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KENNETH A. KROOS |
MERLE C. POTTER —
u
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2024

httos://archive.org/details/thermodynamicsfo0000kroo
Thermodynamics
— ad
ti a
Thermodynamics

Kenneth A. Kroos
Villanova University

Merle C. Potter
Michigan State University

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| 23 4 5 © FW Ike I ieey ek 12
To my wife Kathleen.
Ken

To my wife Gloria.
Merle
 =

SS
 Nomenclature List xvii
Preface xix

About the Authors XXiii

Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Systems of Units

1.1 Introduction 5
1.1.1. What is thermodynamics? 5
1.1.2 | How do we use thermodynamics? 5
1.1.3 How do engineers use thermodynamics? 6
1.1.4 What is the history of thermodynamics? 6
1.1.5 What is the future of thermodynamics? 6
1.1.6 What are the fundamental concepts and assumptions?
1.1.7. What are the phases of matter? 8

1.2 Dimensions and Units 9

1.2.1 The SI system 9
1.2.2 The English system 11

1.3 Properties, Processes, and Equilibrium 12

1.3.1 Properties and state of a system 12
1.3.2 Density and specific volume 13
1.3.3. Processes and equilibrium 15

1.4 Pressure 17
1.4.1. What is pressure? 17
1.4.2 Absolute and gage pressure 17
1.4.3. Units of pressure 18
1.4.4 | Pressure-measuring devices 19

vii
vill Contents

1.5 Temperature 22
1.5.1 What is temperature? 22
1.5.2 Absolute and relative temperature scales 22
1.5.3. Temperature measurement 24

1.6 Energy 27
1.7. Summary 29

Chapter 2. Properties of Pure Substances 37

2.1 Phases of a Substance 39
2.1.1 Phase-change process 40
2.1.2. Quality and compressed liquid calculations 44
2.1.3. Superheated vapor 47
2.1.4 Properties using the IRC Property Calculator 49
2.1.5 Phase diagrams 51

2.2 Internal Energy and Enthalpy 56

2.2.1 ‘Internal energy 56
2.2.2. Enthalpy 57
2.2.3. Internal energy and enthalpy for liquids and solids 58
2.2.4 Latent heat 60

2.3 Refrigerants 61
2.4 Ideal-Gas Law 64
2.5 Real Gas Equations of State 66
2.6 Internal Energy and Enthalpy of Ideal Gases 69
2.7 Specific Heats of Liquids and Solids 73
2.8 Summary 75

Chapter 3 The First Law for Systems 85

3.1 Work 88
3.1.1. Definition and units 88
3.1.2 Work due to pressure 88
3.1.3. Other forms of work 91

3.2. Heat Transfer 95

3.3. Problem-Solving Method 98
 Contents mn

3.4 ‘The First Law Applied to Systems 99

3.5. The First Law Applied to Various Processes 101
3.5.1 The constant-volume process 101
3.5.2 The constant-pressure process 102
3.5.3. The constant-temperature process 105
3.5.4 The adiabatic process 106
3.5.5 The polytropic process 110
3.6 Cycles 112
3.7 Summary 112

Chapter 4 The First Law Applied to Control Volumes 127

4.1. The Conservation of Mass for Control Volumes 130
4.1.1 Basic information 130
4.1.2 The continuity equation 131

4.2 The First Law for Control Volumes 137

4.2.1 Turbines, compressors, and pumps 139
4.2.2 Throttling devices 143
4.2.3. Mixing chambers 145
4.2.4 Heat exchangers 148
4.2.5 Nozzles and diffusers 151

= ae) Unsteady Flow 155

4.4 Devices Combined into Cycles 158
4.4.1. The Rankine power cycle 158
4.4.2 The refrigeration cycle 160
4.4.3 The Brayton cycle 163

4.5 Summary 165

Chapter 5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 179

5.1 Second-Law Concepts 180
5.2. Statements of the Second Law of Thermodynamics 182
5.2.1. Kelvin-Planck statement—heat engines 182
5.2.2 Clausius statement—refrigerators 183
iat Contents

5.3 Cycle Performance Parameters 185

5.3.1. The heat engine 185
5.3.2 The refrigeration cycle 186

5.4 The Carnot Cycle 189

5.9 Summary 194

Chapter6 Entropy 203

6.1 Inequality of Clausius 205
6.2 Entropy 207
6.3 Entropy Change in Substances for Systems 209
6.3.1 Basic relationships 209
6.3.2 Entropy change of an ideal gas with constant C, and C, 210
6.3.3. Entropy change of a solid, a liquid, and a reservoir 213
6.3.4 Entropy change of a phase-change substance 216
6.3.5 Entropy change of an ideal gas with variable specific heats 218

6.4 Entropy Changes for a Control Volume 221

6.5 Isentropic Efficiency 225
6.5.1 Isentropic turbine efficiency 225
6.5.2 Isentropic compressor efficiency 226
6.5.3 Pump efficiency 228
6.5.4 —_Isentropic efficiency of a nozzle 229
6.6 Exergy (Availability) and Irreversibility 230
6.7 Summary 237

Chapter 7 Thermodynamic Relations 251

7.1 The Maxwell Relations 252
7.2 The Clapeyron Equation 255
7.3 Relationships for Internal Energy, Enthalpy, Entropy,
and Specific Heats 258
7.4 The Joule-Thomson Coefficient 263
7.5 Real-Gas Effects 265
7.6 Summary 269
 Contents zt

Part
App il licati
== ons
275
Chapter 8 The Rankine Power Cycle
8.1 Energy Sustainability 279
8.2 The Rankine Cycle 279
8.2.1 Basic configuration and components 279
8.2.2. Improving Rankine cycle efficiency 286

8.3 Modified Rankine Cycles 290

8.3.1. The ideal reheat Rankine cycle 290
8.3.2 The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle 293
8.3.3. A combined reheat-regenerative ideal Rankine cycle 296
8.4 Cogeneration Cycles 299
8.5 Losses in Power Plants 302
8.6 Summary 303

Chapter 9 Gas Power Cycles 315

9.1 Air-Standard Analysis 317
9.2 Reciprocating Engine Terminology 320
9.3 The Otto Cycle 322
9.3.1 The four-stroke Otto cycle 322
9.3.2 Otto cycle analysis 323
9.3.3 Two-stroke Otto cycle engine 327
9.3.4 The Wankel engine 328

9.4 The Diesel Cycle 330

9.5 Other Gas Power Cycles 334
9.5.1 The dual cycle 335
9.5.2 The Stirling and Ericsson cycles 337

9.6 The Brayton Cycle 341

9.6.1. The Brayton cycle with regenerative heating 346
9.6.2 The Brayton cycle with regeneration, intercooling, and reheat
9.6.3 The turbojet engine 350

9.7 The Combined Brayton-Rankine Cycle 351

9.8 Summary 354
tia Contents

Chapter 10 Refrigeration Cycles 365

10.1 The Vapor Compression-Refrigeration Cycle 367
10.1.1 Refrigeration cycle terminology 367
10.1.2 The ideal refrigeration cycle 368
10.1.3. An actual refrigeration cycle 370
10.1.4 Heat pumps 371
10.1.5 Refrigerants 373

10.2 Cascade Refrigeration Systems 374

10.3 Absorption Refrigeration 377
10.4 Gas Refrigeration Systems 377
10.5 Summary 380

Chapter 11 Mixtures and Psychrometrics 387

11.1 Gas Mixtures 389
11.1.1 Definitions and terminology 389
11.1.2 The Amagat and Dalton laws 391
11.2 Air-Vapor Mixtures and Psychrometry 396
11.2.1 Terminology and definitions 396
11.2.2 Adiabatic saturation temperature 399
11.2.3 Psychrometrics 401

11.3 Air-Conditioning Processes 405

11.4 Summary 412

Chapter 12 Combustion 423

12.1 Introduction 425
12.2 Combustion Reactions 426
12.3 The Enthalpy of Formation and the Enthalpy of Combustion
12.4 Flame Temperature 442
12.5 Equilibrium Reactions 447
12.6 Summary 450
 Contents a

Chapter 13 Alternative Energy Conversion 461

13.1 Biofuels 462
13.1.1 Ethanol 463
13.1.2 Biodiesel 464
13.1.3 Algae fuel 467

13.2 Solar Energy 467

13.2.1 Photovoltaic cells 467
13.2.2 Active solar heating 468
13.2.3 Passive solar heating 470

13.3 Fuel Cells 470

13.4 Thermoelectric Generators 472
13.5 Geothermal Energy 473
13.6 Wind Energy 473
13.7. Ocean and Hydroelectric Energy 474
13.7.1 Wave energy 474
13.7.2 Ocean thermal energy conversion 475

13.7.3. Hydroelectric power 477

13.8 Osmotic Power Generation 478

13.9 Summary 479

Chapter 14 Thermodynamics of Living Organisms 483

14.1. Energy Conversion in Plants 485
14.2. Energy Conversion in Animals 487
14.3. The Generation of Biological Work 490
14.4 Temperature Regulation in Biological Systems 491
14.4.1. Endothermic organisms 492
14.4.2 Ectothermic organisms 492
14.4.3. Temperature regulation in plants 493

14.5 Summary 494

XIV Contents

The Appendices 497

A Conversions of Units 499
B Material Properties 501
B-I Properties of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere 501
B-1E __ Properties of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere 502
B-2 Properties of Various Ideal Gases (at 25°C) 503

B-3 Critical-Point Constants 504

B-4 Specific Heats and Densities of Liquids and Solids 505
B-4E Specific Heats and Densities of Liquids and Solids 505
B-5 Ideal-Gas Specific Heat of Several Common Gases as a Cubic Function of
Temperature 506

B-5E _Ideal-Gas Specific Heat of Several Common Gases as a Cubic Function of

Temperature 506
B-6 Ideal-Gas Specific Heats of Several Common Gases at Different
Temperatures 507
B-6E _Ideal-Gas Specific Heats of Several Common Gases at Different
Temperatures 508
B-7 Enthalpy of Formation and Enthalpy of Vaporization 509
B-8 Enthalpy of Combustion and Enthalpy of Vaporization 510
B-9 Natural Logarithms of the Equilibrium Constant K, oi
B-10 Constants for the van der Waals Equation of State 511
C Steam Tables 513
C-1 Properties of Saturated HO—Temperature Table Sis
C-2 Properties of Saturated H,O—Pressure Table 515
C-3 Superheated Steam 516
C-4 Compressed Liquid 522
C-5 Saturated Solid—Vapor 523
C-1E Properties of Saturated H,O—Temperature Table 524
C-2E _—_—Properties of Saturated H,O—Pressure Table 526
C-3E Properties of Superheated Steam 528
C-4E Compressed Liquid 531
C-5E Saturated Solid—Vapor 532

D Properties of R134a 533 .

