Approved by AICTE, PCI COA, Ministry of HRD, BTEUP, Lucknow, Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J.A.K.

Technical University, Lucknow

Subject Name: Engineering Physics Subject Code- (BAS-101/BAS-201)

UNIT-V Superconductors and Nano-Materials Dr. Amar Pal Singh

Superconductivity:
Certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero resistivity (i.e. infinite conductivity),
when they are cooled to sufficiently low temperatures. This effect is called
superconductivity. This phenomenon was first of all discovered by H. K. Onnes in 1911
when measuring the electrical conductivity of metals at low temperatures.

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ρ
10

2 4 6 8

T (K)

Critical or Transition Temperature TC :-

The temperature at which the transition from normal state to superconducting state takes place on cooling
in the absence of magnetic field is called critical temperature or transition temperature TC.
Temperature Dependence of Resistivity in Superconducting Materials:-
Metals are good
conductors of electricity as they have plenty of free electrons. However they offer resistsnce to the flow of
charges i.e. current Fig (1) show the variation of resistivity (𝜌) of a metal with temperature. Even at oK,
the metals offer some resistance, called residual resistance. The dependence of resistivity of a
superconductor is shown in fig.(2). The resistance of the superconductor in non-superconducting state
decreases with decrease in temperature as in case of normal metal.

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 Fig.-1 Fig.-2

But at a particular temperature TC, the resistivity abruptly dropes to Zero. T C is called critical temperature.
Therefore , the temperature at which a normal material turns into a superconductor is called as critical
temperature. The critical temperature is different for different conductors.

The Meissner effect:-

When a weak magnetic is applied to a superconducting specimen at a

temperature below transition temperature TC the magnetic flux lines are expelled.

This phenomenon is called Meissner effect.

Under normal state the magnetic induction inside the specimen is

B  0 H  I 
Where H is the external applied magnetic field and I is the magnetization produced inside
the specimen.

When the specimen is in superconducting state B  0 (Meissner effect)

0  0 H  I 
Or H  I
I
   1
H

Thus the material is act as a perfectly diamagnetic (for diamagnetic material   1 ).

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 Let us consider a superconducting material is in normal state. From ohms law, the
electric field E  J
On cooling the material to its transition temperature  tends to zero. If J is held finite E
must be zero.

From Maxwell’s equations

 dB
 E 
dt
Under superconducting condition since E is zero
dB
 0 or B=constant.
dt
This means that the magnetic flux passing through the specimen should not change on
cooling to the transition temperature. The Meissner effect contradicts theresult.

Type I and type II superconductors. Or types of superconductors:-

Based on the diamagnetic response superconductors can be classified into two

types, they are
1. Type- I superconductors 2. Type-II Superconductors

1. Type- I superconductors:-
Superconductors which one follows a complete Meissner effect is called type Isuperconductors (also is known
as soft superconductors).
When the magnetic field strength is gradually increased from its initial value

H  H C , at H C the diamagnetism is abruptly disappear and the transition from

superconducting state to normal state is sharp as shown in figure. These

superconductors are known as soft superconductors.

Examples: - Al, Zn, Hg and Sn

Super
conducting Normal
state state
M
H Hc

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Type- II superconductors:-
Superconductors which does not follow the complete Meissner effect is
called typeI superconductors (also is known as hard superconductors).

In type II superconductors, the specimen is in pure superconducting state up to the

field 𝐻𝐶1 (lower critical field) when the field is increased beyond 𝐻𝐶2 (upper critical
state) the magnetic flux lines start penetrating. The specimen is in mixed state
between 𝐻 𝐶1and𝐻𝐶2. Above𝐻𝐶2 , the specimen is in normal state. This means that the

Meissner effect is incomplete in the region between 𝐻𝐶1 and𝐻𝐶2 . This region is known

as vertexregion. These superconductors are known as hard superconductors.

Examples: - Zr, Nb

Normal
Super state
M
conductin
Vortex
g state
region

HC 1
HC 2

5. Differences between type I and Type II superconductor

Type I superconductor Type II superconductor
1. It follows complete Meissner effect. 1. It does not follow the complete
Meissner effect
2. It has single critical field value HC 2. It has two critical field values
𝐻𝐶1and𝐻𝐶2
3. There no mixed state. 3. There is a mixed state

4. They are soft superconductors 4. They are hard superconductors

5. Materials with pure form are type 5. Materials with impurities or alloys
I- superconductors are type II superconductors

6. Examples; Zn, Al, Hg and Sn 6. Examples: Zr, Nb

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Temperature Dependence of critical Field Or Effect of external magnetic field
on superconductors:-
Superconductivity of a metal mainly depends on the temperature and strength
of the magnetic field in which the metal is placed. Superconductivity disappears if the
temperature of the specimen is raised above Tc or a strong enough magnetic field is

applied. At temperatures below Tc, in the absence of magnetic field, the material is in

superconducting state. When the strength of the magnetic field is applied to a critical
value H c the superconductivity disappears.

