World History: Key Events & Concepts for UPSC CSE Revision

I. The French Revolution (Late 18th Century - Early 19th Century)

Core Concepts Explained:

• Liberty: Freedom from oppression, tyranny, and unreasonable restrictions imposed

by the state; freedom of thought, speech, and action.
• Equality: All citizens are equal before the law, and have equal rights and
opportunities, irrespective of birth or social status. This challenged the existing
social hierarchy.
• Fraternity: A sense of brotherhood and unity among citizens of the nation,
emphasizing national solidarity.
• End of Monarchy: The overthrow of hereditary rule by a king or queen.
• Rise of Nationalism: The idea that people sharing a common language, culture,
and territory form a distinct nation and should have their own self-governing state.
The Revolution fostered a strong sense of French national identity, distinct from
loyalty to the monarch, and this idea subsequently challenged existing multi-
national empires.
• Rights of Man: The belief that individuals possess inherent, fundamental rights (like
life, liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression) that governments
cannot take away.
• Constitutionalism: The idea that government power should be limited by a
constitution, a set of fundamental laws and principles.
• Republic: A form of government where the head of state is an elected or nominated
president, not a hereditary monarch, and where supreme power rests with the
citizens entitled to vote.

Timeline & Key Events (with Enhanced Significance):

• 1774: Accession of Louis XVI

o Context: France was facing severe financial crisis due to wars and
extravagant spending. Society was divided into Three Estates: the First
(clergy) and Second (nobility) enjoyed privileges and paid no taxes, while the
Third Estate (commoners, peasants, bourgeoisie) bore the tax burden and
faced economic hardship and subsistence crises (difficulty in obtaining
basic food).
 o Significance: The existing socio-political and economic structure was
unsustainable and deeply unjust, creating widespread discontent that fueled
the revolution.
• 1789: Outbreak of the Revolution
o May 5: Convocation of Estates General. The dispute over voting (Third Estate
demanded voting by head, not by estate) highlighted the power imbalance.
o June 20: Tennis Court Oath. This was a pivotal act of defiance where the
Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, asserting popular
sovereignty over monarchical authority.
o July 14: Storming of the Bastille. The Bastille was a royal fortress and prison,
symbolizing the king's absolute and arbitrary power. Its fall was a powerful
symbolic victory for the revolutionaries.
o August 4: Abolition of feudal privileges and tithes (taxes paid to the Church).
This dismantled the feudal system, a cornerstone of the Old Regime's
inequality.
o August 26: Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. This document laid
the philosophical foundation for the revolution, proclaiming universal rights
and becoming a blueprint for modern democracies.
o Significance: These pivotal events signified the collapse of the Old Regime
(absolute monarchy and feudalism) and firmly established popular
sovereignty and individual rights as foundational principles for a new
French society.
• 1791: Constitutional Monarchy
o A new constitution limited the monarch's powers and established a
separation of powers (legislature, executive, judiciary), reflecting
Enlightenment ideals.
o However, voting rights were restricted to 'active citizens' (men with sufficient
property), showing that equality was not yet fully realized.
o Significance: This was France's first attempt at a written constitution and a
representative government, moving away from absolute monarchy but
stopping short of full democracy.
• 1792-1793: France becomes a Republic
o April 1792: War against Prussia and Austria (who feared the spread of
revolutionary ideas). This war radicalized the revolution.
o August 10, 1792: Storming of the Palace of Tuileries; Royal family
imprisoned. This effectively ended the monarchy.
o September 21, 1792: Monarchy formally abolished, and France was
declared a republic.
 o January 21, 1793: Louis XVI executed for treason.
o Significance: This marked a more radical phase. The establishment of the
Republic signified a complete break from the monarchical past and an
attempt to create a government based on popular will (initially with universal
male suffrage).
• 1793-1794: The Reign of Terror
o Led by Maximilien Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety
(dominated by Jacobins).
o A period of extreme measures to defend the Revolution from internal and
external enemies. Thousands, including nobles, clergy, and even fellow
revolutionaries, were executed by the guillotine.
o The abolition of slavery in French colonies (1794) was a significant, albeit
temporary, progressive step.
o Significance: While aimed at preserving the Revolution, the Terror
demonstrated the dangers of revolutionary extremism and the potential for
ideals to be subverted by violence and repression. It raised questions about
the limits of state power.
• 1795-1799: The Directory
o After Robespierre's execution, the wealthier middle classes (bourgeoisie)
regained control.
o A new, more conservative constitution established a five-member executive
called the Directory.
o This period was marked by political instability, corruption, and economic
difficulties.
o Significance: The Directory's weakness and inability to provide stable
governance created a power vacuum, paving the way for the rise of a strong
military leader, Napoleon Bonaparte.
• 1804: Napoleon Bonaparte becomes Emperor
o Napoleon, a successful general, seized power in a coup d'état in 1799 and
eventually crowned himself Emperor.
o He introduced the Napoleonic Code, a comprehensive legal system that
enshrined principles like equality before the law, protection of private
property, and secularism. It influenced legal systems in many countries.
o He modernized French administration and institutions but also pursued
aggressive military campaigns to establish a vast European empire.
o Significance: Napoleon consolidated many revolutionary changes (like legal
equality) but also betrayed others (like democratic rule). He spread French
 revolutionary ideals and institutions across Europe through his conquests,
inadvertently fueling nationalism in conquered territories.
• 1815: Defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo
o Significance: This marked the end of Napoleon's empire and the French
domination of Europe. However, the ideas unleashed by the French
Revolution (liberty, equality, nationalism, democratic rights) had taken root
and continued to inspire political movements and shape the course of the
19th and 20th centuries globally.