D-I Saturated R134a—Temperature Table 533
D-2 Saturated R134a—Pressure Table 535
 Contents

D-3 Superheated R134a 536

D-1E —_Properties of Saturated R134a—Temperature Table 540
D-2E Properties of Saturated R134a—Pressure Table 541
D-3E Superheated R134a Vapor 542

Properties of Ammonia 545

E-| Saturated Ammonia 545
E-2 Superheated Ammonia 547
E-1E Saturated Ammonia 549
E-2E | Superheated Ammonia 550

Ideal-Gas Tables 553

F-| Properties of Air 553
F-2 Molar Properties of Nitrogen, N, 554
F-3 Molar Properties of Oxygen, O, 555
F-4 Molar Properties of Carbon Dioxide, CO, 556
F-5 Molar Properties of Carbon Monoxide, CO Shy
F-6 Molar properties of hydrogen, H, 558
F-7 Molar Properties of Water,H,O = 559
F-1E Properties of Air 560
F-2E Molar Properties of Nitrogen,N, 562
F-3E Molar Properties of Oxygen, O, 563
F-4E Molar Properties of Carbon Dioxide, CO, 564
F-5E Molar Properties of Carbon Monoxide, CO 565
F-6E —_Ideal-Gas Properties of Hydrogen, H, 566
F-7E Molar Properties of Water Vapor, H,O 567

Psychrometric Charts 569

Figure G-1 Psychrometric chart, P = 1 atm, SI units 569
Figure G-1E Psychrometric chart, P = 1 atm, English units 570

Compressibility Charts 571

Figure H-1 Compressibility chart, low pressures 571
Figure H-2 Compressibility chart, high pressures 572

Enthalpy Departure 573

Figure I-1 Enthalpy departure chart, SI units 573
Figure I-1E Entropy departure chart, English units 574
 Contents

J Entropy Departure Charts 575

Figure J-1 Entropy departure chart, SI units 575
Figure J-1E Entropy departure chart, English units 576

Answers to Selected Problems 577

Index 585
 Constant, Current,
Acceleration, Irreversibility per unit mass
Helmholtz function Irreversibility
Constant Ratio of specific heats,
Air/fuel mass ratio Thermal conductivity
Bulk modulus A kilogram of air
Bottom dead center A kilogram of water
Back work ratio A kilogram of water vapor
Specific heat, Spring constant,
A constant Equilibrium constant
Speed of light Kinetic energy
Coefficient of performance of a heat Thickness
pump Lower heating value
Coefficient of performance of a Mass
refrigerator Mass of dry air
Constant pressure specific heat Mass of liquid,
Constant pressure specific heat The final mass
Change in energy per unit time Mass of vapor
The initial mass
Differential length segment
585858
SSS Mass of water vapor contained in the air
A representative function
i~}

Mass flow rate ( mass flux)

Force A general function,
Force vector Molar mass
Fuel/air mass ratio Molar mass of substance
275 Normal component of a force
= Mass of component / of a substance
Gibbs function
Gravity,
EP Mean effective pressure
A constant
Gibbs function
A general function,
99
7© Gravitational constant
Number of moles
Specific enthalpy,
Height, SS Number of moles of component /
Se
ee
Pressure
Planck’s constant
° Partial pressure of the dry air
Enthalpy at the reference state a

° Critical-point pressure
Enthalpy of formation °g

The final pressure

Enthalpy of vaporization 4,
Partial pressure of component /,
Convection heat transfer coefficient The initial pressure
Enthalpy Relative pressure
~

Enthalpy of the products Reduced pressure

s|a
SF
SS
> es)
Partial pressure of water vapor
> x» Enthalpy of the reactants
BEC
MEC
RU
OEC
An
Wa
Sac
MAC
AUGU Potential energy
jee ee <= Higher heating value by*

OS Specific heat transfer

XVii
 Nomenclature List

Q Heat transfer Volume of vapor

OF Heat transfer from a high-temperature Relative specific volume
reservoir Pseudo-reduced specific volume
Q Heat transfer from a low-temperature Velocity
; reservoir Volume,
O Rate of heat transfer Voltage
a)= Boiler rate of heat transfer Volumetric flow rate (flow rate)
Work per unit mass
OF Or Condenser rate of heat transfer
Shaft work. per unit mass
Ours Evaporator rate of heat transfer
Work
r Compression ratio,
Work rate
Radius
cutoff ratio fo) Compressor work rate
pressure ratio 3
=
5
5-3...
=
=.=.
=.
<5 3 Compressor
ES;
work rate
Gas constant, Turbine work rate
Electrical resistivity,
R-factor
s#; Shaft work
Actual work
DAD
Ar.
* Universal gas constant Quality
Specific entropy
Specific entropy per mol
eS The mass fraction of a component
The mole fraction
aa
A
°
An entropy function Elevation
S Entropy Compressibility factor
SG Specific gravity PNAS
EN Generated entropy
S Entropy generated
Net entropy change
5 Entropy of surroundings
Entropy change in the universe
Entropy production
Exergy (or availability)
Time
A characteristic constant,
Temperature, Torque
Volume expansivity
Dead state temperature
Signifies an inexact differential
teal
| Critical-point temperature
Emissivity,
Dry-bulb temperature
b
seals
Utilization factor
es Dew-point
Equivalence ratio,
The final temperature Relative humidity
mos ea}=
Temperature of a high-temperature 3ST Efficiency
YDDE
reservoir Second law efficiency
=
iE The initial temperature Joule-Thomson coefficient
——
if Temperature of a low-temperature Stoichiometric coefficient,
reservoir Light frequency
if Reduced temperature Density
Wet-bulb temperature Density of an unknown substance
EDC Top dead center Stefan-Boltzmann constant
u Specific internal energy Shear stress
U Internal energy Specific humidity (humidity ratio)
U,,U, Internal energy of products A special property,
U,, U, Internal energy of reactants Exergy per unit mass
Vv Specific volume Exergy (or availability),
0 Molar specific volume a=
SS A Special property
(Scefons
v Volume of liquid
 te motivation to write this text on thermodynamics was simple. All other
texts on the subject have become huge tomes. The inclusion and detail of
tangential subjects in competing texts have created difficulty for beginning en-
gineering students. It’s a challenge for a student to know what is important and
what is of tangential interest. We have attempted to provide an introduction to
thermodynamics by focusing on the material that is essential and have included
only sufficient related material to provide insight as to how thermodynamics can
be used to explain examples of everyday phenomena.
Thermodynamics, which involves the storage, transfer, and transformation
of energy, is the first course in the thermal sciences for engineering students. It
provides the foundation for the basic concepts and problem solving skills that
are later used in fluid mechanics, heat transfer, and the design of thermo-fluid
systems. This textbook will serve to develop the essential skills in thermodynam-
ics, primarily in a one-semester course, but it will also have sufficient content for
a second semester. The text is designed to provide a solid understanding of the
principles, terminology, and methodology needed to thoroughly understand this
subject.
The language of thermodynamics will be explained in careful detail so that
students can quickly understand the concepts presented and the analysis tech-
niques used. Extensive use of practical examples will demonstrate the proper
set-up and solution of problems. These skills will then be further developed by
providing a wide variety of homework problems. The homework problems are
presented with an increasing degree of complexity to allow the solution of basic
prcblems and also more challenging problems.
The structure of the book is such that it can be effectively used to support a
single course in basie thermodynamics or a two-semester sequence of basic con-
cepts and applications. The text is divided into three parts. In Part I, Concepts and
Basic Laws, the terminology, concepts, and basic laws used in the subject of ther-
modynamics are presented, explained, and illustrated. In Part H, Applications,
power and refrigeration cycles are presented in detail along with an introduction
to mixtures, psychrometrics, and combustion. In Part III, Contemporary Topics, al-
ternative energy sources and thermodynamics of living organisms are presented.
Part I includes the thermodynamic properties of materials and how they are
used in the solution of engineering problems. Emphasis is placed on common
working fluids used in industry in addition to air and water. Special attention is
placed on using a structured problem solving procedure designed to understand
the problem presented, organize the information given, and develop a solution to
obtain the required results. This procedure is emphasized in numerous examples
in the text and is intended to develop good problem-solving skills in students.
Topics covered include properties of substances, the first law of thermodynam-
ics, work integrals, engineering devices, the second law of thermodynamics, and
nonideal gas effects.

XIX
Preface

Part II applies thermodynamic principles to a number of engineering devices

and cycles. If desired, selected topics in this part can be included in a first course.
In this part we also analyze internal and external combustion engines, refrigera-
tion systems, psychrometrics, and the combustion process, which are foundational
for subsequent courses in energy conversion, engines, and HVAC.
In Part III, alternative energy is reviewed. The use of fossil fuel is not sustain-
able over the centuries to come, so sustainable sources of energy will be required.
Several such energy sources are presented. Finally, the thermodynamics of living
organisms is reviewed.
Properties of a number of substances are included in tables in the Appendix.
Interpolation, a time-consuming procedure, is often required to determine the
required properties. To avoid numerous interpolations, we have included the
steps necessary to use the IRC Fluid Property Calculator, introduced in Chap-
ter 2, which provides the most efficient method known by the authors to quickly
determine material properties of several often encountered substances. You will
greatly appreciate this Internet tool, which is officially referred to as the IRC
(2012) Fluid Property Calculator, developed and maintained by the Industrial
Refrigeration Consortium of the University of Wisconsin— Madison.
Thermodynamics is one of the first problem-solving courses in the mechani-
cal or chemical engineering curricula. It also forms the foundation to the field of
thermal sciences. Students learn how transferring energy to or from a substance
can change the basic properties of the substance. It is equally important for them
to develop skills in interpreting physical descriptions while solving practical engi-
neering problems of interest.
It is assumed that students have completed courses in integral and differen-
tial calculus although algebra is the primary mathematical tool used to solve the
majority of the problems in Thermodynamics. Some of the derivations do require
some calculus concepts.
Many students take the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam, the first
step in becoming a professional engineer, at the end of their senior year. The
problems in the FE exam are all four-part, multiple choice. Consequently, we
have included this type of problem at the end of the appropriate chapters. These
FE-type questions cover the material in the entire chapter so it may be best to
respond to those questions when the chapter is concluded, or during the review
for the chapter exam. Those FE-type questions could also be used as examples
for multiple-choice exams. In fact, thermodynamics is an excellent course in
which to use multiple-choice exams; engineering students do not experience such
exams in most, if not all of their other engineering courses and, since national
exams are all multiple-choice exams, the experience is very beneficial to the
students. Multiple-choice problems will be presented using SI units exclusively
since the FE and GRE/Engineering exams use only SI units. Additional informa-
tion on the FE exam can be obtained from a website at www.ppi2pass.com, or at
www.ncees.org/Exams/FE_exam.php, or by Googling “NCEES.”
The introductory material included in Part I, Chapters 1 through 7 has
been selected carefully to introduce students to the fundamental areas of
thermodynamics. Not all of the material in each chapter need be covered in an in-
troductory course. The instructor can fit the material to a selected course outline.
A section or two at the end of several chapters may be omitted without loss of
continuity in later chapters. After the introductory material has been presented,
there is sufficient material to present an additional course, which could include
 Preface XXi

material that was omitted in Chapters 1 through 7 and selected sections from
Chapters 8 through 14.
We have included examples worked out in detail to illustrate each impor-
tant concept presented. Numerous home problems, many having multiple parts
for better homework assignments, provide the student with ample opportunity
to gain experience solving problems of various levels of difficulty. All parts in
problems with parts labeled i), ii), iii), etc., are expected to be worked, as in the
examples. But, it is expected that only the selected part will be assigned in prob-
lems with parts labeled with lower-case italic letters [for example, a), b), and c)].
Answers to selected home problems are presented just prior to the Index. Solu-
tions to those problems with answers in the back of the book are provided on the
student web site. Practice mini-exams, with their solutions, using multiple-choice
problems are also posted on the student web site at www.cengagebrain.com. Solu-
tions to all end-of-the chapter problems are provided on the instructor web site.
Two sets of PowerPoint slides, one of all figures and tables, the other of examples
and equations, are also available on the instructor website, along with other in-
structor resources at www.cengage.com/engineering.
After studying the material, reviewing the examples, and working several of the
home problems, students should gain the needed capability to work many of the
problems encountered in actual engineering situations in each topic presented. Of
course, there are numerous classes of problems that are extremely difficult to solve,
even for an experienced engineer. To solve these more difficult problems, the engi-
neer must gain considerably more information than is included in this introductory
text. There are, however, many problems of interest to the professional that can be
solved successfully using the material and concepts presented herein.

