SHRI SHAMBHUBHAI V.

PATEL COLLEGE OF COMPUTER

SCIENCE & BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

Affiliated to

Veer Narmad South Gujarat University

Seminar Report

On

“Superconductivity”
In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
Of
BACHELOR OF COMPUTER APPLICATION
[B.C.A]
Year 2024-2025
BCA-6th SEMESTER

SUBMITTED BY: GUIDED BY:

Pansuriya Nihar S. PROF. Rekhama’m

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Acknowledgement:
Many people have contributed to the success of this. Although a
single sentence hardly suffices, I would like to thank Almighty God for
blessing us with His grace. I extend my sincere and heartfelt thanks to
Mrs.Riddhi Joshi, Head of Division, Computer Science and Engineering,
for providing us the right ambience for carrying out this work. I am
profoundly indebted to my seminar guide, Prof. Rekhama’m for
innumerable acts of timely advice, encouragement and I sincerely
express my gratitude to her.

I express my immense pleasure and thankfulness to all the

teachers and staff of the Department of Computer Science and
Engineering, CUSAT for their cooperation and support.

Last but not the least, I thank all others, and especially my
classmates who in one way or another helped me in the successful
completion of this work.

From By

Pansuriya Nihar s.

2
Sr. No Topics Page
No

Acknowledgement (Mention your respective faculty's name) II

Contents(index) III

Abstract IV

1 Introduction to Superconductivity 6

Definition

Discovery by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1911)

2 Classical Elemental Superconductors 9

Table of elemental superconductors with Tc values

Nb3Ge alloy and historical Tc record (23.3 K until

1983)

3 High-Temperature Superconductors 12

Discovery in 1986 (YBa2Cu3O7)

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 Record Tc (134 K in TBCCO)

4 Effect of Trapped Magnetic Flux 14

Thought experiment with superconducting ring

Explanation via Faraday’s Law of Induction

Persistent current and its longevity

5 Meissner Effect 18

Expulsion of magnetic field from the superconductor

Thought experiment with a superconducting sphere

Surface current formation and magnetic field

cancellation

6 Penetration of Magnetic Field in Superconductors 21

Surface layer and penetration depth (λ)

Temperature dependence of penetration depth

7 Magnetic Properties of Superconductors 23

Magnetic field expulsion and critical field (Bc)

Temperature dependence of critical magnetic field

Relationship between resistivity, magnetization, and

field strength

8 Critical Current in Superconductors 25

Destruction of superconducting state by magnetic field

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 Formula for maximum superconducting current

9 Type I and Type II Superconductors 27

Differences in magnetic field

Nse

Behavior of Type II superconductors (Bc1 and Bc2)

Flux quantization and superconducting regions

10 Superconducting Magnets 28

Advantages over electromagnets

Use of Type-II
superconductors for high Bc

Niobium alloys in
superconducting magnets (20
Tesla field, 4 K operation)
11 Quantization of Magnetic Flux 29

Formula for quantum of flux

General expression for magnetic flux

quantization

Mechanism of Superconductivity

12 Energy Band Gap and Superconductivity 30

13 Josephson Effect 32

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6
7
 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
property of complete disappearance of electrical
resistance in solids when they are cooled below a
characteristic temperature. This temperature is called
transition temperature or critical temperature.

Superconductive state of mercury (TC=4.15 K) was

discovered by the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh
Onnes in 1911, several years after the discovery of
liquid helium.
Classical elemental superconductors
Element Transition temperature, K
Zinc 0.88
Aluminum 1.20
Indium 3.41
Tin 3.72
Mercury 4.15

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 Lead 7.19
Until 1983 record Tc=23.3 K was that of Nb3Ge alloy.

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Progress in Tc of superconductor materials with time

High temperature superconductors discovered in

1986: Tc=80-93 K, parent structure YBa2Cu3O7 . At
present the record transition temperature (TBCCO) is
now at TC= 134 K.

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Effect of trapped magnetic flux

Consider a ring made out of superconductive

material.

Perform the following thought experiment:

1. At T>Tc the material is normal state. When the
external magnetic field is turned on, it penetrates
through the ring.

2. Reduce the temperature so that T<Tc.

3. Remove the external magnetic field.

4. You discover that the magnetic field that

waspenetrating through the opening of the ring
magnetic field remains there. The magnetic flux
remains trapped in the ring opening.

