Chapter Two

Transformer

Introduction
Types and Construction of Transformers
The Ideal Transformer
Theory of Operation of Real Single-Phase Transformers
The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
The Per-Unit System of Measurements
Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency
Three-Phase Transformer Connections

Introduction
A transformer is a static device that changes ac electric power at one
voltage level (primary) to ac electric power at another voltage level
(secondary) through the action of a magnetic field without the change
in frequency.
Transformer consists of
a core assemble of laminated ferromagnetic core
two or more coils of wire wrapped around a core(windings).
The transformer has not rotating part; hence it is often called a static
device. Although a transformer is not classified as an electrical
machine, the principles of its operation are fundamental for the
induction motor and synchronous machines. 2
It consists of one or more coils of wire wrapped around a common
ferromagnetic core.
The transformer winding connected to the power source is called the
primary winding or input winding.
The transformer winding connected to the loads is called the
secondary winding or output winding.
The primary and secondary windings are not connected electrically, but
coupled magnetically.
The transformer with three windings is called triple or three winding
transformer. The third winding on the transformer is called the tertiary
winding. 3

Schematic diagram of a two winding transformer

4
 Types and Construction of Transformers
All transformers have the following essential parts.
Electrical windings or coils
Laminated magnetic Core
The two basic type of transformer construction are the shell type
and core type transformer construction.
The two types of construction differ in their relative arrangement of
copper conductor and the iron cores.
The magnetic core of a transformer is made up of stacks of thin
laminations (0.35mm) of cold-rolled grain oriented silicon steel sheets
lightly insulated with varnish. Silicon steel has the desirable properties
5
of low cost, low core loss and high permeability at high flux.

Core type transformer

Consists of a simple rectangular or L shaped laminated piece of steel
To reduce the leakage flux problem -half of the low voltage winding
over one leg and other half over the second limb.
The copper conductor surrounds the core.
It has a longer mean length of core and a shorter mean length of coil
turns.
Therefore, it requires more iron core and fewer conductors for coils.
Has more rooms for ventilation is better adopt for low voltage
transformers
concentric coils types are used for core type transformers 6
 Figure 2.2 core type transformer
7

Shell type transformer:

Consists of a three-legged laminated core with the windings wrapped
around the center leg.
Core surrounds a major part of the windings.
It has better provision for mechanically supporting and bracing the coil.
The core is either E or F shaped and stacked to give a rectangular
figure eight.
To reduce the amount of the high voltage insulation required, the
low voltage coils place adjacent to the iron core.
Interleaved (or sand witched) coils types are used for shell type
transformers.
8
 9

10
Power transformers used in power systems are sometimes referred as
follows:
A power transformer connected to the output of a generator and used to
step its voltage up to the transmission level (110 kV and higher) is called a
unit transformer.
A transformer used at a substation to step the voltage from the
transmission level down to the distribution level (2.3 34.5 kV) is called a
substation transformer.
A transformer converting the distribution voltage down to the final level
(110 V, 220 V, etc.) is called a distribution transformer.
In addition to power transformers, other types of transformers are used. 11

Working Principle of a Transformer

The basic principle on which the
transformer works is Law
of Electromagnetic Induction or
mutual induction between the two
coils.
The transformer consists of two
separate windings placed over the
laminated silicon steel core.
It works on the alternating current only
because an alternating flux is required for
mutual induction between the two
12
windings.
 Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding and
an output winding. The idealizing assumptions made are:
i) The primary and secondary windings have zero resistance (no
ohmic power loss and no resistive voltage drop).
ii) There is no leakage flux so that all the flux is confide to the core and
links both windings.
iii) The core has infinite permeability so that zero magnetizing current is
needed to establish the requisite amount of flux in the core.
iv) The core loss (hysteresis and eddy current loss) is considered zero
13

We consider a lossless transformer

with an input (primary) winding
having turns and a secondary
winding of turns.
The relationship between the
voltage applied to the primary
winding and the voltage
produced on the secondary winding
is
Where a is the turns ration of the transformer.
14
 The relationship between the The phase angles of primary and
primary and secondary secondary voltages are the same.
currents is The phase angles of primary and
secondary currents are the same
also.
The turns ratio of the ideal
In the phasor notation transformer affects the magnitudes
of the voltages and currents, but not
their angles.