MindTap Online Course and Reader

In addition to the print version, this textbook will also be available online through
MindTap, a personalized learning program. Students who purchase the MindTap
version will have access to the book’s MindTap Reader and will be able to com-
plete homework and assessment material online, through their desktop, laptop, or
iPad. If your class is using a Learning Management System (such as Blackboard,
Moodle, or Angel) for tracking course content, assignments, and grading, you can
seamlessly access the MindTap suite of content and assessments for this course.
In MindTap, instructors can:
= Personalize the Learning Path to match the course syllabus by rearrang-
ing content, hiding sections, or appending original material to the textbook
content
= Connect a Learning Management System portal to the online course and
Reader
a Customize online assessments and assignments
a Track student progress and comprehension with the Progress app
= Promote student engagement through interactivity and exercises
Additionally, students can listen to the text through ReadSpeaker, take notes
and highlight content for easy reference, and check their understanding of the
material.
This text was written with a combined SI and U.S. Customary (English) sys-
tem of units with emphasis on the SI system (approximately 20% of examples
Sti Preface

and home problems will use English units). The use of two sets of units in a class
makes the understanding of thermodynamics somewhat more difficult but an in-
structor may feel that it is important to introduce a student to both sets of units.
It is possible, however, to avoid the English units but it would be somewhat dif-
ficult, if not impossible, to avoid the SI units. The SI version of the text is available
should an instructor desire all examples and problems presented using SI units
only; it can be ordered directly from Cengage Learning, Inc., or the bookstore can
be requested to order the SI version.
The authors are very much indebted to both their former professors and to
their present colleagues. We would also like to thank our reviewers who helped
immensely in arriving at the final manuscript. They are:

Mahesh Chand Aggarwal, Gannon University

William Bathie, Jowa State University
Carlos F. M. Coimbra, University of California, San Diego
S. Mostafa, Ghiaasian, Georgia Institute of Technology
Pei-feng Hsu, Florida Institute of Technology
Melina Keller, California Polytechnic University, San Luis Obispo
John Kramlich, University of Washington
Edward Lumsdaine, Michigan Technological University
Sameer Naik, Purdue University, West Lafayette
Than Ke Nguyen, California State University, Pomona
Steven G. Penoncello, University of Idaho
Laura Schaefer, University of Pittsburgh
Elisa Toulson, Michigan State University

KENNETH A. KRoos
MERLE C. POTTER
Kenneth A. Kroos
Education: BS in Physics: University of Toledo
MS in Mechanical Engineering: University of Toledo
PhD in Chemical and Biological Transport Phenomena: University
of Toledo

Experience:
Taught at Christian Brothers College and Villanova University.
Served as Student Section Advisor and Chair of the Memphis — Mid-south
Section of ASME.
Taught thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and several other courses.
Authored numerous publications in the fields of fluid mechanics, heat trans-
fer, engineering education, and computer graphics for flow visualization.
Fellow of the ASME and a member of the American Society for Engineering
Education. Received the ASME Dedicated Service Award.
Served as Vice President of ASME in 2001 and served a three-year term on
the Council for Member Affairs.

Merle C. Potter
Education: BS in Mechanical Engineering: Michigan Technological University
MS in Engineering Mechanics: Michigan Technological University
MS in Aerospace Engineering: University of Michigan
PhD in Engineering Mechanics: University of Michigan

Experience:
Taught at Michigan Technological University, the University of Michigan,
and Michigan State University.
Served as Student Section Advisor of ASME.
Authored and co-authored 35 textbooks, help books, and exam review books.
Performed research in fluid mechanics and energy conservation.
Received numerous awards that include:
Teacher-Scholar Award
ASME Centennial Award
Member of Michigan Tech’s Mechanical Engineering Academy
James Harry Potter Gold Medal (Thermodynamics-ASME)
Courses taught were on the subjects of mechanics, thermal sciences, and
applied math.
XXIil
iG

SS
Basic Concepts and Systems of Units

Properties of Pure Substances

The First Law for Systems

The First Law Applied to Control Volumes

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Entropy

Thermodynamic Relations
 Gtranquill

1.1 Introduction 5
1.1.1. What is thermodynamics? 5
1.1.2 How do we use thermodynamics? 5
1.1.3 How do engineers use thermodynamics? 6
1.1.4 What is the history of thermodynamics? 6

Basic Concepts
1.1.5 What is the future of thermodynamics? 6
1.1.6 What are the fundamental concepts and
assumptions? 7
1.1.7. What are the phases of matter? 8

and Systems — Dimensions and Units

1.2.1
1.2.2
TheSlsystem 9
The English system
9

11

of Units | Properties, Processes, and Equilibrium

1.3.1 Properties and state of asystem 12
12

1.3.2 Density and specific volume 13

1.3.3 Processes and equilibrium 15

—_ Bh Pressure 17
1.4.1 Whatis pressure? 17
1.4.2 Absolute and gage pressure 17
1.4.3 Units of pressure 18
1.4.4 Pressure-measuring devices 19

1.5 Temperature 22
1.5.1. What is temperature? 22
1.5.2 Absolute and relative temperature scales 22
1.5.3 Temperature measurement 24

1.6 Energy 27

1.7 Summary 29

FE Exam Practice Questions 30

Problems 32
The following nomenclature is introduced in this chapter:
a Acceleration SG Specific gravity
fi A representative function il Temperature
F Force U Internal energy
dis Normal component of a force V Volume
g Gravity V Velocity
a Gravitational constant v Specific volume
h Height v5 Elevation
KE _ Kinetic energy a, Coefficient of thermal expansion
m Mass B A characteristic constant
di Pressure ) Signifies an inexact differential
PE Potential energy p Density
R Electrical resistance Py Density of an unknown substance
a hn rn eee

Learning Outcomes
‘1 Understand the basic concepts of thermodynamics

1 Understand the basic quantities in thermodynamics

J Work with SI and English systems of units

_) Become familiar with basic properties

Motivational Exampie—A Lost Orbiter

On September 23, 1999, NASA instructed the Mars Climate Orbiter (MCO)
to perform a thruster burn that would put it into orbit around Mars. The
purpose of this satellite was to monitor conditions in the atmosphere of
Mars over an extended period of time. Measurements were to be taken to
study the daily weather conditions, the atmospheric temperature profile, and
water vapor, and dust content in the Martian atmosphere. Shortly after the
command for orbital insertion was given, NASA lost contact with the orbiter.
It was later determined that the orbiter crashed due to an error in the thrust
measurement. The design called for a thruster impulse to send the orbiter
into a Mars orbit. Because of a mix-up in the units between pounds of thrust
and newtons of thrust, thie proper orbit was not attained and the orbiter
plunged into the planet. The proper use of units must be understood.

Se a ea a a
 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Systems of Units ex

1.1.1 What is thermodynamics?

Thermodynamics is a word that most people find difficult to comprehend. It i; E=_=Z_AE
founded on basic physical laws that are very straightforward to present and apply, 5, ermodynanics: the
although some unusual words for physical properties are used, such as enthalpy and storage, transfer, and
exergy. One of the purposes of this text will be to define these words in a way that _ transformation of energy.
gives their meaning real significance and to show how they are used by engineers.
Thermodynamics involves the storage, transfer, and transformation of energy.
Energy can be added to a mass or taken away from it. This is accomplished by sey-
eral physical processes that we will study in depth in this text. For example, when
we burn gasoline in a vehicle engine, the heat created by burning a mixture of air
and fuel in a cylinder dramatically increases the pressure and temperature in the
cylinder. The high pressure is used to push a piston in the cylinder, which leads to High pressure
the production of power. This example demonstrates two types of thermodynamic ale)
combustion
processes. First, the chemical energy contained in the gasoline is released as heat
when the gasoline in the air undergoes combustion. Second, the subsequent high
pressure moves the piston, thereby doing work. Heat transfer and work—to be
carefully defined in the thermodynamics context in Chapter 3—are the two most
important ways that energy is transferred by processes of interest in our study.
Another example of the transformation of energy is the process of photosyn-
thesis in plants, described in more detail in Chapter 14. Light energy from the sun
is absorbed by chlorophyll in the leaves of plants to manufacture sugars that are
used to feed the plant. A similar example is the use of a photovoltaic solar cell,
introduced in Chapter 13, which transforms energy in sunlight to electricity.
In all of these examples, energy is being used to produce a desirable outcome.
But energy doesn’t always increase temperatures; it can be used to decrease tempera-
tures as in refrigeration systems. When you think of thermodynamics, think of energy.
Thermodynamics is the first in a series of subjects that constitutes thermal
sciences. Thermodynamics is usually followed by courses in fluid mechanics and
heat transfer. In some curricula, these courses are followed by a comprehensive
design course in thermal-fluid systems, which integrate all three subjects into a
design-oriented expefience. Elective courses in energy conversion, engine design,
power-plant design, and propulsion may follow.

1.1.2 How do we use thermodynamics?

: ‘ : Thermodynamics is
Anytime energy is stored, transferred, or transformed from one form of energy gic alin the decion
to another, we are applying thermodynamics. Thermodynamics is foundational in of conventional power
the design of conventional power plants, both large and small. In these plants that plants.
burn fossil fuels or use nuclear energy, energy in the form of heat is converted reese:
to energy in the form of work by transforming water into steam and using this
steam to power turbines, which in turn transform mechanical power into electri- Power
cal power using generators. Electrical engineers assume responsibility for the
——_—

power after it passes from the turbines to the generators.