Legacy: The French Revolution fundamentally altered political thought and practice. It
championed the ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity, popular sovereignty, democratic
rights, nationalism, and the concept of the nation-state. These became powerful,
transformative forces that shaped modern history.

II. Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution (Late 19th Century - Early 20th
Century)
Core Concepts Explained:

• Socialism: A political and economic theory advocating that the means of

production, distribution, and exchange (e.g., factories, land, banks) should be
owned or regulated by the community as a whole, rather than by private individuals.
It aims for greater social and economic equality.
• Communism: A more radical form of socialism, often associated with Karl Marx,
advocating for a classless society where all property is communally owned, and the
state eventually withers away. It typically involves revolutionary overthrow of the
capitalist system.
• Capitalism: An economic system characterized by private ownership of the means
of production and their operation for profit. Often leads to wealth concentration and
social stratification.
• Industrial Revolution's impact: Led to new factory systems, urbanization, but also
created harsh working conditions, low wages, child labor, and a wide gap between
the wealthy factory owners (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat).
• Workers' rights: Demands for better wages, shorter working hours, safer
conditions, and the right to form unions.
• Class struggle: Marx's theory that history is driven by conflict between different
economic classes, primarily the bourgeoisie (owners of capital) and the proletariat
(workers).
 • Revolution: A forcible overthrow of a government or social order in favor of a new
system.
• Autocracy: A system of government by one person with absolute power (e.g., the
Tsar in Russia).
• Proletariat: The working class, especially industrial wage earners, who do not own
the means of production.
• Bourgeoisie: The capitalist class who own most of society's wealth and means of
production.
• Planned economy: An economic system in which the government makes all
decisions about the production and allocation of goods and services.

Timeline & Key Events (with Enhanced Significance):