The dependence of critical field upon the temperature is given by

𝑇2
𝐻𝐶 (𝑇) = 𝐻𝐶 (0) ⌈1 − ⌉
𝑇𝐶2

Where HC(T) is the maximum critical field strength at temperature T, H C(0) is the maximum critical field
strength occurring at absolute zero and TC is the critical temperature.

he variation of HC w.r.t. T is shown in figure.


Persistent currents:-
An electric current is passing through the superconducting material its elf may
gives rise to necessary magnetic field. For example, when the current is passing a superconducting ring, it
gives rise to its own magnetic field. As the current increases to critical value I c , the associated magnetic field

becomes H C . And the superconductivity disappears. I C  2 rHC

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High Temperature Superconductors:-
The high temperature superconductors are neither metals
nor inter- metallic compounds but they are oxides. The discovery of high temperature superconductors
with transition above 10K is one of the greatest achievements of nineteenth century and a few materials
revolution. The present day scientist have been succeeded in developing various compounds and alloys
wich are superconductors at around 125K. They are relentlessly trying to discovers superconductivity near
room temperature, that is, about 300K. the superconductor with the highest transition temperature at
ambient pressure is the cuprate of mercury, barium, and calcium, at around 133 K. Example-
Ba Pb0.75 Bi0.25 O3 - TC = 12K, La1.85 Ba0.15 Cu O4 - TC = 36K, Y Ba2 Cu3 O7 – TC = 90K,
Tl2 Ba2 Ca2 Cu3 O 10 - TC= 120K
Properties of Superconductors:-

1. It is a low temperature phenomenon.

2. The transition temperature is different for different substances.

3. Materials having high normal resistivities exhibit superconductivity.

4. Materials for which Zr =106 (where Z is a atomic number and r is resistivity) show
Superconductivity.

5. For chemically pure and structurally perfect specimen, the superconductivity is very sharp.

6. Ferro magnetic and Anti ferromagnetic materials are not superconductors.

7. Below the transition temperature the magnetic flux lines are rejected out of thesuperconductors

8. Superconducting elements, in general, lie in the inner columns of the periodic table.

9. Those metallic elements having their valence electrons lies between 2 to 8 exhibit
superconductivity.

10. Below the transition temperature the specific heat curve is discontinuous.

Applications of Superconductors:-
There are many applications of Superconductors
1. Power transmission
2. Superconducting magnets
3. Electrical applications
4. Maglev vehicles
5. Very strong magnetic fields
6. Squids( Superconducting quantum interference devices)
7. For progress of computer technology.
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Introduction and properties of nano materials:-
The word “ nano” has a Greek
origin meaning dwarf (small). The term nanoscale refers to the dimension of 10 -9 meters. It is the
one billionth part of a meter. So, the particles whose any of the external dimensions or internal
structure dimension or surface structure dimension lies in the range of 1nm to 100nm are considered
as Nanomaterials. These materials are invisible to the naked eye. The material science-based
approach of nanotechnology is considered for nanomaterials. At this scale, these materials have
unique optical, electronic, mechanical and quantum properties compared to their molecular-scale
behavior.
A nanomaterial can be a nano object or a nanostructured material. Nao objects are the discrete
pieces of material, on the other hand, Nanostructured materials have their internal or surface
structure in the nanoscale dimension.
Nanomaterials can be of natural existence, artificially manufactured or incidentally formed. With the
advance in the research, nanomaterials are being commercialized and are being used as
commodities.

Properties of Nanomaterials:-
A drastic change in the properties of nanomaterials can be
observed when they are breakdown to the nanoscale level. As we go towards the nanoscale level
from the molecular level, the electronic properties of materials get modified due to the quantum size
effect. Change in the mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of the materials can be seen with
the increase in surface area to volume ratio at the nanoscale level.
Particle size, shape, chemical composition, crystal structure, physicochemical stability, surface area,
and surface energy, etc…attributes to the physicochemical properties of the nanomaterials.