15

One terminal is usually 2) If the primary current flows into

marked by a dot used to determine the dotted end of the primary
the polarity of voltages and winding, the secondary current will
currents. flow out of the dotted end of the
1) If the voltage is positive at the secondary winding.
dotted end of the primary winding at
some moment of time, the voltage at
the dotted end of the secondary
winding will also be positive at the
same time instance.
16
 The current ratio on a transformer
The last approximation is valid for well-
designed unsaturated cores. Therefore:

An ideal transformer (unlike the real one) can

be characterized as follows:
1.The core has no hysteresis or eddy currents. Magnetization
curve of an ideal
2.The magnetization curve is transformer
3.The leakage flux in the core is zero.
4.The resistance of the windings is zero.
17

Power in an ideal transformer

Assuming that and are the angles between voltages and currents on
the primary and secondary windings respectively, the power supplied to the
transformer by the primary circuit is:

The power supplied to the output circuits is

Since ideal transformers do not affect angles between voltages and currents:

The primary and secondary windings of an ideal transformer have the same
power factor.
18
Since for an ideal transformer the following holds:

Therefore:

The output power of an ideal transformer equals to its input power to be

expected since assumed no loss. Similarly, for reactive and apparent powers:

19

Impedance Transformation
The impedance of a device or an The apparent impedance of the
element is defined as the ratio of primary circuit is:
the phasor voltage across it to the Which is
phasor current flowing through it:

A transformer changes voltages

and currents and, therefore, an With a transformer, it is possible
apparent impedance of the load to match the magnitude of a load
that is given by impedance to a source impedance
simply by picking the proper turns
ratio. 20
 b)Impedance scaling through a transformer
a) Definition of impedance

21

Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers

A simple method to analyze a circuit containing an ideal transformer is by
replacing the portion of the circuit on one side of the transformer by an
equivalent circuit with the same terminal characteristics.
Next, we exclude the transformer from the circuit and solve it for voltages
and currents.
The solutions obtained for the portion of the circuit that was not replaced
will be the correct values of voltages and currents of the original circuit.
Then the turns ratio of the transformer can be used to determine the
voltages and currents on the other side of the transformer.
The process of replacing one side of a transformer by its equivalent at the other side's
voltage level is known as referring the first side of the transformer to the second side. 22
 The voltage ratio across a real transformer
If the source voltage is applied to
the primary winding, the average flux in
average secondary flux
the primary winding will be: mutual flux

The portion of the flux that

goes through one of the
A portion of the flux produced in the
transformer coils but not the
primary coil passes through the secondary
other one is called
coil (mutual flux); the rest is lost (leakage
flux):
average primary flux mutual flux

Similarly, for the secondary coil: 23

The flux in the primary coil of the

transformer can thus be divided into
two components:
a , which remains in the
core and links both windings, and a
small leakage flux, which passes
through the primary winding but
returns through the air, bypassing
the secondary winding:

24
 :

The primary and secondary voltages due to the mutual flux are:

Combining the last two equations:

25

Therefore:

That is, the ratio(turn ratio)

For well-designed transformers:

Therefore, the following approximation normally holds:

26
 The magnetization current in a real transformer
Even when no load is connected to the secondary coil of the transformer, a
current will flow in the primary coil. This current consists of:
The magnetization current needed to produce the flux in the core;
The core-loss current hysteresis and eddy current losses.
Ignoring flux leakage and assuming time-harmonic primary voltage, the
average flux is:

If the values of current are comparable to the flux they produce in the
core, it is possible to sketch a magnetization current. We observe:
27

1. The magnetization current in the transformer is not sinusoidal. The higher

frequency components in the magnetization current are due to magnetic
saturation in the transformer core.
2. Once the peak flux reaches the saturation point in the core, a small increase
in peak flux requires a very large increase in the peak magnetization current.
3. The fundamental component of the magnetization current lags the voltage
applied to the core by 90°.
4. The higher-frequency components in the magnetization current can be
quite large compared to the fundamental component. In general, the further a
transformer core is driven into saturation, the larger the harmonic
components will become. 28
 Assuming a sinusoidal flux in the core, the eddy currents will be largest when flux passes zero.