• Mid-19th Century: Rise of Socialist Ideas

o Context: The Industrial Revolution created immense wealth but also
widespread poverty and exploitation of workers.
o Thinkers like Robert Owen (utopian socialism, cooperative communities),
Louis Blanc (state-supported workshops), Karl Marx, and Friedrich Engels
(scientific socialism, class struggle, inevitable communist revolution)
offered critiques of capitalism and proposed alternatives.
o Core Socialist ideas aimed to address the injustices of capitalism by
advocating for collective ownership or control of resources and a more
equitable distribution of wealth.
o Significance: These ideas provided a powerful intellectual and moral
framework for the growing working-class movements and challenged the
dominance of capitalist ideology.
• Late 19th Century - Early 20th Century: Growth of Socialist Movements
o Workers began organizing into associations, trade unions, and political
parties (e.g., the Social Democratic Party (SPD) in Germany, which became a
model for others; the Labour Party in Britain).
o The Second International was an organization of socialist and labor parties
from various countries, aiming to coordinate their efforts.
o Significance: Socialist ideas translated into organized political action,
gradually influencing legislation and pushing for social reforms even in
capitalist countries.
• Russia Before 1905:
o Tsarist autocracy under Nicholas II was repressive and out of touch with the
people's needs.
 o Russia was predominantly agrarian, with peasants yearning for land.
Industrialization was late but rapid in certain areas, creating a concentrated
and often militant working class facing harsh conditions.
o The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party, founded on Marxist ideas,
operated illegally due to government policing. The split into Bolsheviks
(advocating for a disciplined party of professional revolutionaries, led by
Lenin) and Mensheviks (favoring a broader-based party) was crucial for
future events.
o The Socialist Revolutionary Party focused on peasant grievances and land
redistribution.
o Significance: The combination of an oppressive autocratic regime,
unresolved land issues, and a radicalized working class created a volatile
situation, making Russia fertile ground for revolutionary ideas.
• 1905: The "Bloody Sunday" and the 1905 Revolution
o Context: Russia's humiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)
exposed government incompetence. Economic hardship and worker
discontent were high.
o January 22 (Bloody Sunday): Tsarist troops fired on a peaceful
demonstration of workers in St. Petersburg, shattering the image of the Tsar
as a "father figure."
o This sparked widespread strikes, peasant uprisings, military mutinies, and
demands for a constitution and civil liberties.
o The Tsar reluctantly agreed to the creation of an elected consultative
Parliament (Duma), but he retained most of his autocratic powers and
dissolved early Dumas that challenged him.
o Significance: Though the revolution was ultimately suppressed, it forced
some concessions from the Tsar and served as a "dress rehearsal" for 1917.
It showed the potential for mass mobilization and further weakened the
Tsarist regime.
• 1914-1917: First World War and its Impact on Russia
o Initial patriotic fervor quickly dissipated due to massive military defeats,
enormous casualties (over 7 million by 1917), economic collapse (food
shortages, inflation), and the Tsar's mismanagement of the war effort.
o The Tsarina Alexandra's German background and the influence of the mystic
Rasputin further discredited the monarchy.
o Significance: The war stretched the Tsarist system to its breaking point,
creating widespread disillusionment and revolutionary conditions. It acted
as a catalyst for the 1917 revolutions.
• 1917: The Russian Revolution
o February Revolution (March by Gregorian calendar):
▪ Sparked by food shortages and strikes in Petrograd (formerly St.
Petersburg), notably led by women workers on International Women's
Day.
▪ Soldiers refused to fire on demonstrators and joined the revolt.
▪ Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate (March 2).
▪ A Provisional Government was formed by liberal and moderate
socialist Duma leaders, but it shared power uneasily with the
Petrograd Soviet (council) of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies.
▪ Significance: The centuries-old Tsarist autocracy was overthrown, but
the Provisional Government faced immense challenges, including
continuing the unpopular war.
o April Theses (Lenin's return from exile): Lenin called for an immediate
socialist revolution, demanding an end to the war, transfer of land to
peasants, nationalization of banks, and sloganed "All power to the Soviets."
This radicalized the Bolshevik platform.
o July Days: Spontaneous pro-Bolshevik demonstrations in Petrograd were
suppressed by the Provisional Government, forcing many Bolshevik leaders,
including Lenin, into hiding.
o October Revolution (November by Gregorian calendar):
▪ October 24 (November 6-7): The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and
organized by Leon Trotsky, launched a well-planned armed
insurrection.
▪ The Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet seized
key government buildings, communication centers, and arrested
ministers of the Provisional Government.
▪ The storming of the Winter Palace became a symbolic moment.
▪ The All Russian Congress of Soviets, where Bolsheviks and their allies
had a majority, approved the seizure of power.
▪ Significance: The Bolsheviks successfully overthrew the Provisional
Government and established the world's first socialist state, aiming
to build a society based on Marxist principles. This event had
profound global repercussions.
• Post-October Revolution Changes:
o Immediate decrees included nationalization of industry and banks, and
declaring land as social property, allowing peasants to seize land from the
nobility and the Church.
 o The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party.
o Russia transitioned into a one-party state with suppression of political
opposition.
o The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918) ended Russia's involvement in WWI,
ceding vast territories to Germany, a controversial but necessary step for the
Bolsheviks to consolidate power.
• 1918-1920: Civil War
o A brutal conflict between the Bolsheviks (the 'Reds') and their opponents:
the 'Whites' (anti-Bolshevik forces including monarchists, liberals, and other
socialists, often backed by foreign powers like Britain, France, USA, and
Japan) and the 'Greens' (peasant groups fighting for local autonomy).
o The Bolsheviks, under Trotsky's military leadership and through policies like
'War Communism' (grain requisitioning, nationalization), ultimately emerged
victorious.
o Significance: The Civil War devastated Russia, led to millions of deaths, and
consolidated the Bolsheviks' authoritarian control.
• 1922: Formation of USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)
o A federation of Soviet republics was formally established.
• Stalinism and Collectivization (from late 1920s):
o After Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin consolidated power.
o He launched a program of rapid industrialization through centralized Five
Year Plans, transforming the USSR from an agrarian society into an industrial
power.
o Simultaneously, he enforced the forced collectivization of agriculture,
compelling peasants to give up their individual farms and join collective
farms (kolkhozy). This was aimed at increasing grain production for export
and feeding industrial workers, and eliminating the 'kulaks' (prosperous
peasants) as a class.
o Collectivization met with widespread peasant resistance, leading to
destruction of livestock, man-made famines (especially in Ukraine, the
Holodomor), and the deportation or execution of millions.
o Stalin's rule was also characterized by political purges, show trials, and the
establishment of a vast system of forced labor camps (Gulag).
o Significance: Stalin's policies transformed the Soviet economy and military
capabilities but at an enormous human cost, establishing a totalitarian
regime marked by extreme repression and state control over all aspects of
life.
Global Influence: The Russian Revolution and the establishment of the USSR inspired
communist parties and revolutionary movements across the globe. It offered a powerful
alternative model to capitalism, especially attractive to colonized peoples seeking
independence and to those disillusioned by capitalist crises like the Great Depression. It
also led to the Cold War, a decades-long ideological and geopolitical struggle between the
communist bloc and the capitalist West.