Thermodynamics is used in the design of engines ranging from small engines
that power a model airplane to automobile engines, to jet engines, and to the
largest engines that power ships. It is also used to analyze alternative energy in
a Part 1 Concepts and Basic Laws

hydroelectric plants, wind machines, and solar power generators. Thermodynam-

ics finds application in the analysis of a myriad of industrial processes that pro-
duce chemicals, medicines, and food. It also provides an overview of how nature
converts the energy in food into energy in animals. Thermodynamics can also be
used to understand how solar energy is converted into nutrition for plant life.

1.1.3 How do engineers use thermodynamics?

Thermodynamics is used by engineers who work in a wide variety of fields, mainly
by mechanical and chemical engineers. Mechanical engineers are responsible for
the design, construction, and operation of major power plants. They also design
engines used in cars, boats, airplanes, and ships. Both mechanical and chemical
engineers apply thermodynamics in the design of manufacturing processes to
produce consumer products, pharmaceuticals, and food products. Engineers, using
thermodynamics, are developing new sources of energy to replace fossil fuels,
which are a major source of pollutants. They are working in the fields of wind
energy, hydropower, biofuels, hydrogen generation, and solar energy, to name a
few, in an attempt to eventually develop a sustainable energy system.

1.1.4 What is the history of thermodynamics?

Humans have had an interest in thermodynamics ever since our species first
used fire to keep warm and cook food. From about 3000 Bc to 500 Bc, Egyptian
and then Greek scientists speculated that heat energy was a fluid that they called
phlogiston. Fire was one of the basic elements of nature along with earth, wind,
and water. Around 500 Bc, Greek scientists were debating whether a vacuum
could possibly exist or be created. After hundreds of years, the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries saw the transformation from the primitive magic of alchemy
to the subject of thermochemistry. In this period, many of the first scientific laws
predicting how gases behaved were developed. A /aw is developed from direct
observation and has strict constraints. In 1662, Boyle’s law, a special case of the
Law: Developed from
direct observation under ideal-gas law, was published. In 1802 both Charles’s law and Guy-Lussac’s law,
strict constraints. both of which are related to the ideal-gas law, were published.
The first engine, a steam engine, was patented in 1769 by James Watt. In 1824,
Sadi Carnot published his work on the equivalence of work and heat. For this
work he is known as the “father of thermodynamics.” The industrial revolution
brought about great changes in engineering and in society. Products that were
once made in “cottage” industries, like blacksmith shops, were now manufactured
in large industrial plants. One of the side effects of this industrial growth was the
need for mechanical engineers who could design and operate the power plants
necessary to run factories.

1.1.5 What is the future of thermodynamics?

One of the most important problems that we face today is the diminishing avail-
ability of usable energy. In the 1800s and early 1900s, energy was readily available,
plentiful, and cheap. Industry was able to thrive and expand because energy
supplies were abundant. Today this picture is changing. We know that our sources
of fossil fuels, notably coal, petroleum, and natural gas, are limited and will run
 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Systems of Units

out someday. Alternative sources of energy, such as solar power, wind power, and
hydrogen, are being developed but are far from being able to replace fossil fuels.
Nuclear power is another energy source, but public concern about radiation leaks
and how to dispose of “spent” fuel rods has slowed this industry to a standstill in
the past several decades. In addition, accidents at Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, ZEEE
and Japan have raised serious concerns about the safety of nuclear reactors. Be- ay
cause nuclear power produces little if any CO,, and public concern for its safety is ae see
becoming less problematic, it is regaining an interest in the United States. Nuclear future? Is it safe? Did the
power has been continually increasing in other parts of the world. France and _Japan containment failure
Japan account for over 50% of the world’s nuclear power-generating capacity, — '1. 2011 doom it as a safe
although that has been decreasing because of recent accidents due to earthquakes — POWE source?
and other natural disasters. More effective safeguards are required.
The study of how processes and our life style affect the long-term availability
of the natural resources required to perform the processes and sustain our life
style is called sustainability. When we review our energy, water, food, and mineral
resources we have to consider the long-term effects of our consumption of these
Sustainability: The
resources. Future generations must be able to meet their needs. Even today, many capacity to endure.
communities in the world suffer from severe lack of drinkable water and available
firewood; they live an unsustainable way of life. We will attempt to incorporate
sustainability into the various chapters of this book.

1.1.6 What are the fundamental concepts

and assumptions?
The term thermodynamics is something of a misnomer since “dynamics” suggests
motion. Even though the process of adding or removing energy from a substance
is by definition a dynamic process, we will not be interested in the instantaneous
steps required to change from an initial state to a final state. Instead, we will con-
sider the “snapshot” pictures of the state of a system before and after a process
has occurred. Properties of a stable state will be defined prior to the process, and
those same properties will be identified at the end of the process. This exercise
will yield “before” and “after” pictures of the system but will not detail what is
happening during the energy transfer process. The objective of the problem will
be to determine the final state, given the initial state. We will specify the initial
state and describe the process that occurs. From this information we will then System: Afixed identified
solve for the final state. Occasionally, the final state will be identified and the ini- —_—_quantity of mass.
tial state will be sought. Surroundings: Everything
A system is defined to be a fixed mass that occupies a space, a space that may external to the system.
or may not be changing in volume or shape. The mass of a system, such as the heoleted Stamens
helium in a helium balloon, does not change. We then analyze how a particular system that does not
system changes as energy is added or removed. The surroundings include eve- _ exchange energy with the
rything external to the system. If the system does not exchange energy with the _ surroundings.
surroundings, it is an isolated system. CAR Gieee mca
In many situations, it is not reasonable to focus attention on a fixed mass; _yolume into which and/or
rather, the focus should be on a fixed volume into which and/or from which a from which a fluid flows.
fluid may flow, such as a pump, a turbine, or an emptying propane tank. Such a —optrol surface: The
volume is called a control volume, and the surface that surrounds the control vol- surface that-surrounds.the
ume is the control surface. The surroundings then include everything external to control volume.
the control volume. The form that the basic equations in thermodynamics take for
ee Part 1 Concepts and Basic Laws

2 4 system differ from those for a control volume, so it’s important to know which
é ae is being analyzed.
Ses There are two approaches to the study of thermodynamics. Classical thermo-
region of interest. | dynamics is a macroscopic, or global, approach in which we assume that a sub-
stance is a continuum in that it occupies all points in a region of interest. There are
about 3 X 10'° molecules in a cubic millimeter of air at sea level, so the assump-
tion that air occupies all points in a volume is quite reasonable when considering
Note: There are about
problems of interest. The properties of a finite quantity of matter, the system, are
3 X 10'° molecules in
a cubic millimeter of treated as spatially averaged properties. For example, when you are in a room,
air. The assumption of you think in terms of the room temperature or pressure. This is a temperature or
a continuum is quite pressure averaged over the entire room, as opposed to properties measured at
reasonable for all many points in the room.
substances of interest
Another approach to thermodynamics is encountered in statistical ther-
considered in this text.
modynamics, where the motions of molecules are analyzed using statistical
methods to predict how a substance will react to the addition or subtrac-
tion of energy. Statistical mechanics relates molecular activity
to macroscopic thermodynamic quantities. Properties of bulk
materials are related to the spectroscopic data of individual
molecules. Statistical thermodynamics is a specialized subject
offered either as an undergraduate elective or as a graduate
course. In this text, the motion of individual molecules will not
be of interest.
In this introduction to thermodynamics, we will utilize
the concepts and methodology of classical thermodynamics to
solve problems encountered in common engineering systems.
Even though simplifying assumptions will be made about the
systems being analyzing, classical thermodynamics is a very
powerful tool in understanding and designing the numerous
devices utilized in the production of energy, such as in engines,
PD-USGOV
A power plant. power plants, and refrigerators.

1.1.7 What are the phases of matter?

In thermodynamics we study the three basic phases, or states, of matter: the
MMM «=solid phase, the liquid phase, and the gas phase. A solid does not flow to take
ao Se ee the shape of its container, nor does it expand to fill the entire volume
the shape of its container, 2Vailable. Solid molecules may shift relative to each other when subjected to
Liquid: Takes on theshane aSues
stress, but they ;do eae:
not move continuous!us :or Tice
i nee with i respect to
Si a g ing molecules. A liquid flows to take on the shape of its container but
not expand to fill the entire Goes not expand to fill the entire volume available, whereas a gas expands to
volume available. ‘fill the entire volume available. Liquids and gases move independently when
Boe share volume subjected toa stress. In fact, they will move continuously as long as the stress
available. Its molecules are |S applied. Water is a good example in thermodynamics of the three phases:
relatively far apart. ice (solid), liquid, and vapor (gas). Courses in fluid mechanics deal extensively
with analysis of the motion of liquids and gases.

[ You have completed Learning Outco (1)

 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Systems of Units ee

; : 4 : Key Concept: A unit

It’s quite easy to confuse dimensions of a quantity with the units used to meas- is used to measure a
ure those dimensions. Dimensions are used to describe a quantity, whereas units dimension. Mass is a
provide the magnitude of those dimensions. There are two types of dimensions, GOONS ee
primary (or fundamental) and derived. Primary dimensions are mass, length, time,
and temperature (force, length, time, and temperature could have been selected).
Other dimensions that describe electric and magnetic properties could also be
: ; ; ; ; : : : Primary dimensions:
included in a list of primary dimensions, but these are not of interest in our study. Mass, length, time, and
Derived dimensions are a combination of primary dimensions. For example, _ temperature.
Newton’s second law of motion defines a force as the product of a mass times its Derived dimensions:
acceleration; this law is stated as Combination of primary
dimensions.
F = ma (1.1)
We have selected mass m to be a primary dimension. Acceleration a has the de-
rived dimensions of length divided by time squared. The dimensions on force F
are a combination of length, mass, and time as required by Eq. 1.1. Velocity is
measured by the dimensions of length divided by time.
Two major systems of units are in use today. The U.S. Customary System of Units
is used by the United States, and the SI system (Systeme international d’unités), a par-
ticular metric system, is used by most other nations. Both systems will be used in the
US. version of this text, but only the SI system will be used in the international version.
An important concept involving dimensions is that of dimensional
homogeneity. It demands that all terms in an equation must have the same Gipencional
dimensions. A quick check on the validity of an equation is to make sure that the —_ homogeneity: All terms in
dimensions on all terms are the same. If the dimension is force on one term in an an equation must have the
equation, then all terms must have the dimension of force. Then, when units are —_ same dimensions.
assigned to the quantities in an equation, make sure the units on each term are
the same; that is, if the unit is KN on one term, it cannot be N on another term in
the same equation.
We finish this section with comments on significant digits. In almost every
calculation, a material property is involved or a number is the result of a measure-
ment. Material properties are seldom known to four significant
;
digits and
Ser
often — accurate
C@/<tlatlons are only as
as the least accurate
only to three, and measurements are made to three and possibly four significant 1)aber in a calculation.
digits. So, it is not appropriate to express answers to five or six significant Cigits, ..:+:-::::sssssreee eee:
Calculations are only as accurate as the least accurate number in our equations.
For example, we use gravity as 9.81 m/s’, only three significant digits; a diameter
may be stated as 2 cm, which is assumed to be 2.00 or 2.000, three or four signifi- Observation: “Digits” and
cant digits, It is usually acceptable to express answers using four significant digits, “figures” are synonyms.
but not five or six. The use of calculators may even provide eight. The engineer
does not, in general, provide results to five or six significant digits.