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This effect can be explained in terms of Faraday’s law
of induction

 dΦ
E.dl =−
dt
 dΦ
E.dl =−
dt

where E is the electric filed along the closed loop, Φ is

the magnetic flux through the opening of the ring.

Before the external magnetic field was turned off

there was a magnetic flux Φ=B.(area) through the
ring.
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Below Tc the resistivity of superconductor becomes
equal to zero and therefore at T<Tc the electric field
inside the superconductor must be and is zero as
well. In view of this

z E.dl =
0 
and therefore,
the right side of Faraday’s equation

dΦ
=0
dt
which means that

Φ= B bareag= const
The magnetic flux Φ through the ring must remain
constant. For this reason the magnetic flux remains
trapped in the opening of the ring after the external
magnetic field has been turned off.

There is no magic involved. The trapped magnetic

field passing through the ring is due to the current
induced in the ring when the external magnetic field
was turned off.

The induced current is called the persistent current.

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The current persists, it does not decay because the
resistance of the ring is zero. Actually no decrease of
current was observed over the period of three years!
Theoretically, the relaxation time of current carriers in
the superconductor is greater than the age of
universe.

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Meissner effect
expulsion of magnetic field from the interior of the
superconductor Thought experiment
Consider a sphere made out of superconductive
material. At T>Tc the material is in normal state. When
external magnetic field is turned on, the external
magnetic field penetrates through the material.

On the basis of Faraday’s law,

 dΦ
E.dl =−
dt
one would expect that at T<Tc the magnetic field
would remain trapped in the material after the
external field has been turned off.
The trapping of magnetic field does not happen (the
absence of magnetic field inside the superconductor
is the Meissner effect). This is what happens:

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The magnetic field is expelled from the interior of the
superconductor, inside the superconductor B=0.

Superconductor expels magnetic field from the

interior by setting up electric current at the surface.
The surface current creates magnetic field that
exactly cancels the external magnetic field!

This electric current at the surface of the

superconductor appears at T<Tc in order that B=0
inside the superconductor.

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Penetration of magnetic field below the surface of
superconductors
The surface current is distributed in the surface layer,
the layer carrying the electric current has a finite
thickness, and because of this, the external magnetic
field partially penetrates into the interior of the
superconductor,

GHF−λxIJK
B(x) = Bexternal exp
λ = penetration distance at temperature T;

Temperature dependence of penetration distance

λ = penetration distance at temperature T; λ0 =
penetration distance at temperature T=0.

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 λ= λ0

1− GHT
TC IJK 4

F
λ0 = 30 - 130 nm, depending on the superconductor
material

The magnetic properties of superconductors

In addition to the loss of resistance, superconductors
prevent external magnetic field from penetrating the
interior of the superconductor. This expulsion of
external magnetic fields takes place for magnetic
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fields that are less than the critical field. Magnetic field
greater than BC destroys the superconductive state.

Critical magnetic field

The critical magnetic field depends upon the
temperature,

G
BC (T) = BC0 F H
FGH
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 IJK
TTC 2

KIJ 1−
BC0 = critical magnetic field at T=0.

Relationship between resistivity (a), magnetic field

inside the superconductive material (b) and
magnetization of superconductor as a function of
external magnetic field

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Critical current
Superconductive state is destroyed by magnetic field.

Consider a straight wire. Since electric current in the

wire creates magnetic field
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 B = µ 0I
2πr

The wire can carry maximum superconductive

current, Ic, corresponding to the critical magnetic field
Bc at the surface of the wire, r=R,

IC = 2πµRB0 C

µ0 = 4π 10-7 Tm/A is the magnetic permeability of free

space.

Type I and Type II Superconductors exhibit

different magnetic response to external
magnetic field.

In Type I superconductor the magnetic field is

completely expelled from the interior for B<BC.

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Type II superconductors have two values of critical
magnetic field, for B<BC1 the magnetic field is
completely expelled (Type-I behavior), whereas for
BC1<B<BC2 the magnetic field partially penetrates
through the material.

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The bulk of superconductor material breaks down into
two regions: superconductive from which the external
field is completely expelled, and normal through
which the external field penetrates.

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The normal regions are distributed as filaments filled
with the external magnetic field. The flux of magnetic
field through the filaments is quantized. Electric
current is induced at the interface between the normal
and the superconductive regions, the “surface” of
filaments is “wrapped” in current which cancels the
magnetic field in the superconductive regions.

The electric current is carried by the superconductive

regions of Type-II material.