III. Nazism and the Rise of Hitler (Early to Mid-20th Century)

Core Concepts Explained:

• Nazism (National Socialism): A totalitarian ideology and political system of Adolf

Hitler's Nazi Party in Germany. Characterized by extreme nationalism, racism
(especially anti-Semitism), the concept of an Aryan "master race," aggressive
expansionism (Lebensraum), a centralized autocratic state, and the Führerprinzip
(leader principle).
• Fascism: A far-right, authoritarian ultranationalist political ideology characterized
by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation
of society and the economy. Nazism is a specific form of fascism.
• Totalitarianism: A system of government that is centralized and dictatorial and
requires complete subservience to the state. The state attempts to control all
aspects of public and private life.
• Propaganda: Information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to
promote a political cause or point of view. The Nazis were masters of propaganda.
• Racism (Aryan supremacy, Anti-Semitism): The belief that one's own race is
superior to others. Nazism promoted the idea of a "pure" Aryan master race (Nordic
Germans) and virulent anti-Semitism (hatred and persecution of Jews), whom they
blamed for Germany's problems.
• Lebensraum (living space): The Nazi concept that Germany needed to expand its
territory, especially eastward into Eastern Europe, to provide living space and
resources for its growing "Aryan" population.
• Genocide (Holocaust): The deliberate and systematic extermination of a national,
racial, political, or cultural group. The Holocaust was the Nazi genocide of
approximately six million European Jews during World War II.
• Dictatorship: Rule by a single person or a small group with absolute authority, not
constrained by a constitution or laws.
• World War II: The global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, largely triggered by Nazi
Germany's expansionist policies.
Timeline & Key Events (with Enhanced Significance):