1.2.1 The SI system

The SI system of units was created in 1793 by the French government as a deci-
malized alternative to the English system. Use of the SI system spread throughout
Europe as a result of Napoleon Bonaparte’s military conquests. The primary
dimensions and their units are shown in Table 1.1. The unit of force in the SI
system is the newton. To obtain the force F in newtons, multiply the mass m in
wie Part 1 Concepts and Basic Laws

Table 1.1__ Primary Dimensions and Units for the SI System

Dimension Unit Abbreviation
Length meter m
Time second S
Mass kilogram kg
Temperature degree Kor °C

——— a= imVSe

ore
F=1N kilograms by the acceleration a in meters per second squared, as stated by Eq. 1.1.
One newton accelerates a one-kilogram mass one meter per second squared
when acting on a frictionless horizontal surface, as shown in Fig. 1.1. So, Eq. 1.1
takes the form
A force accelerating a mass
on a horizontal frictionless
surface. TN koe as (1.2)

showing that N = kg-m/s’. One newton is equivalent to 1 kg-m/s’.

When expressing a quantity in SI units, certain letter prefixes, shown in
We write 10 newtons, not
Table 1.2, may be used to represent multiplication by a power of 10. So, rather
10 Newtons, following
the National Institute of than writing 30 000 N (commas are not used in the SI system) or 30 x 10° N, we
Standards and Technology may simply write 30 KN.
(NIST) rules. The SI system The SI system of measurement is used by the entire world except Burma,
follows a very detailed set Liberia, and the United States. Products manufactured in the United States using
of rules.
the English system of units are often incompatible with designs developed using
the SI system. Engineers practicing in the United States are encouraged to be fa-
miliar with both systems of units, although a particular industry may have its own
set of units, which may not be either SI or English units. In a world where trade is
Recall our Motivational taking place between most countries, it is imperative that we all have a uniform
Example: A NASA set of units. The SI system provides such a system, and the United States should
spacecraft was lost because move more quickly to adopting it in all its industries.
the conversions between
units were confused.
The derived units for other properties, such as work, thermal energy, and
power, will be presented in future chapters where these terms are defined.

lable 1,2 Prefixes for SIUnits

Multiplication factor Prefix Symbol
107? tera Sane |:
10° giga G
10° mega M
10° kilo k
10"? centi' C
105° milli m
10s? micro U
10s nano * n
ae
10° pico p
a TE aN
Lys :
Discouraged except when measuring length, area, and volume: cm, cm’, or cm’.
 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Systems of Units itis

Table 1,3__.Primary Dimensions and Units for the English system

Dimension Unit Abbreviation
Length foot ft
Time second S
Mass slug or pound slug or lbm
Temperature degree SR Oc k

1.2.2 The English system

The U.S. Customary System of Units is based on a traditional English system of
units and will hereafter be referred to as the English system, even though the
English no longer use it. The primary dimensions in the English system are listed
in Table 1.3.
The traditional unit of mass in the English system is the slug. The unit of
force is the pound. One pound of force is needed to accelerate a one-slug mass
Conversion:
at a rate of one foot per second squared on a horizontal frictionless surface. It is
represented by Newton’s second law of motion: pee lbf-s?
oe Ft
Ploie—sl slugs <1 ft/s (1.3)

which provides the relation slug = Ibf-s’/ft.

This system worked very well until force was equated to mass. If an object To convert a unit, simply
weighed one pound, that meant that the mass of the acceleration of gravity Google it. For example, if
g = 32.2 ft/s’ was one pound. At some point, people started describing a mass you Google “10 Ibf in N”
that weighed one pound as having a mass of one pound, even though mass and you will get “10 pounds
force are two very different quantities. All this resulted in a system that defines force = 44.4822162
newtons.” Or, check for
two units of pounds. There is the pound force, Ibf, and the pound mass, Ibm. the proper conversion in
One pound mass (Ibm) weighs one pound force (Ibf) assuming gravitational Appendix A. Mr. Google
acceleration of 32.2 ft/s”. If it is not 32.2 ft/s’, the lbf and the Ibm are not equal in is not an engineer, so nine
magnitude. However, for most problems considered in this book, g = 32.2 ft/s’, so significant digits were used.
1 lbm does weigh 1 Ibf.
In order to make the English system using lbm and Ibf work, we define a
proportionality constant g, = 32.2 lbm-ft/Ibf-s*. Apply Newton’s second law, as-
suming a mass of 1 slug (1 slug = 32.2 lbm), and Eq. 1.1 provides

sca 2.2 Ib IE ety ft aie (1.4)

32.2 lbm-ft/lbf-s Se

So, we see that a force of 1 lbf accelerates a mass of 32.2 Ibm at an acceleration of
1 ft/s*. Consequently, when using English units in thermodynamics with the mass
measured in lbm, Newton’s second law, Eq. 1.1, can be written as
Thermodynamics is one of
the few courses, if not the
(1.5)
only course, to use the Ibm
and the Ibf, often a rather
confusing combination. It’s
In the SI system, the proportionality constant is not needed when using the force slowly being phased out as
in newtons, the mass in kilograms, and the acceleration in m/s’. An example will SI units are phased in.
illustrate the English system.
ety Part 1. Concepts and Basic Laws

Example 1.1 What force is needed to accelerate a car?

LLL LIAR

Consider the force required to accelerate a car on a horizontal road, as

a= 10 ft/sec? sketched in Fig. 1.2. What force do the wheels of a car that weighs 2000 Ibf
F ane ad
need to apply to accelerate the car at a rate of 10 ft/s’?

Solution
If the car weighs 2000 Ibf, it has a mass of 2000 Ibm, assuming g = 32.2 ft/s’,
which will be the assumption if the local gravitational acceleration is not given.
Comment
Newton’s second law provides
Gravity g is essentially a
constant anywhere on the
Earth's surface. It varies by SS , ee y, 10%t = 621 Ibf
less than 1% from the top ee 32.2 Ibm-ft/lbf-s Soe ee
of the highest mountain to
the bottom of the deepest Note that the quantity 2000 lbm/(32.2 lbm-ft/lbf-s*) is simply the mass of
ocean trench. So, using 62.1 slugs, according to unit conversion 1 slug = 32.2 Ibm.
g = 32.2 ft/s? (9.81 m/s’)
everywhere on the Earth’s
surface is quite acceptable.

1.3.1 Properties and state of a system

Properties are characteristics of a substance that can be measured, or calculated from
Properties: Characteristics direct measurements. Common properties such as size, volume, pressure, and tempera-
of a substance that can ture are used in everyday life; they are relatively easy to determine. Other proper-
be measured or calculated ties, such as the amount of energy contained in a specified mass of a substance or the
from measurements. moisture content in the air or even acceleration, are not easy to measure. Properties
State: Defined by the are coupled to what is called the state of a substance. Thé svare is defined by specified
specific values of the values assigned to the properties of a substance. For example, an ice cube is defined by
properties of a substance. its size and shape as well as its temperature. For the ice cube to be ice, its temperature
must be at or below the freezing temperature of water. If we change the properties of
a substance, its state will change. If we increase the temperature of the ice cube suffi-
ciently, it will change to liquid water. As a result, not only will the temperature change
but also its shape will change as it becomes a liquid.
In this chapter we will consider thermodynamic properties that are measurable
or directly determined from measurable properties. Properties such as size, pres-
sure, and temperature can be measured using a variety of devices, but properties
such as volume and density are directly determined from the measured properties.
 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Systems of Units

In the next chapter we will consider several unfamiliar thermodynamic properties

that can be determined from the measurable properties.
There is circular reasoning here, which is sometimes hard to follow. The prop-
erties of a substance are defined by its state. The state of a substance is defined
by specific values of its properties. The two concepts are coupled together. In
thermodynamics, we want to know the effect of adding energy to or subtracting
energy from a substance. This effect will be shown by a change in the properties
of the substance, that is, by a change of state. If the properties of a state are deter-
mined, that state is completely described.
A property has a unique value when a system is in a particular state; its value
does not depend on the states through which the system passed —that is, it is not
a path function. If frepresents a property, then
f

[ar=n-f (1.6)
f
and df is referred to as an exact differential of f. The quantity f, — f, represents
the change in the property as the system changes from state 1 to state 2. ee
Quantities, such as work W, will be encountered that are path functions and
whose differentials are not exact. Its integral from state 1 to state 2 would be pesaes The
represen differential of a property is
P pec exact and is represented by
state 2 df, whereas the differential
rae of a path function is
OW = W;_o (1.7) inexact, and is represented
state 1 by 6f.
The differential 6W signifies an inexact differential. Such path-dependent quanti-
ties are not referred to as properties and do not have a value at a given state; they
are never represented by W, or W.,,.
Properties are also classified as extensive and intensive. An extensive property
is a property whose value depends on the mass of the system, such as volume and Extensive property:
weight. An intensive property is a property whose value is independent of the A property whose value
mass of the system. The temperature of a substance is the same no matter how depends on the mass of the
much of it you have; it is intensive since it does not depend on the mass. A good system.
way to decide if a property is extensive or intensive is to divide the system in half, Intensive property:
delete one half, and determine if the property decreases by a half. If it does, the A property whose value is
property is extensive; if it remains the same, it is intensive. independent of the mass of
Consider the air in the room you are occupying. If the room is divided in two _ the system.
and you now have a smaller space, both the volume and the mass of the smaller
space are reduced. This makes volume and mass extensive properties. Consider the
density, pressure, and temperature of the air; they remain the same for both spaces;
none of them change when the room is divided, so they are intensive properties.

1.3.2 Density and specific volume

When identifying the volume of an object or empty space, we might select Cartesian,
cylindrical, or spherical coordinates. Volume V is a physical property that is treated
as a variable in thermodynamics. The volume of a gas will decrease if it is compressed
and will increase if the gas is allowed to expand. A good example is the air inside an
engine’s cylinder. In one process, the air-fuel mixture is compressed by the piston
decreasing the volume of the mixture. As a result, the pressure and temperature
ere Part 1 Concepts and Basic Laws

of the air increase. During the power stroke, the piston moves out due to the high
pressure after combustion, thereby increasing the volume of the combusted mixture.
The density p of a substance is the mass m divided by the volume V occupied
by the mass:
Density: The mass divided
by the volume occupied by
the mass.
ea (1.8)
The unit of mass is the kilogram (kg) or pound mass (lbm). Density has units
of kg/m? (lbm/ft*). The higher the density, the “heavier” a substance. Solids and
liquids, especially metals, will have relatively high densities. Gases, on the other
hand, have relatively low densities.
In thermodynamics, we treat density as a variable, one that can change during
a process. Density can vary with the temperature of a substance and, especially for
gases, with the pressure of the substance. When solving problems involving liquids
or solids, density is usually treated as a constant.
Specific volume v is defined as the volume occupied by a substance divided
by its mass:
Specific volume:
The volume occupied by
a substance divided by DiS (1.9)
its mass.

