UNIT 4-INTRODUCTION TO MODERN TESTING

TOOLS

● Course Objectives: To acquire the knowledge of

modern tools.

● Course Outcomes:
CO4: Describe the various modern tools of surveying
● Syllabus:
Measurement of distance and area by EDM and Digital
Planimeter. Basics of modern surveying tools like
theodolite,total station.

EDM (Electronic Distance Measurement)

● Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) is a remarkable technology used in
surveying to measure distances with extraordinary accuracy. At its core,
EDM measures the time it takes for a signal to travel from the instrument
to a target and back.
● This innovative approach to distance measurement has replaced traditional
methods such as chain and tape, providing surveyors with a more precise
and efficient way to obtain distance measurements.
● Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining the
length between two points using electromagnetic waves.
Traditional Methods: Chains and Tapes

1. Chain Surveying: The earliest form of distance measurement involved the use of chains, hence the term
"chain surveying." Surveyors would lay out long chains, typically made of metal, in a straight line between
two points. The length of the chain was standardized, but variations could occur due to factors like
temperature and tension. Surveyors counted the number of chain lengths between points to determine
distances. This method was labor-intensive, prone to errors, and not suitable for measuring long distances.
2. Steel Tapes: Steel tapes replaced chains as technology advanced. These tapes were more flexible and
durable, allowing for more precise measurements. However, like chains, steel tapes could still be affected by
temperature variations, stretching and sagging, leading to inaccuracies.

Challenges with Traditional Methods

1. Human Errors

Measurements were highly reliant on the surveyor's accuracy in counting chain lengths or reading tape marks.
Human errors were a common source of inaccuracies.

2. Limited Range

Traditional methods were impractical for measuring long distances due to the need for continuous, uninterrupted
placement of the chain or tape.
3. Terrain Obstacles

The presence of physical obstacles, such as hills, valleys, and uneven terrain, made it difficult to achieve precise
measurements.

4. Time-Consuming

Traditional surveying methods were time-consuming, making large-scale surveys a laborious and lengthy process.

5. Weather Impact

Adverse weather conditions, including wind and rain, could affect the accuracy of measurements and damage the
equipment.
 TYPES OF EDM
1. Telescopic mounted instruments
2. Total Station
3. EDM based on range
4. Distomat
5. Geodimeter

CONT…
1. Telescope mounted instruments: A theodolite is a telescope-mounted instrument.They
have a telescope mounted on two perpendicular axes. Theodolites use modulated light
waves to measure distance. In This case the line of sight of Theodolite and EDM are
parallel to each other.

2. Total stations: In this case an EDM and digital Theodolite are built as one unit. The output is
in digital form.

3. EDM based on range: These types of EDM instrument as are based on range
of measurement.
a) Short range EDM: In this case EDM is used up to the range of 5 km. with the use of infrared
light as signal.
b) Medium range EDM : In this case EDM is used up to the range of l00 km. with the use of
microwave as signal.
c) Long Range EDM: In this case EDM is used for the range greater than 100 km. with the use
of radio waves as signal.
CONT…
4. Distomat:
a) The distomat is one of the varieties of which uses infrared light waves.
b) Actually the Distomat is trade name of EDM manufactured by LEICA Company of
Switzerland.
c) These instruments can measure distance from 20m to 10km. The instrument uses infrared
beam with amplitude modulation to a frequency of about 50 MHz, which enables to take the
measurements during day and night.
d) The optical system consists of an attachment, which can be fixed on the top of telescope.
Display unit provides a digital read out within very few seconds with an accuracy of +/- 20
mm up to a distance of l km.

