “Amazon near tipping point of switching
from rainforest to savannah” Suggest whether the Earth has passed its tipping point based on
the video and article. (Suggest: Propose a solution, hypothesis or other possible answer.)

• Watch the video on Apo Island. https://youtu.be/v8oNhckPjFM.

• Outline how the community-managed marine protected areas on Apo Island
contributed to the resilience and recovery of marine ecosystems (Outline: Give a brief
account or summary.)

• Suggest lessons that can be learned about sustainable resource management from this
 example? (Suggest: Propose a solution, hypothesis or other possible answer.)

• Using the table, state and explain the resilience of the stated systems. (State: Give a specific
name, value or other brief answer without explanation or calculation: Explain: Give a detailed
account of causes, reasons or mechanisms)

(Help: consider the disturbances that might occur, such as diseases, invasive species, weather
changes etc...)

System Resilience Explanation

(high / moderate / low)
A very large forest High There are many interactions between
ecosystem with high organisms if the biodiversity is high. If there is a
biodiversity change, e.g. a decrease the population of a
particular species through disease, those
organisms that feed on it will have alternative
food sources to turn to. The system will remain
mostly unchanged.
A large field with only
corn growing in it, with
a small
number of insects
feeding on the corn.
An isolated village
community in the Gobi
desert, with a
population of around
1000
people.
The community of
Shanghai, China.
Population roughly
24,000,000.
• Visit the Resilience Alliance database (http://www.resalliance.org/tdb-database ) .
• Browse the list of examples and focus on the "Alternate Regimes" section.
• You need to design a diagram illustrating a positive feedback loop between two states of
an ecosystem, showing the "push factors" described in the "mechanism" section of the
database.

• Here is an example diagram for reference.

• Answer the following questions based on their diagrams:

• Outline two possible reasons for the tipping point illustrated in their diagram.
(Outline: Give a brief account or summary)

• Identify the mitigation strategies used to reduce the tipping point.

 • Outline how the mitigation strategies contributed to the resilience of the
ecosystem represented in their diagram. (Outline: Give a brief account or
summary)

• Discuss resilience in a variety of systems.

• Example 1: Possums were introduced to both Australia and New Zealand by European
settlers in the 18th century. The impact of possums on the New Zealand ecosystem was
greater than on the Australian ecosystem. The Australian ecosystem, in this case, proved
to be more resilient to the impact of possums compared to the New Zealand ecosystem
which became overrun by possums.
Discuss how the size of land mass and presence of natural possum predators could
explain what happened in

Reflection: How has your understanding of systems and their significance in environmental science
evolved?

ESS can be like learning a new language. So many words are not commonly used in everyday English. This
can be challenging. To help you keep up with ESS Terms, you will need to create your own ESS
DICTIONARY. You should add to this over the year and keep it in your notebook or on a page file THAT
YOU CAN UPDATE AND ADD TO EASILY. Most of the vocabulary words can be found either on your STUDY
GUIDE or at mrgscience.com.

You will be responsible for learning the words and their meaning. Periodic quizzes will be given on the
words. So, make your dictionary creative and you will remember the words more easily.

KEY TERMS

positive feedback

tipping-point

resilient

stability

negative feedback

destabilizing

sustainability

energy transfer

predator/prey

equilibrium

energy

static equilibrium

unstable equilibria

steady-state equilibrium

stable equilibria

Gaia hypothesis

biosphere

system

closed system

emergent properties

models

flows

inputs

outputs
energy transfer

ecosystem

functional

transfers

storage

processes

matter

transformation

open system

flows

stock

boundaries

isolated system