Flux causing the

magnetization current

29
Typical magnetization curve

The other component of the no- Core-loss current is:

load current in the transformer is 1. The core- loss current is nonlinear
the current required to supply because of the nonlinear effects of
power to make up the hysteresis hysteresis.
and eddy current losses in the core. 2. The fundamental component of
this is the core-loss current. the core- loss current is in phase with
the voltage applied to the core. Non
linear due to nonlinear effects of
hysteresis;
Core-loss current
30
The total no-load current in the
core is called the excitation current
of the transformer: It is just the
sum of the magnetization current
and the core- loss current in the
core:

Total excitation current in a transformer

31

The Current Ratio on a Transformer

If a load is connected to the Where is the reluctance of the
secondary coil, there will be a transformer core. For well-designed
current flowing through it. transformer cores, the reluctance is
A current flowing into the dotted very small if the core is not
end of a winding produces a saturated. Therefore:
positive magnetomotive force F:

The net magnetomotive force in

the core

32
 The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
To model a real transformer accurately, we need to account for the
following losses:
Copper losses( resistive heating losses in the windings:
Eddy current losses resistive heating losses in the core: proportional to
the square of voltage applied to the transformer.
Hysteresis losses energy needed to rearrange magnetic domains in the
core: nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.
Leakage flux the fluxes and that escapes from the core and flux
that passes through one winding only. These escaped fluxes produce a self-
inductance in the primary and secondary coils.
33

The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer

Copper losses are modeled by the resistors and .
Leakage flux in a primary winding produces the voltage:
Since much of the leakage flux pass through air, and air has a constant
reluctance that is much higher than the core reluctance, the primary
leakage flux is:

where is permeance of flux path

Therefore:
34
Recognizing that the self-inductance of the primary coil is

The induced voltages in the primary coil and secondary coil are:

The leakage flux can be modeled by primary and secondary inductors.

The magnetization current can be modeled by a reactance connected
across the primary voltage source.
The core-loss current can be modeled by a resistance connected across
the primary voltage source.
Both currents are nonlinear; therefore, and are just approximations. 35

However, the exact circuit

is not very practical.
Therefore, the equivalent
circuit is usually referred
to the primary side or the
secondary side of the
transformer.
The exact equivalent circuit of real transformer

36
 Equivalent circuit referred to the primary side

Equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side

37

Approximate equivalent circuit of a transformer

For many practical applications, The values of components of the
approximate models of transformers transformer model can be
are used. determined experimentally by an
a) Referred to the primary side. open-circuit test or by a short-
b) Referred to the secondary side. circuit test.
c)Without an excitation branch
referred to the primary side.
d) Without an excitation branch
referred to the secondary side.
38
 a) b)

39
c) d)

Determining the values of components

The open-circuit test
Full line voltage is applied to the
primary side of the transformer. The
input voltage, current, and power are
measured.
From this information, the power factor
of the input current and the magnitude
and the angle of the excitation
impedance can be determined. The susceptance of the
To evaluate and , we determine magnetizing inductor is:
the conductance of the core-loss
resistor is: 40
Since both elements are in parallel, their admittances add. Therefore, the
total excitation admittance is:

The magnitude of the excitation admittance in the open-circuit test is:

The angle of the admittance in the open-circuit test can be found from the
circuit power factor (PF):

41

In real transformers, the power factor is always lagging, so the angle of the
current always lags the angle of the voltage by degrees. The admittance is:

The power-factor angle ( ) is given by

Therefore, it is possible to determine values of and in the open-

circuit test.

