COMPUTER NETWORK

PHYSICAL LAYER-
Types Of Computer Network-
Physical layer works on hardware
Topologies-
Mesh
Star
Ring-The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
Bus
Tree
Hybrid
Mainchester vs differential mainchester-
Differential menchester-

Mainchester-
Digital Transmission
Data can be represented either in analog or digital form. The computers
used the digital form to store the information. Therefore, the data needs
to be converted in digital form so that it can be used by a computer.

DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Digital-to-digital encoding is the representation of digital information by a
digital signal. When binary 1s and 0s generated by the computer are
translated into a sequence of voltage pulses that can be propagated over
a wire, this process is known as digital-to-digital encoding.

Digital-to-digital encoding is divided into three categories:

o Unipolar Encoding
o Polar Encoding
o Bipolar Encoding

Unipolar

o Digital transmission system sends the voltage pulses over the

medium link such as wire or cable.
o In most types of encoding, one voltage level represents 0, and
another voltage level represents 1.
o The polarity of each pulse determines whether it is positive or
negative.
o This type of encoding is known as Unipolar encoding as it uses only
one polarity.
o In Unipolar encoding, the polarity is assigned to the 1 binary state.
 o In this, 1s are represented as a positive value and 0s are
represented as a zero value.
o In Unipolar Encoding, '1' is considered as a high voltage and '0' is
considered as a zero voltage.
o Unipolar encoding is simpler and inexpensive to implement.

Unipolar encoding has two problems that make this scheme less
desirable:

o DC Component
o Synchronization

Polar

o Polar encoding is an encoding scheme that uses two voltage levels:

one is positive, and another is negative.
o By using two voltage levels, an average voltage level is reduced,
and the DC component problem of unipolar encoding scheme is
alleviated.
NRZ

o NRZ stands for Non-return zero.

o In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal can be represented either
positive or negative.

The two most common methods used in NRZ are:

NRZ-L: In NRZ-L encoding, the level of the signal depends on the type of
the bit that it represents. If a bit is 0 or 1, then their voltages will be
positive and negative respectively. Therefore, we can say that the level of
the signal is dependent on the state of the bit.

NRZ-I: NRZ-I is an inversion of the voltage level that represents 1 bit. In

the NRZ-I encoding scheme, a transition occurs between the positive and
negative voltage that represents 1 bit. In this scheme, 0 bit represents no
change and 1 bit represents a change in voltage level.
RZ

o RZ stands for Return to zero.

o There must be a signal change for each bit to achieve
synchronization. However, to change with every bit, we need to
have three values: positive, negative and zero.
o RZ is an encoding scheme that provides three values, positive
voltage represents 1, the negative voltage represents 0, and zero
voltage represents none.
o In the RZ scheme, halfway through each interval, the signal returns
to zero.
o In RZ scheme, 1 bit is represented by positive-to-zero and 0 bit is
represented by negative-to-zero.
Disadvantage of RZ:

It performs two signal changes to encode one bit that acquires more
bandwidth.

Biphase

o Biphase is an encoding scheme in which signal changes at the

middle of the bit interval but does not return to zero.

Biphase encoding is implemented in two different ways:

Manchester

o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval but does not
return to zero for synchronization.
o In Manchester encoding, a negative-to-positive transition represents
binary 1, and positive-to-negative transition represents 0.
o Manchester has the same level of synchronization as RZ scheme
except that it has two levels of amplitude.

Differential Manchester
 o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval for
synchronization, but the presence or absence of the transition at the
beginning of the interval determines the bit. A transition means
binary 0 and no transition means binary 1.
o In Manchester Encoding scheme, two signal changes represent 0
and one signal change represent 1.

Bipolar

o Bipolar encoding scheme represents three voltage levels: positive,

negative, and zero.
o In Bipolar encoding scheme, zero level represents binary 0, and
binary 1 is represented by alternating positive and negative
voltages.
o If the first 1 bit is represented by positive amplitude, then the
second 1 bit is represented by negative voltage, third 1 bit is
 represented by the positive amplitude and so on. This alternation
can also occur even when the 1bits are not consecutive.

Bipolar can be classified as:

AMI

o AMI stands for alternate mark inversion where mark work comes
from telegraphy which means 1. So, it can be redefined
as alternate 1 inversion.
o In Bipolar AMI encoding scheme, 0 bit is represented by zero level
and 1 bit is represented by alternating positive and negative
voltages.

Advantage:

o DC component is zero.
o Sequence of 1s bits are synchronized.

Disadvantage:

o This encoding scheme does not ensure the synchronization of a long

string of 0s bits.