Superconductive magnets
The main advantage of the superconductive magnet,
in contrast to the electromagnet, is that it does not
need to use (dissipate) energy to maintain the
magnetic field.
However,

IC = 2πµRB0 C

In order to achieve high critical currents in

superconductive magnets we need materials with
high Bc. Type-I superconductors are not suitable
because of low Bc. Type-II materials are used for
superconductive magnets.

Superconductive magnets achieving magnetic field of

about 20 Tesla use wire from niobium alloys, and
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operate at temperature of 4 K (cooled by liquid
helium).

Quantization of magnetic flux

Magnetic flux is quantized, the quantum of flux is

h −15
weber
Φ0 = 2e = 207.x10

(Wb=Tesla.m2)
In general, the magnetic flux is
Φ= nΦ0
where n is an integer.

Mechanism of superconductivity

Isotope effect, Tc depends on the mass of atoms

1

Tc ∝
mass of atoms constituting the crystallattice

Interaction between electrons and lattice atoms is

critical for the existence of superconductive state.
Good conductors (weak scattering from the lattice)
are poor superconductors (low TC).

Electrons on their flight through the lattice cause

lattice deformation (electrons attract the positively
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charged lattice atoms and slightly displace them)
which results in a trail of positively charged region.
This positively charged region of lattice atoms attracts
another electron and provides for electron-electron
coupling.

Electron pairs, and not single electrons, are charge

carriers in superconductors

The electron-electron coupling is weak and can be

destroyed by thermal motion of the lattice. For this

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reason superconductivity exists only at low
temperatures.

The electron-electron coupling results in electron

pairing - formation of Cooper pairs. The Cooper pairs
do not have spin 1/2 and therefore do not follow
Pauli’s principle (1 electron per state). Large number
of Cooper pairs can populate one collective state.
This state is stable and requires some additional
energy input (thermal energy) to be destroyed. The
binding energy of Cooper pairs in the collective state
is several meV.

Formation of Cooper pairs is a spontaneous process

resulting in lower energy state of electrons in the
superconductor. In superconductors, the filled state
are occupied by Coopers pairs, and the empty band,
above Eg, is occupied by “broken” Cooper pairs. The

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band gap Eg is a measure of binding energy of
Cooper pairs, the greater binding energy, the greater
Tc.
Eg = 3.53.kBTc
Eg confirmed from absorption spectra. For hc/λ>Eg
electromagnetic radiation absorbed.
“No scattering, no resistance”

The formation of collective state of Cooper pairs take

place at T<TC. In the collective bound state the
Cooper pairs do not scatter from the lattice and the
conductivity of superconductor is infinitely large.

Scattering of electrons from the lattice atoms require

a change of state of electron.

In the superconductive state the current carrying

species is the electron pair. For the Cooper pair to
scatter it would have to change its state (like an
electron in normal metal). However, the Cooper pair is
coupled to a large number of other Cooper pairs and
so the whole collective of Cooper pairs would have to
be involved in scattering at once. This does not
happen, and therefore there is no scattering of
Cooper pairs and therefore the conductivity is infinite.

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Current-voltage characteristics of metal-
insulatorsuperconductor junction

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Josephson effect

Consider two superconductors separated by a thin

insulating layer, few nm thick.

Brian Josephson noted (1962) that

1. Electron pairs in the two superconductors can form

a single collective state and the electron pairs can
tunnel through the insulating layer.

DC Josepson effect = electron tunneling curent

across the junction in the absence of applied voltage.

2. If a DC voltage bias is applied across the junction,

there is an AC current through the junction that
oscillates with frequency
2e
f=Vh

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The existence of ac current through the biased
junction = AC Josephson effect.

The AC Josephson effect provides a method for the

most accurate measurement of the electric potential
difference because f can be determined accurately by
“frequency counters”.
The value of 2e/h=483.6 MHz/µV.

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SQUID
=Superconductive QUantum Interference Device
consist of two Josephson junctions forming a ring.

SQUIDs are used to measure extremely weak

magnetic fields (for example, magnetic fields created
by currents in the brain in response to various stimuli
or thinking).

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Reference

i. https://www.its.dot.gov/
ii. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_transportation_syste
m
iii. https://www.verifiedmarketresearch.com/blog/top-intelligent-
traffic-management-systems/
iv. https://www.ptolemus.com/what-are-advanced-traffic-
management-systems-atms/
v. https://www.linkedin.com/company/tmt-traffic-management-
technologies-

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