42
 The short-circuit test.
Fairly low input voltage is applied to the primary
side of the transformer. This voltage is adjusted
until the current in the secondary winding equals
to its rated value.
The input voltage, current, and power are again
measured.
Since the input voltage is low, the current
flowing through the excitation branch is The power factor of the
negligible; therefore, all the voltage drop in the current is given by:
transformer is due to the series elements in the
(Lagging)
circuit. The magnitude of the series impedance
referred to the primary side of the transformer
is: 43

Therefore:
Since the series impedance is equal to

It is possible to determine the total series impedance referred to the

primary side of the transformer. However, there is no easy way to split the
series impedance into primary and secondary components.
The same tests can be performed on the secondary side of the transformer.
The results will yield the equivalent circuit impedances referred to the
secondary side of the transformer. 44
 The per-unit system
Another approach to solve circuits containing transformers is the per-unit system.
Impedance and voltage-level conversions are avoided. Also, machine and transformer
impedances fall within fairly narrow ranges for each type and construction of device
while the per-unit system is employed.
The voltages, currents, powers, impedances, and other electrical quantities are measured
as fractions of some base level instead of conventional units.

Usually, two base quantities are selected to define a given per-unit system. Often, such
quantities are voltage and power (or apparent power). In a 1-phase system:

45

Ones the base values of P (or S) and V are selected, all other base values can be
computed from the above equations.
In a power system, a base apparent power and voltage are selected at the specific point
in the system. Note that a transformer has no effect on the apparent power of the
system, since the apparent power into a transformer equals the apparent power out of a
transformer. As a result, the base apparent power remains constant everywhere in the
power system.
On the other hand, voltage (and, therefore, a base voltage) changes when it goes
through a transformer according to its turn ratio. Therefore, the process of referring
quantities to a common voltage level is done automatically in the per-unit system.
46
When only one device (transformer or motor) is analyzed, its own ratings
are used as the basis for per-unit system. When considering a transformer
in a per-unit system, characteristics will not vary much over a
wide range of voltages and powers. For example, the series resistance is
usually from 0.02 to 0.1 pu; the magnetizing reactance is usually from 10 to
40 pu; the core-loss resistance is usually from 50 to 200 pu. Also, the per-
unit impedances of synchronous and induction machines fall within
relatively narrow ranges over quite large size ranges.
If more than one transformer is present in a system, the system base
voltage and power can be chosen arbitrary. However, the entire system must
have the same base power, and the base voltages at various points in the 47

system must be related by the voltage ratios of the transformers.

System base quantities are commonly chosen to the base of the largest
component in the system.
Per-unit values given to another base can be converted to the new base
either through an intermediate step (converting them to the actual values)
or directly as follows:

48
 Voltage Regulation and Efficiency of Transformers
Since a real transformer contains series impedances, the
output voltage varies with the load even if the input voltage is constant. To
compare transformers in this respect, the quantity called a full-load voltage
regulation (VR) is defined as follows:

In a per-unit system:

Where and are the secondary no load and full load voltages.
Note, the VR of an ideal transformer is zero. 49

The transformer phasor diagram

To determine the VR of a transformer, it is necessary to understand the
voltage drops within it. Usually, the effects of the excitation branch on
transformer VR can be ignored and, therefore, only the series impedances
need to be considered.
The VR depends on the magnitude of the impedances and on the current
phase angle.
A phasor diagram is often used in the VR determinations.
The phasor voltage is assumed to be at and all other voltages and
currents are compared to it.

50
Considering the diagram referred
to the secondary side and by
applying the voltage
law, the primary voltage is:

A transformer phasor diagram is a

graphical representation of this
equation.

51

A transformer operating at a
lagging power factor. It is seen
that
A transformer operating at a unity
power factor. It is seen that
A transformer operating at a
leading power factor. If the
secondary current is leading, the
secondary voltage can be higher
than the referred primary voltage;
52
 Derivation of the approximate equation for
For lagging loads the vertical component of and will partially
cancel each other. Due to that the angle of will be very small, hence
we can assume that is horizontal. Therefore the approximation will be

53

The Transformer Efficiency

The efficiency of a transformer is defined as:

Note: the same equation describes the efficiency of motors and generators.
Considering the transformer equivalent circuit, we notice three types of
losses:
Copper ( ) losses are accounted for by the series resistance
Hysteresis losses are accounted for by the resistor .
Eddy current losses are accounted for by the resistor
54
Since the output power is

The efficiency of the transformer can be expressed by:

Example?
55

Transformer taps and voltage regulation

Taps allow adjustment of the transformer in the field to accommodate for
local voltage variations.
Sometimes, transformers are used on a power line, whose voltage varies
widely with the load (due to high line impedance, for instance). Normal
loads need fairly constant input voltage though
One possible solution to this problem is to use a special transformer called
a tap changing under load (TCUL) transformer or voltage regulator. TCUL
is a transformer with the ability to change taps while power is connected to
it. A voltage regulator is a TCUL with build-in voltage sensing circuitry that
automatically changes taps to keep the system voltage constant.
These - transformers are very common in modern power systems. 56
 The Autotransformer
Sometimes, it is desirable to change the voltage by a small amount (for
instance, when the consumer is far away from the generator and it is needed
to raise the voltage to compensate for voltage drops).
In such situations, it would be expensive to wind a transformer with two
windings of approximately equal number of turns. An autotransformer (a
transformer with only one winding) is used instead.
Diagrams of step-up and step-down autotransformers are shown below:
Output (up) or input (down) voltage is a sum of voltages across common
and series windings.

57

Series
winding
Series winding

Common Common winding

winding

A step-up autotransformer connection A step-down autotransformer connection

Output (up) or input (down) voltage is a sum of voltages across

common and series windings.
58
Since the coils are physically connected, a different terminology is
used for autotransformers:
The voltage across the common winding is called a common voltage , and the current
through this coil is called a common current . The voltage across the series winding is
called a series voltage , and the current through that coil is called a series current .
The voltage and current on the low-voltage side are called and ; the voltage and
current on the high-voltage side are called and .
For the autotransformers:

59

Voltage and Current relationships in an Autotransformer

60
 The apparent power advantage of Autotransformers
Not all the power traveling from the primary to the secondary winding of the
autotransformer goes through the windings. As a result, an autotransformer can handle
much power than the conventional transformer (with the same windings).
Considering a step-up autotransformer, the apparent input and output powers are:

It is easy show that

Where is the input and output apparent powers of the autotransformer.
However

61

Therefore, the ratio of the apparent power in the primary and secondary of
the autotransformer to the apparent power actually traveling through its
windings is

The last equation described the apparent power rating advantage of an

autotransformer over a conventional transformer.
is the apparent power actually passing through the windings. The rest
passes from primary to secondary parts without being coupled through the
windings.
Note that the smaller the series winding, the greater the advantage! 62
For example, a 5 MVA autotransformer that connects a 110 kV system to a
138 kV system would have a turns ratio (common to series) 110:28. Such an
autotransformer would actually have windings rated at:
MVA
Therefore, the autotransformer would have windings rated at slightly over 1
MVA instead of 5 MVA, which makes is 5 times smaller and, therefore,
considerably less expensive.
However, the construction of autotransformers is usually slightly different.
In particular, the insulation on the smaller coil (the series winding) of the
autotransformer is made as strong as the insulation on the larger coil 63

to withstand the full output voltage.

Variable-voltage Autotransformers
The effective per-unit impedance of an autotransformer is smaller than of
a conventional transformer by a reciprocal to its power advantage. This is
an additional disadvantage of autotransformers.
It is a common practice to make variable voltage autotransformers.

64
 Three Phase transformers
The majority of the power generation/distribution systems in the world are
3-phase systems. Transformers for 3-phase circuits can be constructed in
two ways:
Connect 3 single phase transformers
Three sets of windings wrapped around a common core.
A single three-phase transformer is lighter, smaller, cheaper, and slightly
more efficient, but using three separate single-phase transformers has the
advantage that each unit in the bank could be replaced individually in the
event of trouble.

65

A three-phase transformer bank composed A three phase transformer wound on a single

of independent transformers. three-legged core. 66
 Three Phase Transformer Connections
We assume that any single transformer in a 3-phase transformer (bank)
behaves exactly as a single-phase transformer. The impedance, voltage
regulation, efficiency, and other calculations for 3-phase transformers are
done on a per-phase basis, using the techniques studied previously for
single-phase transformers.
Four possible connections for a 3-phase transformer bank are:
1. Wye-Wye(Y-Y)
2. Wye-Delta(Y- )
3. Delta-Delta( - )
4. Delta-Wye( -Y)
67