It is the inverse of the density of a substance. The units on specific volume are
m*/kg (ft?/lbm).
Specific property: It is Note: In thermodynamics, the word specific has a special meaning. It means
formed by dividing an “per unit mass.” Thus, specific volume is volume per unit mass. In general, an
extensive property by the
upper-case letter denotes the property, and a lower-case letter denotes the specific
mass of the system.
property. An exception is the mass m.
In most engineering courses, the density of a substance is used, whereas in
thermodynamics we most often use specific volume, the reciprocal of density. It
In thermodynamics we takes a little “getting used to” to become comfortable with using specific volume.
most often use specific
A substance with a high density like liquid water has a low specific volume.A sub-
volume rather than density.
stance like air at sea level has a density and a specific volume that are of the same
order of magnitude when measured using the SI system of units. Table 1.4 shows
a comparison of these values.
One other term you should be familiar with is specific gravity. Specific gravity
Specific gravity: The
(SG) is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of standard
ratio of the density of water:
a liquid to the density
of standard water. It is Px
seldom used in our study Pwater
(1.10)
of thermodynamics and
is included because it
does occur occasionally in
certain courses.
Table 1.4 Density and Specific Volume for Water and Air at Standard
Conditions (15°C, 101 kPa, 59°F, 14.7 psia)
Substance Density Specific Volume
Liquid water 1000 kg/m? 0.001 m*/kg
62.4 lbmvit = * 0.0160 ft?/bm
Air 1.22 kg/m? 0.820 m*/kg
I
0.0765 lbm/ft?
SS SE
13.1 ft¥/lbm
Nee cn
 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Systems of Units 5

A substance with SG greater than one is heavier than water; if SG is less than one,
it is lighter than water. Many handbooks will publish the specific gravity of liquids
rather than densities or specific volumes.

ae Properties associated with volume

Ae TELAT SIEM
Example 4.2
A substance occupying a volume of 50 cm* has a mass of 0.1 kg. Determine its
density, specific volume, and specific gravity.

Solution
The density is the mass divided by the volume:

2s eee = 2000 ke/m?

Voom 10" m3/cm3 ae
Its specific volume is the volume divided by the mass or the reciprocal of the
density:

Your Se i0 Mm 4
es
m
gre .0005 m*/kg or v = = p99
a 1
7 0.0005.m'/kg
a3 3

The specific gravity is found using Eq. 1.10 to be

Y 2000 kg/m?
SG = pe =OE
Pwater 1000 kg/m°
-
gta:

Note: Specific gravity is dimensionless.

1.3.3 Processes and equilibrium Process: The states that a

substance passes through
When we solve problems, the initial state of a substance will be given by speci-
as it changes from an initial
fying its properties. The addition or subtraction of energy will cause a change state to a final state.
of state. From the information given for the initial state and the process that a
Cycle: A system that
substance passes through as it changes states, we can determine the final state
exists in an initial state,
of the substance. A system that exists in an initial state, undergoes two or more undergoes two or more
processes, and returns to its initial state completes a cycle. processes, and returns to its
In classical thermodynamics, we assume that a system is in thermodynamic initial state.
equilibrium if it is in thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, phase equi- Thermodynamic
librium, and chemical equilibrium. That means the temperature is assumed to be equilibrium: Requires
the same, or essentially the same, at all points in a system or control volume; the thermal (uniform
pressure does not change from point to point in a relatively small volume even as temperature), mechanical
(constant pressure at each
the pressure may be changing with time, although it may change with elevation point), phase (constant
in a large volume, as in the atmosphere or a lake; the mass of each phase remains mass of each phase), and
constant; and the chemical composition does not change with time. If a small chemical (no reactions)
change is made to the state of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium, the system equilibriums.
will return to its prior state. If a large change occurs due to a small change to the
nt Part 1 Concepts and Basic Laws

state of a system that is in equilibrium, such as a small displacement to a bowling

A quasi-equilibrium
ball on the top of a larger sphere, the system is in metastable equilibrium; such
process: If a system, systems are not of interest in our study.
in passing from one One of the most important equilibrium concepts in our study is that of the
equilibrium state to another quasi-equilibrium process: If a system, in passing from one equilibrium state to
equilibrium state, deviates another equilibrium state, deviates from equilibrium by a small amount, each
from equilibrium by a very
state in between the two end states is idealized as an equilibrium state. If a
small amount, each state in
between the two end states property changes at a point, such as the pressure in the air in a cylinder being
is idealized as an equilibrium compressed by a piston, all pressures in the volume are assumed to change simul-
state. The quasi-equilibrium taneously. A piston can be moving at 3000 rpm, yet it is slow thermodynamically
process refers to the system (molecules are extremely fast) and the process is modeled as a quasi-equilibrium
only. It matters not what is
happening to the
process. If the process represents combustion in a cylinder during which the pres-
surroundings. sure changes abruptly, it is a nonequilibrium process and a dashed line may be
used, as shown in Fig. 1.3 from state 2 to state 3, since we do not know what path
it takes. A quasi-equilibrium process from state 1 to state 2 is represented by a
solid line.
Finally, we should introduce the state postulate, which states that in order to
establish the equilibrium state of a simple compressible system, we must know
two independent, intensive properties. Two properties are independent if one can
vary while the other is held constant. A simple compressible system is free of
magnetic, electrical, gravitational, and surface tension as well as effects due to
motion. The two properties that establish the state cannot depend on each other;
they must be independent.
A quasi-equilibrium process
from 1 to 2 and a nonequi-
librium process from 2 to 3.

Example 1.3 Is it a quasi-equilibrium process?

A particular process could be considered a quasi-equilibrium process, or it could
be a nonequilibrium process. Consider the weight W to be placed on a friction-
less piston in a cylinder containing air. Explain how it could be one or the other.

Solution
To be a quasi-equilibrium process, the weight W would be divided into nu-
merous weights whose total weight is W. The weights would be placed, one at
a time, on top of each other with time in between placements until the total
weight W is reached, as displayed in Fig. 1.4a.
 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Systems of Units

A nonequilibrium process would occur if the total weight W were suddenly

_ dropped on the piston, as shown in Fig. 1.4b. The position of the piston would
not be the same after each process occurred due to the energy that would be
lost in the nonequilibrium process.

(3)

1.4.1 What is pressure?

|

Fn |
|
|
Lae
(=
|
Pressure is a thermodynamic property of liquids and gases. As F |
|
molecules of air move randomly in a room, they strike surfaces in |
|
the room, creating an impact-momentum reaction that produces A F |
|
a normal impulse force on the surface. The pressure force is the
sum of the multitude of these reactions that occur over the sur-
face. Pressure P is the normal component F,, of a force F acting PETA TTT
on an area, displayed in Fig. 1.5, divided by the surface’s area A, ees

The relationship between a pressure and

Pp=— (1.11) 3 force.

The tangential component F, does not influence the pressure.

A good example of pressure is the force on our bodies due to atmospheric
Pressure: The normal
pressure. The pressure in the atmosphere is a function of altitude above the Earth. component of a force
In outer space, there is no pressure since there are no air molecules to create pres- _ acting on a surface area
sure. As we travel from the outer edge of the atmosphere to the Earth’s surface, divided by the area of the
the atmospheric pressure will increase due to the weight of the air. The pres- surface.

sure at a point on the Earth’s surface is due to the weight of the air above that
surface. Mountain climbers who scale the highest peaks in the world must carry
oxygen tanks because the air pressure gets too low to support proper respiration
(at the top of Mount Everest, atmospheric pressure is about 25% of the pressure
at sea level).
A device that measures pressure in the atmosphere is called a barometer.
Atmospheric pressure is seldom constant: It changes significantly with ground aaramicker: dee
elevation and slightly with the weather. A drop in air pressure is an indicator of measures pressure in the
stormy weather ahead. A rise in air pressure usually indicates fair weather ahead. atmosphere.
This is why a good barometer was an essential tool for ship captains. It allowed
them to determine if a change in the weather was expected.

1.4.2 Absolute and gage pressure

: ; : 2 : Absolute pressure:
There are two types of pressure used in engineering. The first is called absolute qh) preccue mese red
pressure since it is measured relative to absolute zero pressure. Absolute zero relative to absolute zero
pressure occurs when there is no molecular activity resulting ina complete absence _ pressure.
of any pressure force. Outer space is a good example of absolute zero pressure since
— Part 1 Concepts and Basic Laws

it is essentially devoid of molecules. For many engineering calculations we must use

Gage pressure: The
absolute pressure. It is impossible to have an absolute pressure less than zero.
pressure The second type of pressure is gage pressure, which is measured relative to
measured relative to the current atmospheric pressure. Pressure above atmospheric pressure is posi-
atmospheric pressure. tive, and pressure below atmospheric pressure is negative gage pressure. Negative
Vacuum: A negative gage gage pressure is also called a vacuum. When we analyze car engine performance,
pressure, we often use vacuum gages to measure the suction pressure, a negative gage
pressure, in engine cylinders during intake.
Absolute pressure can be calculated from gage pressure by add-
ing the current atmospheric pressure:

IPabsolute a ee
gage atmospheric
(1.12)

Thus, if you require absolute pressure for a calculation, and only a

device that measures gage pressure is available, an accurate barom-
eter would be needed to obtain an accurate value of the atmospheric
pressure, although near sea level, the atmospheric pressure can be
assumed to be 100 kPa (14.7 psia). Figure 1.6 illustrates absolute and
gage pressures. The gage pressure at A would be positive, whereas at
B it would be negative, a vacuum. The gage pressure at C would be
zero since it represents atmospheric pressure.
It is always important to know which type of pressure is given.
If a problem states that a gage was used to measure a pressure, it 1s
a gage pressure. In thermodynamics if the word “gage” is not stated
in the problem, it is always assumed that the pressures given are
Absolute and gage pressures.
absolute pressures.