5. Geodimeter:
a) This type of instrument emits carrier waves or modulated pulse of light from a Tungsten
filament that are returned by with reflector system having prism at the other station.
b)The Geodimeter was the first optical electronic distance meter surveying instrument.
c) The reflected light returned to the instrument is converted in to electrical pulse by
photocell and comparison is then made between the transmitted and the received signal.
Distance upto 25 km can be measured.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF EDM

1. Let the distance between P and Q be D' which is to be measured.
2. A wave is transmitted from the transmitter at the station P with certain phase
angle. There is a reflector at the other end 'Q' which consists of prism. The wave
strikes on reflector at Q and then gets reflected from Q.
3. It is received back at the transmitted end at P at different phase angle. For
finding the distance the phase difference between transmitted wave and reflected
wave is measured and converted into distance.
 ADVANTAGES OF EDM
1. Measurement of horizontal distance.
2. Measurement of vertical distance.
3. Measurement of inclined distance on slope.
4. Measurement in rough or accurate mode.
5. Measurement along with atmospheric correction.

DIGITAL PLANIMETER
1. Planimeters are devices used to measure areas on maps, drawings or blueprints.

2. Digital planimeters have been developed which directly display the area measured.
There is no need to read verniers and calibrate the planimeter manually.

3. There is provision for selecting units like cm, m, km or in, ft, acres. For this, scale of
map is to be set. If the value of area measured exceeds the capacity of planimeter, it
automatically switches over to higher units and continue to record measurement.

4. To measure the area of map the outline of the map is to be traced completely with
the tracer point. The area measured is displayed.

5. 6 to 8 digit planimeters are available. The displayed area may be held by operating
held button and retraced to measure the area again. The average of the area
measured can, be automatically obtained. By pressing release button zero setting
can be obtained.
CONT…

ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL PLANIMETER

1. Choice of metric or English unit is available.
2. No need for calibration each time.
3. Digital display which is easy to read.
4. Automatic averaging, if used repeatedly to get more
accurate result. (Hold button is to be pressed after each
reading is taken.)
5. Zero setting by push button.
6. Higher accuracy.
7. Downloading the area measured to computers for
further processing
 Theodolites
1. A theodolite is a precision optical instrument used in surveying and engineering to
measure horizontal and vertical angles.
2. A Theodolite is a instrument for measuring both horizontal and vertical angles, as well
as performs tasks such as leveling, indirect distance measurement and line
prolongation.
3. To minimize errors during theodolite surveying, it is important to adjust the many
parts of the instrument before using it.
4. A theodolite consists of a telescope mounted movably within two perpendicular axes,
the horizontal or trunnion axis and the vertical axis. When the telescope is pointed at a
desired object, the angle of each of these axes can be measured with great precision.
5. The vernier theodolite is the most common type and its parts include various
components.
Parts of a Theodolite:
1. Telescope: A telescope is a focusing instrument with an object piece on one end and an eyepiece on the other.
The telescope is mounted on a horizontal spindle called the horizontal axis or the trunnion axis. The telescope
can be rotated in the vertical plane about the horizontal axis for the purpose of sighting the objects. The
telescope is an internal-focussing type.
2. Eyepiece and Crosshairs: The eyepiece allows the surveyor to look through the telescope and view distant
objects, with the crosshairs helping to precisely aim the instrument.
3. Horizontal Circle : A graduated scale that measures horizontal angles (0° to 360°). It is marked around the
base of the instrument, allowing precise angular readings as the telescope is rotated.
4. Vertical Circle: A graduated scale used to measure vertical angles (elevation or depression) as the telescope is
moved up and down. The vertical angle of the line of sight with the horizontal axis can be measured using a
vertical circle.
5. Horizontal and Vertical Vernier Scales: Vernier scales are used to read angular measurements with a
higher degree of precision than the main scale alone.
6. Tribrach: A detachable base that holds the theodolite above the tripod. It has three leveling screws and a
bubble level to ensure the instrument is properly aligned horizontally.
7. Leveling Screws: Three screws that allow the theodolite to be finely leveled before use, ensuring accurate
measurements
8. Clamps and Fine Adjustments: These are mechanisms that allow the telescope to be clamped in place or
adjusted for finer precision in both horizontal and vertical planes.