• Post-WWI Germany: Birth of the Weimar Republic

o Germany's defeat in WWI led to the abdication of the Emperor and the
establishment of a democratic republic at Weimar.
o The Treaty of Versailles (1919) imposed extremely harsh terms on Germany:
significant territorial losses, severe restrictions on its military
(demilitarization), acceptance of sole responsibility for the war (the "war guilt
clause"), and crippling financial reparations (£6 billion). These terms were a
constant source of national humiliation and economic strain, directly
undermining the legitimacy and stability of the fledgling Weimar
Republic from its inception.
o Many Germans, especially nationalists and conservatives, viewed the
Weimar Republic as weak and treacherous for accepting these terms,
labeling its supporters the "November criminals."
o The early years were marked by political instability, attempted coups (like
the Spartacist uprising by communists and right-wing putsches), and severe
economic problems, including hyperinflation in 1923 when the German
currency became virtually worthless.
o Significance: The humiliation of the Versailles Treaty and the economic and
political instability of the Weimar Republic created deep resentment and a
fertile ground for extremist ideologies like Nazism.
• 1920s: Years of Instability and Depression
o A period of relative economic stability and cultural vibrancy (the "Golden
Twenties") between 1924 and 1928 was largely financed by short-term loans
from the USA (Dawes Plan).
o The Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the ensuing Great Depression had a
devastating impact on Germany as US loans were recalled. Factories shut
down, unemployment soared to unprecedented levels (6 million by 1932),
and businesses collapsed.
o The economic crisis shattered public confidence in the democratic
parliamentary system, which seemed incapable of providing solutions.
o Significance: The Great Depression was a crucial turning point, radicalizing
the German population and dramatically increasing support for extremist
parties like the Nazis and Communists, who promised decisive action.
• Hitler's Rise to Power:
o Adolf Hitler, an Austrian-born former corporal decorated for bravery in WWI,
was deeply embittered by Germany's defeat and the Versailles Treaty. He
 joined the small German Workers' Party in 1919, which he soon transformed
into the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP or Nazi Party),
becoming its charismatic leader.
o His attempt to seize power in Bavaria in the Beer Hall Putsch (1923) failed,
and he was briefly imprisoned, during which he wrote Mein Kampf (My
Struggle), outlining his ideology.
o The Nazi Party remained a fringe group until the Great Depression. Nazi
propaganda, masterfully orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels, exploited
popular discontent. It promised to restore Germany's strength and national
pride, overturn the Versailles Treaty, provide employment, secure the future
for youth, and eliminate "foreign" (especially Jewish) influences and
"conspiracies."
o Hitler was a powerful and captivating orator. The Nazis used mass rallies,
parades, symbols like the Swastika, and the Nazi salute to create an image
of strength, unity, and dynamism.
o By 1932, the Nazi Party had become the largest party in the Reichstag
(German parliament) with 37% of the votes, though not an outright majority.
o Significance: Hitler's rise was facilitated by a combination of factors:
national humiliation, economic despair, fear of communism among the
middle and upper classes, the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic, and his
own demagogic skills and effective propaganda.
• 1933: Hitler becomes Chancellor
o January 30: Conservative elites, underestimating Hitler and hoping to use
him for their own ends, persuaded President Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as
Chancellor.
o February 28 (Reichstag Fire Decree): Following a mysterious fire in the
Reichstag building (which the Nazis blamed on communists), a decree
suspended fundamental civic rights like freedom of speech, press, and
assembly. This was used to suppress political opponents, especially
communists.
o March 3 (Enabling Act): Passed by the Reichstag (with intimidation of
opponents), this act effectively gave Hitler's government dictatorial powers
to legislate without parliamentary consent for four years, thus dismantling
the democratic framework of the Weimar Republic.
o Subsequently, all other political parties and trade unions were banned, and
Germany became a one-party Nazi state.
o The Nazis established complete control over the economy, media, army, and
judiciary.
 o Special surveillance and security forces were created or expanded: the
Gestapo (secret state police), the SS (Schutzstaffel, initially Hitler's
bodyguard, later a vast military and security organization), and the SD
(Sicherheitsdienst, the SS intelligence agency). These instruments of terror
enforced Nazi rule.
o Significance: Within months of becoming Chancellor, Hitler systematically
dismantled democracy and established a totalitarian dictatorship, laying the
groundwork for his radical policies.
• Nazi Worldview and Policies:
o Racial Hierarchy: Central to Nazi ideology was the belief in a racial
hierarchy with the "Aryan" (Nordic German) race at the top as the "master
race," destined to rule. Jews were placed at the bottom, demonized as an