If the word “gage” is not

1.4.3 Units of pressure
stated, we will always Pressure has units of force divided by area. The basic unit of pressure in the SI system
assume an absolute
is the force in newtons divided by the area in square meters. We refer to 1 N/m? as
pressure.
1 Pa, where Pa represents a pascal. One pascal of pressure is very small, so the com-
mon unit of pressure is the kilopascal, or kPa. In this textbook most SI pressures will
be given in kPa. Some extreme pressures may be given in megapascals (e.g., 10’ Pa
would be stated as 10 MPa).
In the English system, the standard unit of pressure used is the pound force
per square inch, or psi. The more proper units of pounds force per square foot,
or psf, are not commonly used since 1 psf is a very small pressure. In the English
system, the type of pressure being used is often implied by the units. Units of psia
are pounds force per square inch absolute, and units of psig are pounds force per
square inch gage. This is a very convenient way of differentiating between abso-
Standard atmosphere: lute and gage pressure; it is not used in the SI system.
TS2G(5 9°) Numerous units of pressure are used in various fields of science. One common
101.3 kPa unit of pressure is the atmosphere, which is the dry (no humidity) atmospheric
14.7 psia
pressure at sea level at a temperature of 15°C (59°F). The standard atmosphere
30 in. Hg
760 mm Hg
is 101.3 kPa (14.7 psia), although 100 kPa is most often used: A 1% error in en-
760 Torr gineering calculations is normally tolerated since material properties are most
34 ft H,O often not known to within 1%. Thus, if a diver is experiencing 5 atmospheres of
1.013 bar pressure, the pressure on his body is 506 kPa (73.5 psia). Again, the average at-
mospheric pressure varies with altitude, as shown in Table B-1 in the Appendix.
 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Systems of Units «ie

1.4.4 Pressure-measuring devices

Vacuum
The mercury barometer
The first device used to measure atmospheric pressure is the inverted tube Mercury
barometer developed by Evangelista Torricelli. A glass tube that has one end column
closed and one end open is filled with mercury. The open end is closed, turned Glass tube
upside down, and placed in an open container of mercury, as shown in Fig. 1.7
The open end is then released into the dish of mercury. The weight of the
mercury pulls it down, leaving a vacuum in the closed end of the tube that holds
up the column of height H. Atmospheric pressure acts on the mercury in the
container as shown. The height H of the column of mercury in the tube is used
Air
pressure Air
pressure
to calculate the atmospheric pressure according to

lpr fired (1.13) Mercury

in dish
where p is the density of the mercury and g is the gravitational acceleration.
Figure 1.7
A Torricelli barometer.

_ Convert inches of mercury to psi Example 1.4

The meteorologist reports that the air pressure during a storm is 28 inches of
mercury. Calculate the air pressure in psia. Assume SGu. = 13.6.
Solution A comma is used in
numbers in the English
The density of mercury is calculated (see Eq. 1.5) to be
system when there are
more than four digits to
Ibm
pus = SG_X Poster = 13.6 ese = 849 lbm/ft? the left of the decimal.
However, we could write
2118 as 2,118. Spaces
The pressure is now calculated using the acceleration of gravity as 32.2 ft/s? rather than commas are
with H = 28/12 = 2.333 ft: used in the SI system since
commas in many countries
Van Pee represent decimal points.

= 49 oF x 32.242 x 2,333 ft = 63,780 Ibm/ft-s?

S

Here, the difficulty of working with English units becomes apparent. The an- An answer is given to either
swer is not in proper units of pressure. To convert the Ibm in the result so that three or four significant
digits, never five or more.
the unit of lbf appears, we must divide by g, to obtain

63,780 lbm/ft-s”
= = 1981 lbf/ft?
atm 32.2 ft-lbm/Ibf-s? / Whenever you have Ibm but
desire |bf, think of using g..
Converting the pressure of 1981 psf to psi, we get

1981 Ibf/ft? _
eee 144 in2/ft2_ SABI pSla

The pressure is absolute since the 28 inches of mercury given in the example
statement was the pressure on the Earth’s surface measured in inches of mercury.
 Part 1 Concepts and Basic Laws

Po Example 1.4 points out the pressure measured in inches of mercury. When the
meteorologist says that the barometric pressure is 28 inches of mercury, it is a barom-
eter reading, a pressure reading. All meteorologists do this. It is also reported whether
Air
the barometer reading is rising, falling, or holding steady. A falling barometer reading
indicates a trend toward stormy weather; a rising barometer reading indicates fair
weather ahead; and a steady barometer reading indicates no change in the weather.
Mercury barometers are in very restricted use today due to the high toxicity of
mercury and mercury vapors. The sale of both mercury barometers and mercury
thermometers is becoming illegal in many countries.
Figure 1.8
A differential manometer.
The differential manometer
The differential manometer is an adaptation of the single-tube Torricelli
barometer. Figure 1.8 shows the basic configuration of a differential manometer.
Note: The pressure is It consists of two long vertical tubes connected by a common tube at the bottom.
constant at the same Thus, the pressure at the bottom of the two vertical tubes, which are at the same
elevation in a static fluid, elevation, is the same. The tops of the tubes are exposed to two different pressures
such as 2m below the
P, and P,. In many cases, one of these tubes is left open to the atmosphere so that
surface of a lake. It only
changes with elevation. the pressure at the top of that tube is atmospheric pressure, that is, zero gage pres-
sure. The tube with the higher pressure (P, in the figure) at the top will push the
liquid in that tube down, and the level of the liquid on the other side will rise. This
creates a Ah, which is equal to h, — h,, as shown in Fig. 1.8. We can use

P, — P, = pgAh (1.14)
to calculate the pressure difference. The constant g. must be included when using
Using English units, the English units, as observed in the previous example. When using SI units, g. is
density being !bm/ft? unnecessary.
requires the use of g. to The sensitivity of the differential manometer is mainly a function of the den-
convert the lbm to lbf in sity of the fluid used in the tubes. A high-density liquid, such as mercury, will have
a low sensitivity. This means that a relatively large difference in pressure between
the two tubes will cause a small Ah. Lighter fluids like water or alcohol will pro-
duce a larger Ah for the same pressure difference.
Differential manometers are good for laboratory use. They are cheap and
easy to make. The main disadvantage of using these manometers is that they have
to be read and then a calculation must be made to obtain a pressure reading.
Other pressure-measuring devices can give a direct reading of pressure, and some
digital devices can be used for remote data acquisition.

Example 1.5 Use a manometer to measure pressure

SSELLIOLIOLI
ILLS IED

A water differential manometer has a reading of Ah = 58 cm. The left leg of

the tube is open to the atmosphere. What is the absolute pressure P in the air
shown in Fig. 1.9? Air can be considered weightless over relatively small heights.

Solution F
The density of water is always taken as 1000 kg/m’, unless otherwise stated. The
Ah reading (see Fig. 1.9) is converted from 58 cm to 0.58 m. The acceleration
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 Our mother’s ear for music was exquisitely fine,—so fine, that when she
was in her own room, and a child practising below-stairs played a false
note, she would open her door and cry, “B flat, clear! not B natural!” This
being; so, it was grievous to her when one day, during her precious study
hour, Harry came and chanted outside her door:

“Hong-kong! hong-kong! hong-kong!”

“Harry!” she cried, “do stop that dreadful noise!” But when the little lad
showed a piteous face, and said reproachfully, “Why, Mamma, I was
singing to you!” who so ready as our mother to listen to the funny song and
thank the child for it?
When ten-year-old Laura wrote, in a certain precious little volume bound
in Scotch plaid, “Whence these longings after the infinite?” (I cannot
remember any more!) be sure that if any eyes were suffered to rest upon the
sacred lines they were those kind, clear, understanding gray eyes of our
mother.
Through all and round all, like a laughing river, flowed the current of her
wit and fun. No child could be sad in her company. If we were cold, there
was a merry bout of “fisticuffs” to warm us; if we were too warm, there was
a song or story while we sat still and “cooled off.” We all had nicknames,
our own names being often too sober to suit her laughing mood. We were
“Petotty,” “Jehu,” “Wolly,” and “Bunks of Bunktown.”
 Julia Romana Howe.

On one occasion our mother’s presence of mind saved the life of the
child Laura, then a baby of two years old. We were all staying at the
Institution for some reason, and the nursery was in the fourth story of the
lofty building. One day our mother came into the room, and to her horror
saw little Laura rolling about on the broad window-sill, the window being
wide open; only a few inches space between her and the edge, and then—
the street, fifty feet below! The nurse was, I know not where,—anywhere
save where she ought to have been. Our mother stepped quickly and quietly
back out of sight, and called gently, “Laura! come here, dear! Come to me!
I have something to show you.” A moment’s agonized pause,—and then she
heard the little feet patter on the floor, and in another instant held the child
clasped in her arms. If she had screamed, or rushed forward, the child
would have started, and probably would have fallen and been dashed to
pieces.
It was very strange to us to find other children holding their revels
without their father and mother. “Papa and Mamma” were always the life
and soul of ours.
Our mother’s letters to her sister are delightful, and abound in allusions
to the children. In one of them she playfully upbraids her sister for want of
attention to the needs of the baby of the day, in what she calls “Family
Trochaics”:—

“Send along that other pink shoe

You have been so long in knitting!
Are you not ashamed to think that
Wool was paid for at Miss Carman’s
With explicit understanding
You should knit it for my baby?
And that baby’s now a-barefoot,
While your own, no doubt, has choice of
Pink, blue, yellow—every color,
For its little drawn-up toe-toes,
For its toe-toes, small as green peas,
Counted daily by the mother,
To be sure that none is missing!”

Our mother could find amusement in almost anything. Even a winter day
of pouring rain, which made other housewives groan and shake their heads
at thought of the washing, could draw from her the following lines:—
THE RAINY DAY.
(After Longfellow.)
 The morn was dark, the weather low,
The household fed by gaslight show,—
When from the street a shriek arose:
The milkman, bellowing through his nose,
Expluvior!

The butcher came, a walking flood,

Drenching the kitchen where he stood:
“Deucalion is your name, I pray?”
“Moses!” he choked, and slid away.
Expluvior!

The neighbor had a coach and pair

To struggle out and take the air;
Slip-slop, the loose galoshes went;
I watched his paddling with content.
Expluvior!

A wretch came floundering up the ice

(The rain had washed it smooth and nice),
Two ribs stove in above his head,
As, turning inside out, he said,
Expluvior!