B8ZS

o B8ZS stands for Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution.

o This technique is adopted in North America to provide
synchronization of a long sequence of 0s bits.
 o In most of the cases, the functionality of B8ZS is similar to the
bipolar AMI, but the only difference is that it provides the
synchronization when a long sequence of 0s bits occur.
o B8ZS ensures synchronization of a long string of 0s by providing
force artificial signal changes called violations, within 0 string
pattern.
o When eight 0 occurs, then B8ZS implements some changes in 0s
string pattern based on the polarity of the previous 1 bit.
o If the polarity of the previous 1 bit is positive, the eight 0s will be
encoded as zero, zero, zero, positive, negative, zero, negative,
positive.

o If the polarity of previous 1 bit is negative, then the eight 0s will be

encoded as zero, zero, zero, negative, positive, zero, positive,
negative.

HDB3

o HDB3 stands for High-Density Bipolar 3.

o HDB3 technique was first adopted in Europe and Japan.
o HDB3 technique is designed to provide the synchronization of a long
sequence of 0s bits.
o In the HDB3 technique, the pattern of violation is based on the
polarity of the previous bit.
 o When four 0s occur, HDB3 looks at the number of 1s bits occurred
since the last substitution.
o If the number of 1s bits is odd, then the violation is made on the
fourth consecutive of 0. If the polarity of the previous bit is positive,
then the violation is positive. If the polarity of the previous bit is
negative, then the violation is negative.

If the number of 1s bits since the last substitution is odd.

If the number of 1s bits is even, then the violation is made on the place of
the first and fourth consecutive 0s. If the polarity of the previous bit is
positive, then violations are negative, and if the polarity of the previous
bit is negative, then violations are positive.

If the number of 1s bits since the last substitution is even.

ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
 o When an analog signal is digitalized, this is called an analog-to-
digital conversion.
o Suppose human sends a voice in the form of an analog signal, we
need to digitalize the analog signal which is less prone to noise. It
requires a reduction in the number of values in an analog message
so that they can be represented in the digital stream.
o In analog-to-digital conversion, the information contained in a
continuous wave form is converted in digital pulses.

Techniques for Analog-To-Digital Conversion

PAM

o PAM stands for pulse amplitude modulation.

o PAM is a technique used in analog-to-digital conversion.
o PAM technique takes an analog signal, samples it, and generates a
series of digital pulses based on the result of sampling where
sampling means measuring the amplitude of a signal at equal
intervals.
o PAM technique is not useful in data communication as it translates
the original wave form into pulses, but these pulses are not digital.
To make them digital, PAM technique is modified to PCM technique.
PCM

o PCM stands for Pulse Code Modulation.

o PCM technique is used to modify the pulses created by PAM to form
a digital signal. To achieve this, PCM quantizes PAM pulses.
Quantization is a process of assigning integral values in a specific
range to sampled instances.
o PCM is made of four separate processes: PAM, quantization, binary
encoding, and digital-to-digital encoding.
PCM

DEVICES IN COMPUTER NETWORK-

Guided Media
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are
transmitted. It is also known as Bounded media.

Types Of Guided media:

Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with
each other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other
transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is
a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to
3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular

spiral pattern.

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the

number of turns per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot
decreases noise interference.
Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following
are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-

speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used
for long-distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of

attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the
wire that allows the higher transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

 o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not
very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.

Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for
example, TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors
parallel to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and
the outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is
made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner
conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the
copper mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of

transmitting a single signal at high speed.
 2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of
transmitting multiple signals simultaneously.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire
network.

Fibre Optic
o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for
communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic
that are used to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

 o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic
known as a core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The
more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the
fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The
main functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive
index at the core interface as to cause the reflection within the core
so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a
jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre
strength, absorb shock and extra fibre protection.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more

bandwidth as compared copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries
more data as compared to copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light.
This allows the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher
speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a
longer distance as compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the
copper cable as it is immune to any temperature changes while it
can cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in
weight so it can withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.

UnGuided Transmission
o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves
without using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known
as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the
electromagnetic energy can flow easily.

Radio waves
 o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in
all the directions of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in
all the directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are
not aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be
received by any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for
communication over short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer
between two cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer
between a computer and cell phone resides in the same closed
area.
o
 o

Collision Domain
When a device transmits a message to the network, all other devices that
are a part of its collision domain must pay attention to it, regardless of
whether it was intended for them or not. This situation is known as a
collision domain. This is problematic because it will result in a collision if
two devices send out their messages at the same time, forcing them to
wait and send them again one at a time. It only occurs using a half-duplex
mode, so keep that in mind.
 o Broadcast Domain
When a device transmits a broadcast message, all other devices in
that device's broadcast domain must pay attention to it. This
situation is known as a broadcast domain. As a result, the network
experiences significant LAN congestion, which reduces the available
bandwidth for the users.
This leads us to the conclusion that the network is more effective at
supplying better bandwidth to all of its users. There should be more
collision domains and more broadcast domains.