1. Y-Y Connection
The primary voltage on each phase
of the transformer is

The secondary phase voltage is

The overall voltage ratio is

68
The Y-Y connection has two very serious problems:
1). If loads on one of the transformer circuits are unbalanced, the voltages
on the phases of the transformer can become severely unbalanced.
2). The third harmonic issue.
The voltages in any phase of an Y-Y transformer are apart from the
voltages in any other phase. However, the third-harmonic components of
each phase will be in phase with each other. Nonlinearities in the
transformer core always lead to generation of third harmonic! These
components will add up resulting in large (can be even larger than the
fundamental component) third harmonic component.
69

Both problems can be solved by one of two techniques:

1). Solidly ground the neutral of the transformers (especially, the primary
side). The third harmonic will flow in the neutral and a return path will be
established for the unbalanced loads.
2). Add a third -connected winding. A circulating current at the third
harmonic will flow through it suppressing the third harmonic in other
windings.

70
 2. Y- Connection
The primary voltage on each phase
of the transformer is

The secondary phase voltage is

The overall voltage ratio is

71

The Y- connection has no problem with third harmonic components due

to circulating currents in . It is also more stable to unbalanced loads since
the partially redistributes any imbalance that occurs.
One problem associated with this connection is that the secondary voltage
is shifted by with respect to the primary voltage. This can cause
problems when paralleling 3-phase transformers since transformers
secondary voltages must be in-phase to be paralleled. Therefore, we must
pay attention to these shifts.
In the U.S., it is common to make the secondary voltage to lag the primary
voltage. The connection shown in the previous slide will do it.
72
 3. -Y Connection
The primary voltage on each phase
of the transformer is

The secondary phase voltage is

The overall voltage ratio is

73

4. - Connection
The primary voltage on each phase
of the transformer is

The secondary phase voltage is

The overall voltage ratio is

74
 3-phase transformer: per-unit system
The per-unit system applies to the 3-phase transformers as well as to single-
phase transformers. If the total base VA value of the transformer bank is
, the base VA value of one of the transformers will be

Therefore, the base phase current and impedance of the transformer are

75

The line quantities on 3-phase transformer banks can also be represented in

per-unit system. If the windings are in :

If the windings are in Y:

And the base line current in a 3-phase transformer bank is

The application of the per-unit system to 3-phase transformer problems is

similar to its application in single-phase situations. The voltage regulation 76

of the transformer bank is the same.

 Transformer ratings
Transformers have the following major ratings:
Apparent power;
Voltage;
Current;
Frequency.

77

Transformer ratings: Voltage and Frequency

Transformer ratings: Voltage and
Frequency
If a steady-state voltage

is
An increase in voltage will lead to a
proportional increase in flux. However,
flux will be after some point (in a saturation region),
such increase in flux would require an
unacceptable increase in magnetization
current!
78
 Magnetization current
Fig. The effect of the peak flux in a
transformer core upon the required
magnetization current

79

Transformer ratings: Voltage and Frequency

Therefore, the maximum applied voltage (and thus the rated voltage) is set
by the maximum acceptable magnetization current in the core.
We notice that the maximum flux is also related to the frequency:

Therefore, to maintain the same maximum flux, a change in frequency (say,

50 Hz instead of 60 Hz) must be accompanied by the corresponding
correction in the maximum allowed voltage. This reduction in applied
voltage with frequency is called derating. As a result, a 50 Hz transformer
may be operated at a 20% higher voltage on 60 Hz if this would not cause
insulation damage. 80
 Transformer ratings: Apparent Power
The apparent power rating sets (together with the voltage rating) the
current through the windings. The current determines the losses and,
therefore, the heating of the coils. Remember, overheating shortens the life
of insulation!
In addition to apparent power rating for the transformer itself, additional
(higher) rating(s) may be specified if a forced cooling is used. Under any
circumstances, the temperature of the windings must be limited.
Note, that if the voltage is reduced (for instance, the
transformer is working at a lower frequency), the apparent power rating
must be reduced by an equal amount to maintain the constant current.
81

Transformer ratings: Current inrush

Assuming that the following voltage is applied to the transformer at the
moment it is connected to the line:

The maximum flux reached on the first half-cycle depends on the phase of
the voltage at the instant the voltage is applied. If the initial voltage is

and the initial flux in the core is zero, the maximum flux during the first
half-cycle is equals to the maximum steady-state flux (which is ok):

82
 Cont
The maximum flux during the first Doubling the maximum flux in the core
half-cycle will be can bring the core in a saturation and,
therefore, may result in a huge
magnetization current!
Normally, the voltage phase angle
cannot be controlled. As a result, a large
inrush current is possible during the first
several cycles after the transformer is
turned ON.
The transformer and the power system
Which is twice higher than a normal must be able to handle these currents.
steady-state flux!
83

The current inrush due to a transformer's magnetization current on starting. 84

 Transformer ratings: Information Plate
Rated voltage, currents, and (or)
power is typically shown on the

Additional information, such as per-unit

series impedance, type of cooling, etc.
can also be specified on the plate.
85

Instrument Transformers
Two special-purpose transformers are used to take measurements: potential
and current transformers.
A potential transformer has a high-voltage primary, low-voltage secondary,
and very low power rating. It is used to provide an accurate voltage samples
to instruments monitoring the power system.
A current transformer samples the current in a line and reduces it to a safe
and measurable level. Such transformer consists of a secondary winding
wrapped around a ferromagnetic ring with a single primary line (that may
carry a large current )running through its center. The ring holds a small
sample of the flux from the primary line. That flux induces a secondary
voltage. 86
Windings in current transformers are loosely coupled: the mutual flux is
much smaller than the leakage flux. The voltage and current ratios do not
apply although the secondary current is directly proportional to the
primary.
Current transformers must be short-circuited at all times since very high
voltages can appear across their terminals.

87

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 INTRODUCTION

By parallel operation we mean two or more transformers are connected to the

same supply bus bars on the primary side and to a common bus bar/load on the
secondary side
 There are three principal reasons for connecting transformers in parallel.

If one transformer fails, the continuity of supply can be maintained through other
transformers.

when the load on the substation becomes more than the capacity of the existing
transformers, another transformer can be added in parallel.

Any transformer can be taken out of the circuit for repair/routine maintenance
without interrupting supply to the consumers.

Some more reasons that necessitate parallel operation of transformers are as follows.

Non-availability of a single large transformer to meet the total load requirement.

The power demand might have increased over a time necessitating augmentation of
the capacity. More transformers connected in parallel will then increase the capacity.

To ensure improved reliability. Even if one of the transformers gets into a fault or is
taken out for maintenance.

To reduce the spare capacity. If many smaller size transformers are used one machine
can be used as spare. If only one large machine is feeding the load, a spare of similar
rating has to be available. The problem of spares becomes more acute with fewer
machines in service at a location.

When transportation problems limit installation of large transformers at site, it may be

easier to transport smaller ones to site and work them in parallel.
 Conditions for Parallel Operation of Single Phase Transformer

In order that the transformers work satisfactorily in parallel, the following conditions
should be satisfied:

1. Primary windings of the transformers should be suitable for the supply system
voltage and frequency.

2. Transformers should be properly connected with regard to polarity.

3. The voltage ratings and voltage ratios of the transformers should be the same. i.e.
Same transformation ratio.

4. The per unit or percentage impedances of the transformers should be equal.

5. The resistance/reactance (X/R) ratios of the transformers should be the same.

Condition (2) - Connection with regard to Polarity

Condition (2) is absolutely essential because wrong connections may result in dead short-
circuit. Figure (i) shows the correct method of connecting two single-phase transformers in
parallel. For round the loop formed by the secondaries, the two secondary E.M.F.s and
oppose and there will be no circulating current.

Figure (ii) shows the wrong method of connecting two single-phase transformers is parallel.
Here the two secondaries are so connected that their E.M.F.s and are additive.
This may lead to short-circuit conditions and a very large circulating current will flow in the
loop formed by the two secondaries. Such a condition may damage the transformers
unless they are protected by fuses and circuit breakers
 Condition (3) - Same Voltage Rating and Voltage Ratio

This condition is desirable for the satisfactory parallel operation of transformers. If this
condition is not met, the secondary E.M.F.s will not be equal and there will be circulating
current in the loop formed by the secondaries. This will result in the unsatisfactory
parallel operation of transformers. Let us illustrate this point. Consider two single-phase
transformer A and B operating in parallel as shown in Figure below. Let and be their
no-load secondary voltages and and be their impedances referred to the
secondary. Then at no-load, the circulating current in the loop formed by the secondaries
is

Condition (3) - Same Voltage Rating and Voltage Ratio ---continued

Even a small difference in the induced secondary voltages can cause a large circulating
current in the secondary loop because impedances of the transformers are small.