At the nanoscale level, the interaction between particles is either due to the van der Waal forces or
strong polar or covalent bonds. The surface properties of the nanomaterials and their interactions
with other elements and environments can be modified with the use of polyelectrolytes.

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Basics concept of Quantum Dots, Quantum wires and Quantum well:-

Quantum well:-
If one dimension is reduced to the nanorange while other dimensions remain
large, then the structure so formed is known as well as shown in Fig.

Quantum wires:-
If one dimension is reduced to the nanorange while the third remains the same,
then the structure so formed is known as quantum wires as shown in Fig.

Quantum Dots:-
When all the three dimensions of the material are reduced to nano range, then it
is called quantum dot as shown in Fig.
It is important to mention here that the word quantum is associated with all the three structures. This
is because the changes in properties arise from quantum mechanical nature shown in figure
represents the corresponding reductions in curvilinear geometry.

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Fabrication of nano materials -Top- Down approach (CVD) and Bottom-Up
approach (Sol Gel):- Top-down and bottom-up are two ways to approach nanoscale. The top-down
approach means reduce the size of the structure toward the nanoscale. While the bottom-up approach is
the formation of large nanostructure from smaller atoms and molecule
There are plenty of methods to synthesis nano materials. These methods are grouped into two categories
namely Top-Down and Bottom-Up techniques. The techniques are classified based on the phase of the
starting material. In the Top-down class of techniques, the starting material is in solid state, whereas in
Bottom-Up techniques the starting material is either in gaseous state or in liquid state.
Top-down approach refers to a subtractive process in which a bulk starting material is divided into
smaller ones of nanosize. Bottom-up approach refers to an additive process that starts with precursor
atoms (or) molecules which combine to form nanosized structure. In bottom-up approach, nanostructures
are built atom-by-atom or molecule-by-molecule. Depending on the requirement we have to select an
appropriate method for prepration of nano materials. Few methods are listed here.

Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)

The material precursor is heated and evaporated. The atoms and
molecules are in gaseous phase. The atoms or molecules react homogenously or heterogeneously and
deposits on a solid surface. By CVD we can produce defect free and high purity nano materials.
Sol-Gel Synthesis
Sol-gel is one of the simple wet chemical techniques suitable for the preparation of nanoparticles (mostly
oxides) and nanocrytalline thin films. It is a superior method to all available methods since this method is
employed for large scale production at low cost.This method is based on inorganic polymerization
reaction including hydrolysis, polycondensation, gelation, aging, drying and calcinations or sintering.
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Properties
The quantum properties of the materials get affected as the sizes are reduced. The small size of these
materials makes them free from internal imperfections present in structures and gain protection from
mechanical failures. Even thermal and catalytic properties are observed once the bulk material is broken
down to the nanoscale.

An increase in the ratio of the area of the surface to volume leads the system to become more reactive.
These materials can rearrange the crystalline structure on dispersion.

Examples

In the field of cosmetics, the material called titanium oxide is used in the sunscreens. The field of sports
utilizes nanotubes of carbons to produce bats used in baseball. Because the bats made from this will be
lighter in weight resulting in the improvement of performance. Further, antimicrobial items like mats and
towels are made using nanotechnology so that illness due to bacteria can be prevented and are used by
sportspersons.

The systems made of sensors use nanomaterials called titanium dioxide in their development. It is helpful
in the military to detect the presence of biological agents. The plastic chairs used in gardens uses the
coatings of nanomaterial called titanium dioxide. A film on the creating is created so that any dirt is
dissolved can be removed with the next shower. and cleans the chairs.

Applications

The application of Nanomaterials are utilized in various processes of manufacturing, health care,
products as well as insulation, and so on. Some of the most important applications are listed as follows:

1. The applications of bioimaging prefer these materials. Because these particles can possess to vary
the intensity of the colors in the solutions. This is made possible by changing the thickness of the
shell, the percentage of gold, and the aspect ratio.
2. The nano-size particles such as gold will melt at lower temperatures in comparison to the bulkier
ones.
3. Nanomaterials are utilized in various processes of manufacturing, health care, products as well as
insulation, and so on.
4. Health care consisting of artificially developed enzymes are made from these nanomaterials.
These enzymes are useful in the diagnosis of a tumor and biosensing
5. The paints using materials protect from UV rays and are convenient during cleaning.
6. These particles are also used in the technology of cosmetics

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