CONT…
9. Tripod: The instrument is mounted on a tripod, which provides stability
and a fixed height for accurate measurements.
 FUNDAMENTAL AXES OF THEODOLITE
The fundamental lines of a theodolite are -
1. Vertical Axis [Azimuth axis]: It is the axis about which the instrument can rotate in
horizontal plane.
2. Horizontal Axis [Trunnion axis] : It is the axis about which the instrument rotate in
vertical plane.
3. Axis of a telescope: This axis is an imaginary passing through the optical centre of the
object-glass and the optical centre of the eye-piece.
4. Line of collimation [Line of sight] : It is an imaginary line passing through the
intersection of the crosshairs at the diaphragm and the optical centre of the object-glass
and its continuation.
5. Axis of Bubble tube: It is an imaginary line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the
bubble tube at its midpoint.A bubble tube, also known as a level tube.

CONT…
 RELATION BETWEEN AXIS
1. The horizontal axis should be perpendicular to the vertical axis .
2. The axis of the telescope level should be parallel to the line of sight
3. The line of sight should be perpendicular to the horizontal axis at its
intersection with the vertical axis

APPLICATION OF THEODOLITE
○ To determine the vertical and horizontal angles and with the help of this we can
also calculate the distances, mostly used for navigation purposes.
○ To determine the difference in elevation between the points.
○ In road construction, this helps the surveyor a lot in calculating the cut and fill
and basically the earthwork requirement on the site.
○ To locate the points on a line so that important points can be marked in massive
survey lines and detailing could be done with ease.
○ To extend the survey lines in case of extension of projects like roads, railways
and laying of pipelines.
○ To set out the grades and ranging of curves. With the help of this, various
cross-sectional elements in roads and railways can be calculated.
○ Measurement as well as laying out the angles and straight lines
○ Aligning of walls
○ Plumbing building corners, columns etc.
TOTAL STATION
● A total station is an optical instrument used in modern surveying. It is a combination of an electronic
theodolite (transit), an electronic distance measuring device (EDM) and software running on an external
computer, such as a laptop or data collector.
● It is also integrated with microprocessor, electronic data collector and storage system. The instrument can
be used to measure horizontal and vertical angles as well as sloping distance of object to the instrument.
● Capability of a Total Station: Microprocessor unit in total station processes the data collected to
compute:

1. Averages multiple angle measurements.

2. Averages multiple distance measurements.
3. Computes horizontal and vertical distances.
4. Corrections for temp, pressure and humidity.
5. Computes X, Y and Z coordinates.
Data collected and processed in a Total Station can be downloaded to computers for further processing

CONT…
Total Station
● Total stations with
different accuracy, in
angle measurement and
different range of
measurements are
available in the market.
Here are the parts of Total
station .
 APPLICATIONS OF USING TOTAL STATIONS:
There are many other facilities available, the total station can be used for the
following purposes.

1. Detail survey i.e., data collection.

2. Control Survey (Traverse).

3. Height measurement (Remove elevation measurement- REM).

4. Fixing of missing pillars (or) Setting out (or) Stake out.

5. Resection.

6. Area & Volume calculations, etc.

7. Remote distance measurement (RDM) or Missing line measurement (MLM)

Remote Elevation Measurement (REM) -The process of finding the height of objects without actually going to

the top of the object is known as Remote Elevation Measuring (REM) i.e., a total station placed remotely

(faraway) from the object is used to measure the heights.

Total Station Advantages of Using Total Stations:
The following are some of the major advantages of using total station over the
conventional surveying instruments:
1. Field work is carried out very fast.
2. Accuracy of measurement is high.
3. Manual errors involved in reading and recording are eliminated.
4. Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate. Even corrections for
temperature and pressure are automatically made.
5. Computers can be employed for map making and plotting contour and cross-sections.
Contour intervals and scales can be changed in no time
Uses of Using Total Stations:
The uses of Total Station are as follows:

• Mine Survey

• Cadastral Survey

• Engineering Survey

• Large Scale Survey

• Road / Rail / Canal Survey etc,.