SWITCHING TECHNIQUES-
Circuit -
Packet-

Circuit switching read in detail

What is Modulation?
Last Updated : 08 Apr, 2024


 
Modulation can be digital or analog, the input wave of the analog
signal varies continuously like a sine wave. Modulation can be
defined as the process of converting data into waves by adding
information to a carrier signal. Such a signal can be transmitted
electronically or optically, but it must have a consistent
waveform.
What is Modulation?
The process by which data is converted into electrical/digital
signals for transferring that signal over a medium is called
modulation. It increases strength for maximum reach of the
signals. The process of extracting data from the transmitted
signal is called demodulation. A Modem is a device that performs
both modulation and demodulation processes. The various forms
of modulation are designed to alter the characteristics of carrier
waves. The most commonly altered characteristics of modulation
include amplitude, frequency, and phase.
 Carrier signal: The signals that contain no information
but have a certain phase, frequency, and amplitude are
called carrier signals.
 Modulated signals: The signals which are the
combination of the carrier signals and modulation signals
are modulated signals. The modulated signal is obtained
after the modulation of the signals.
Types of Modulation
 Amplitude Modulation: It is a type of modulation in
which only the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to
represent the data being added to the signals whereas
the phase and the frequency of the signal are kept
unchanged.

Amplitude Modulation

 Frequency Modulation: It is a type of modulation in

which only the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to
represent the frequency of the data whereas the phase
and the amplitude of the signals are kept unchanged.
 Frequency Modulation

 Phase Modulation: It is a type of modulation in which

the phase of the carrier signal is varied to represent the
data being added to the signal. Different information
values are represented by different phases. For example:
‘1’ may be represented by 0° while ‘0’ by 180°.

Phase Modulation

What is the Need of Modulation?

 Size of Antenna: As we know that the size of the
antenna is inversely proportional to the frequency of the
radiated signal and antenna size must be 1/10th of the
wavelength. If the frequency signals are more than 5KHz
in that case it is quite impossible to set up an antenna of
that size. So, by using the modulation technique the size
of the antenna is reduced.
 Wireless Communication: Modulation provides a
wireless connection to transmit the signals to a longer
distance. Earlier we used wire systems (like the
telephone) to transfer information with the help of
telephonic wires but it was not possible to spread the
wires all over the world for communication. By using the
modulation technique, the cost of wire is saved and even
information can be transferred to longer distances faster.
Working of Modulation
Data can be added to the carrier signal by varying its amplitude,
frequency, and phase. Basically, modulation is applied to
electromagnetic signals like radio waves, optics, and computer
networks. It can also be applied to direct current that can be
treated as a degenerate carrier wave with a fixed amplitude and
frequency of 0 Hz by turning it off and on as in a digital current
loop and in Morse code telegraphy.
Advantages of Modulation
 It reduces the size of the antenna.
 It reduces the cost of wires.
 It prohibits the mixing of signals.
 It increases the range of communication.
 It improves the reception quality.
 It easily multiplexes the signals.
 It also allows the adjustment of the bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Modulation
 The cost of the equipment is higher.
 The receiver and the transmitter are very complicated.
 For better communication, the antennas for the FM
system must be kept closed.
 It is not efficient for large bandwidth.
 Power wastage takes place.
Define Duty Cycle
In wireless communications, the duty cycle is the percentage of
time the wireless network emits RF signals. As a result, the duty
cycle is an important factor when measuring a person’s exposure
to electromagnetic radiation. The actual duty cycle differs based
on the network’s data load and speed. As a result, the duty cycle
can be changed by whether the network is used for Voice Over
Internet Protocol(VoIP), streaming videos, or videos.
Difference Between Modulation and
Demodulation
Modulation Demodulation

The process by which data is converted into The process of extracting data
electrical/digital signals for transferring that from the transmitted signal is
signal over a medium is called modulation. called demodulation.

Demodulation is connected from

Modulation is connected from transmitting end.
Receiving end.

Modulation converts digital signal to analog Demodulation converts analog

signal. signal to digital signal.
 Modulation Demodulation

The transmission of frequency in modulation The transmission of frequency in

goes low to high. demodulation goes high to low.

In demodulation, the circuit used

In modulation, the circuit used is modulator.
is demodulator.

MULTIPLEXING-
NETWORK LAYER-
DHCP(dynamic host configure protocol)-