"anti-race" and blamed for all of Germany's (and the world's) problems.
Other groups like Slavs, Roma (Gypsies), and Black people were also
considered "inferior."
o Lebensraum (Living Space): The Nazis believed Germany needed to
conquer vast territories, particularly in Eastern Europe (Poland, Soviet
Union), to provide "living space" and agricultural resources for the expanding
Aryan population. This was a key driver of their aggressive foreign policy.
o Establishment of Racial State:
▪ The Nazis aimed to create an exclusive racial community of "pure
Germans" by systematically eliminating those deemed "undesirable."
▪ The Euthanasia Program targeted Germans considered mentally or
physically disabled.
▪ The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 stripped Jews of their German
citizenship, forbade marriages and extramarital relations between
Jews and Germans, and excluded them from many professions.
▪ Organized violence against Jews, such as the "Kristallnacht" (Night of
Broken Glass) pogrom in November 1938, involved attacks on Jewish
homes, businesses, and synagogues.
▪ Jews were progressively segregated into ghettos and eventually
subjected to systematic extermination in concentration and
extermination camps (like Auschwitz, Treblinka) through gassing,
shooting, starvation, and forced labor – this genocide is known as The
Holocaust.
o Youth in Nazi Germany: The Nazis placed enormous emphasis on
indoctrinating youth. Schools were "cleansed" of Jewish or "politically
unreliable" teachers. Curricula were rewritten to promote Nazi ideology,
 racial "science," hatred for Jews, and worship of Hitler. Boys were trained for
aggression and military service in organizations like the Jungvolk and Hitler
Youth.
o Cult of Motherhood: Women were primarily seen as mothers whose role
was to produce "racially pure" Aryan children. They were encouraged
through awards (Honour Crosses) and propaganda to have large families.
Women who did not conform or who had relationships with "undesirables"
were punished.
o Art of Propaganda: The Nazi regime expertly used propaganda through films
(e.g., "The Eternal Jew," which stereotyped and dehumanized Jews), radio,
posters, newspapers, and mass rallies to manipulate public opinion, create
a cult of personality around Hitler, and foster hatred for targeted groups.
o Significance: Nazi policies were driven by a brutal and pseudo-scientific
racial ideology that led to unprecedented state-sponsored persecution,
mass murder, and war.
• Reconstruction and Expansionist Foreign Policy:
o Economically, the Nazis launched large public works programs (like building
autobahns/superhighways) and rearmament, which significantly reduced
unemployment (though often through suppressing wages and workers'
rights). The Volkswagen ("people's car") was part of this.
o In foreign policy, Hitler systematically violated the Treaty of Versailles: he
pulled Germany out of the League of Nations (1933), reintroduced military
conscription, reoccupied the demilitarized Rhineland (1936), annexed
Austria (Anschluss, 1938), and then annexed the German-speaking
Sudentenland region of Czechoslovakia (1938) after the Munich Agreement
(where Britain and France pursued a policy of appeasement).
o Significance: These early successes in reviving the economy (partially) and
restoring Germany's international standing (in defiance of Versailles)
boosted Hitler's popularity at home and emboldened him to pursue more
aggressive expansion.
• 1939-1945: Second World War
o September 1, 1939: Germany invaded Poland, using "Blitzkrieg" (lightning
war) tactics. This act triggered declarations of war by Britain and France,
marking the beginning of World War II in Europe.
o The Tripartite Pact (1940) formalized the alliance between Germany, Italy,
and Japan (the Axis Powers).
o June 1941: Hitler launched a massive surprise invasion of the Soviet Union
(Operation Barbarossa), his primary ideological and territorial target. This
 opened up the vast Eastern Front and proved to be a catastrophic strategic
error.
o December 1941: Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the United
States officially entered the war on the side of the Allies (Britain, Soviet
Union, etc.).
o The mass murder of European Jews (the Holocaust) was systematically
implemented and intensified during the war, with millions killed in
extermination camps.
o May 1945: After years of brutal fighting, Allied forces closed in on Berlin.
Hitler committed suicide in his bunker on April 30, and Germany surrendered
unconditionally on May 8, 1945 (V-E Day).
o The Nuremberg Trials were subsequently held to prosecute major Nazi war
criminals for war crimes, crimes against peace, and crimes against
humanity.
o Significance: WWII was the deadliest conflict in human history, resulting in
tens of millions of deaths, widespread destruction, and the horrific genocide
of the Holocaust. It led to a redrawing of global power structures.

Legacy: The Nazi era and WWII left an indelible mark on the 20th century. It resulted in
unprecedented destruction and the systematic genocide of the Holocaust. It thoroughly
discredited racial ideologies and aggressive nationalism, led to the formation of the United
Nations to prevent future global conflicts, the division of Germany, the emergence of the
USA and USSR as superpowers, and the onset of the Cold War.