This secondary circulating current will cause current to be drawn from the supply by the
primary of each transformer.

These currents will cause copper losses in both primary and secondary. This creates
heating with no useful output. When load is connected to the system, this circulating
current will tend to produce unequal loading conditions i.e., the transformers will not
share the load according to their kVA ratings. It is because the circulating current will
tend to make the terminal voltages of the same value for both transformers.

-Therefore, transformer with smaller voltage ratio will tend to carry more than its
proper share of load. Thus, one transformer would tend to become overloaded than
the other and the system could not be loaded to the summation of
transformer ratings without overloading one transformer.
 Condition (4) - Equal Percentage Impedance

This condition is also desirable for proper parallel operation of single

phase transformers. If this condition is not met, the transformers will not share the
load according to their kVA ratings.

Sometimes this condition is not fulfilled by the design of the transformers. In that case,
it can be corrected by inserting proper amount of resistance or reactance or both in
series with either primary or secondary circuits of the transformers where the
impedance is below the value required to fulfil this condition.

Z%= (Impedance Voltage/Rated Voltage)*100

The percentage impedance of a transformer is the volt drop on full load due to the
winding resistance and leakage reactance expressed as a percentage of the rated
voltage.
It is also the percentage of the normal terminal voltage required to circulate full-load
current under short circuit conditions

Condition (5) - Same resistance/reactance (X/R) Ratio

If the resistance/reactance (X/R) ratios of the two transformers are not equal, the
power factor of the load supplied by the transformers will not be equal. In other
words, one transformer will be operating with a higher and the other with a
lower power factor than that of the load.
 Advantages of Transformer Parallel Operation:

1) Maximize electrical system efficiency: Generally electrical power transformer gives the
maximum efficiency at full load. If we run numbers of transformers in parallel, we can switch
on only those transformers which will give the total demand by running nearer to its full load
rating for that time. When load increases, we can switch one by one transformer connected
in parallel to fulfill the total demand. In this way we can run the system with maximum
efficiency.
2) Maximize electrical system availability: If numbers of transformers run in parallel, we
can shutdown any one of them for maintenance purpose. Other parallel transformers in
system will serve the load without total interruption of power.
3) Maximize power system reliability: if any one of the transformers run in parallel, is
tripped due to fault of other parallel transformers is the system will share the load, hence
power supply may not be interrupted if the shared loads do not make other transformers
over loaded.
4) Maximize electrical system flexibility: There is always a chance of increasing or
decreasing future demand of power system, so options should be there to add or drop
parallel transformer.

Disadvantages of Transformer Parallel Operation:

Increasing short-circuit currents that increase necessary breaker capacity.

The risk of circulating currents running from one transformer to another Transformer.
Circulating currents that diminish load capability and increased losses.

The bus ratings could be too high.

Paralleling transformers reduces the transformer impedance significantly, i.e. the

parallel transformers may have very low impedance, which creates the high short
circuit currents. Therefore, some current limiters are needed, e.g. reactors, fuses,
high impedance buses, etc
 Parallel Operation of 3-phase Transformers

All the conditions which apply to the parallel operation of single-phase transformers
also apply to the parallel running of 3-phase transformers but with the following
additions :

The voltage ratio must refer to the terminal voltage of primary and secondary. It is
obvious that this ratio may not be equal to the ratio of the number of turns per
phase. For example, if V1, V2 are the primary and secondary terminal voltages, then
for connection, the turn ratio is =

The phase displacement between primary and secondary voltages must be the same
for all transformers which are to be connected for parallel operation.

The phase sequence must be the same.

All three transformers in the 3-phase transformer bank will be of the same
construction either core or shell.