No doubt, alas! we often imposed upon the tenderness of this dear

mother. She was always absent-minded, and of this quality advantage was
sometimes taken. One day, when guests were dining with her, Harry came
and asked if he might do something that happened to be against the rules.
“No, dear,” said our mother, and went on with the conversation. In a few
moments Harry was at her elbow again with the same question, and
received the same answer. This was repeated an indefinite number of times;
at length our mother awoke suddenly to the absurdity of it, and, turning to
the child, said: “Harry, what do you mean by asking me this question over
and over again, when I have said ‘no’ each time?” “Because,” was the reply,
“Flossy said that if I asked often enough, you might say ‘yes!’ ”
I am glad to say that our mother did not “say yes” on this occasion. But,
on the other hand, Maud was not whipped for taking the cherries, when she
needed a whipping sorely. The story is this: it was in the silent days of her
babyhood, for Maud did not speak a single word till she was two years and
a half old; then she said, one day, “Look at that little dog!” and after that
talked as well as any child. But if she did not speak in those baby days, she
thought a great deal. One day she thought she wanted some wild cherries
from the little tree by the stone-wall, down behind the corn-crib at the
Valley. So she took them, such being her disposition. Our mother, coming
upon the child thus, forbade her strictly to touch the cherries, showing her at
the same time a little switch, and saying: “If you eat any more cherries, I
shall have to whip you with this switch!” She went into the house, and
forgot the incident. But presently Maud appeared, with a bunch of cherries
in one hand and the switch in the other. Fixing her great blue eyes on our
mother with earnest meaning, she put the cherries in her mouth, and then
held out the switch. Alas! and our mother—did—not—whip her! I mention
this merely to show that our mother was (and, indeed, is) mortal. But Maud
was the baby, and the prettiest thing in the world, and had a way with her
that was very hard to resist.
It was worth while to have measles and things of that sort, not because
one had stewed prunes and cream-toast—oh, no!—but because our mother
sat by us, and sang “Lord Thomas and Fair Elinor,” or some mystic ballad.
The walks with her are never to be forgotten,—twilight walks round the
hill behind the house, with the wonderful sunset deepening over the bay,
turning all the world to gold and jewels; or through the Valley itself, the
lovely wild glen, with its waterfall and its murmuring stream, and the
solemn Norway firs, with their warning fingers. The stream was clear as
crystal, its rocky banks fringed with jewel-weed and rushes; the level sward
was smooth and green as emerald. By the waterfall stood an old mill, whose
black walls looked down on a deep brown pool, into which the foaming
cascade fell with a musical, rushing sound. I have described the Valley very
fully elsewhere,[2] but cannot resist dwelling on its beauty again in
connection with our mother,—who loved so to wander through it, or to sit
with her work under the huge ash-tree in the middle, where
 Julia Ward Howe.
(From a recent photograph.)

our father had placed seats and a rustic table. Here, and in the lovely, lonely
fields, as we walked, our mother talked with us, and we might share the rich
treasures of her thought.

“And oh the words that fell from her mouth

Were words of wonder and words of truth!”

One such word, dropped in the course of conversation as the maiden in the
fairy-story dropped diamonds and pearls, comes now to my mind, and I
shall write it here because it is good to think of and to say over to one’s self:
—
 “I gave my son a palace
And a kingdom to control,—
The palace of his body,
The kingdom of his soul.”

In the Valley, too, many famous parties and picnics were given. The
latter are to be remembered with especial delight. A picnic with our mother
and one without her are two very different things. I never knew that a picnic
could be dull till I grew up and went to one where that brilliant, gracious
presence was lacking. The games we played, the songs we sang, the
garlands of oak and maple leaves that we wove, listening to the gay talk if
we were little, joining in it when we were older; the simple feast, and then
the improvised charades or tableaux, always merry, often graceful and
lovely!—ah, these are things to remember!
Our mother’s hospitality was boundless. She loved to fill the little house
to overflowing in summer days, when every one was glad to get out into the
fresh, green country. Often the beds were all filled, and we children had to
take to sofas and cots: once, I remember, Harry slept on a mattress laid on
top of the piano, there being no other vacant spot.
Sometimes strangers as well as friends shared this kindly hospitality. I
well remember one wild stormy night, when two men knocked at the door
and begged for a night’s lodging. They were walking to the town, they said,
five miles distant, but had been overtaken by the storm. The people at the
farm-house near by had refused to take them in; there was no other shelter
near. Our mother hesitated a moment. Our father was away; the old
coachman slept in the barn, at some distance from the house; she was alone
with the children and the two maids, and Julia was ill with a fever. These
men might be vagabonds, or worse. Should she let them in? Then, perhaps,
she may have heard, amid the howling of the storm, a voice which she has
followed all her life, saying, “I was a stranger, and ye took me in!” She
bade the men enter, in God’s name, and gave them food, and then led them
to an upper bedroom, cautioning them to tread softly as they passed the
door of the sick child’s room.
Well, that is all. Nothing happened. The men proved to be quiet,
respectable persons, who departed, thankful, the next morning.
 The music of our mother’s life is still sounding on, noble, helpful, and
beautiful. Many people may still look into her serene face, and hear her
silver voice; and no one will look or hear without being the better for it. I
cannot close this chapter better than with some of her own words,—a poem
which I wish every child, and every grown person too, who reads this might
learn by heart.

A PARABLE.

“I sent a child of mine to-day:

I hope you used him well.”
“Now, Lord, no visitor of yours
Has waited at my bell.

“The children of the millionaire

Run up and down our street;
I glory in their well-combed hair,
Their dress and trim complete.

“But yours would in a chariot come

With thoroughbreds so gay,
And little merry maids and men
To cheer him on his way.”

“Stood, then, no child before your door?”

The Lord, persistent, said.
“Only a ragged beggar-boy,
With rough and frowzy head.

“The dirt was crusted on his skin,

His muddy feet were bare;
The cook gave victuals from within:
I cursed his coming there.”

What sorrow, silvered with a smile,

Glides o’er the face divine?
What tenderest whisper thrills rebuke?
“The beggar-boy was mine!”
 CHAPTER VIII.

OUR TEACHERS.

I do not know why we had so many teachers. No doubt it was partly

because we were very troublesome children. But I think it was also partly
owing to the fact that our father was constantly overrun by needy foreigners
seeking employment. He was a philanthropist; he had been abroad, and
spoke foreign languages,—that was enough! His office was besieged by “all
peoples, nations, and languages,”—all, as a rule, hungry,—Greeks,
Germans, Poles, Hungarians, occasionally a Frenchman or an Englishman,
though these last were rare. Many of them were political exiles; sometimes
they brought letters from friends in Europe, sometimes not.
Our father’s heart never failed to respond to any appeal of this kind
when the applicant really wanted work; for sturdy beggars he had no mercy.
So it sometimes happened that, while waiting for something else to turn up,
the exile of the day would be set to teaching us,—partly to give him
employment, partly also by way of finding out what he knew and was fit
for. In this way did Professor Feaster (this may not be the correct spelling,
but it was our way, and suited him well) come to be our tutor for a time. He
was a very stout man, so stout that we considered him a second Daniel
Lambert. He may have been an excellent teacher, but almost my only
recollection of him is that he made the most enchanting little paper houses,
with green doors and blinds that opened and shut. He painted the inside of
the houses in some mysterious way,—at least there were patterns on the
floor, like mosaic-work,—and the only drawback to our perfect happiness
on receiving one of them was that we were too big to get inside.
I say this is almost my only recollection of this worthy man; but candor
compels me to add that the other picture which his name conjures up is of
Harry and Laura marching round the dining-room table, each shouldering a
log of wood, and shouting,—

“We’ll kill old Feaster!

We’ll kill old Feaster!”
This was very naughty indeed; but, as I have said before, we were often
naughty.
One thing more I do recollect about poor Professor Feaster. Flossy was
at once his delight and his terror. She was so bright, so original, so—alas!
so impish. She used to climb up on his back, lean over his shoulder, and
pull out his watch to see if the lesson-hour were over. To be sure, she was
only eight at this time, and possibly the scenes from “Wilhelm Tell” which
he loved to declaim with republican fervor may have been rather beyond
her infant comprehension.
One day Flossy made up her mind that the Professor should take her way
about something—I quite forget what—rather than his own. She set herself
deliberately against him,—three feet to six!—and declared that he should
do as she said. The poor Professor looked down on this fiery pygmy with
eyes that sparkled through his gold-bowed spectacles. “I haf refused,” he
cried in desperation, “to opey ze Emperor of Austria, mees! Do you sink I
will opey you?”
Then there was Madame S——, a Danish lady, very worthy, very
accomplished, and—ugly enough to frighten all knowledge out of a child’s
head. She was my childish ideal of personal uncomeliness, yet she was
most good and kind.
It was whispered that she had come to this country with intent to join the
Mormons (of course we heard nothing of this till years after), but the plan
had fallen through; she, Madame S——, did not understand why, but our
mother, on looking at her, thought the explanation not so difficult. She had a
religion of her own, this poor, good, ugly dame. It was probably an entirely
harmless one, though she startled our mother one day by approving the
action of certain fanatics who had killed one of their number (by his own
consent) because he had a devil. “If he did have a devil,” quoth Madame,
beaming mildly over the purple morning-glory she was crocheting, “it may
have been a good thing that he was killed.”
As I say, this startled our mother, who began to wonder what would
happen if Madame S—— should take it into her head that any of our family
was possessed by a devil; but neither poison nor dagger appeared, and
Madame was never anything but the meekest of women.
I must not forget to say that before she began to teach she had wished to
become a lecturer. She had a lecture all ready; it began with a poetical
outburst, as follows:

“I am a Dane! I am a Dane!
I am not ashamed of the royal name!”

But we never heard of its being delivered. I find this mention of Madame S
—— in a letter from our mother to her sister:—

“Danish woman very ugly,

But remarkably instructive,—
Drawing, painting, French, and German,
Fancy-work of all descriptions,
With geography and grammar.
She will teach for very little,
And is a superior person.”

I remember some of the fancy-work. There were pink-worsted roses,

very wonderful,—really not at all like the common roses one sees in
gardens. You wound the worsted round and round, spirally, and then you
ran your needle down through the petal and pulled it a little; this, as any
person of intelligence will readily perceive, made a rose-petal with a dent of
the proper shape in it. These petals had to be pressed in a book to keep them
flat, while others were making. Sometimes, years and years after, one would
find two or three of them between the leaves of an old volume of “Punch,”
or some other book; and instantly would rise up before the mind’s eye the
figure of Madame S——, with scarlet face and dark-green dress, and a very
remarkable nose.
Flossy reminds me that she always smelt of peppermint. So she did, poor
lady! and probably took it for its medicinal properties.
Then there was the wax fruit. You young people of sophisticated to-day,
who make such things of real beauty with your skilful, kindergarten-trained
fingers, what would you say to the wax fruit and flowers of our childhood?
Perhaps you would like to know how to make them. We bought wax at the
apothecary’s, white wax, in round flat cakes, pleasant to nibble, and
altogether gratifying,—wax, and chrome-yellow and carmine, the colors in
powder. We put the wax in a pipkin (I always say “pipkin” when I have a
chance, because it is such a charming word; but if my readers prefer
“saucepan,” let them have it by all means!)—we put it, I say, in a pipkin,
and melted it. (For a pleasure wholly without alloy, I can recommend the
poking and punching of half-melted wax.) Then, when it was ready, we
stirred in the yellow powder, which produced a fine Bartlett color. Then we
poured the mixture—oh, joy!—into the two pear or peach shaped halves of
the plaster mold, and clapped them together; and when the pear or peach
was cool and dry, we took a camel’s-hair brush and painted a carmine cheek
on one side. I do not say that this was art, or advancement of culture; I do
not say that its results were anything but hideous and abnormal; but I do
maintain that it was a delightful and enchanting amusement. And if there
was a point of rapture beyond this, it was the coloring of melted wax to a
delicate rose hue, and dipping into it a dear little spaddle (which, be it
explained to the ignorant, is a flat disk with a handle to it) and taking out
liquid rose-petals, which hardened in a few minutes and were rolled
delicately off with the finger. When one had enough (say, rather, when one
could tear one’s self away from the magic pipkin), one put the petals
together; and there you had a rose that was like nothing upon earth.
After all, were wax flowers so much more hideous, I wonder, than some
things one sees to-day? Why is it that such a stigma attaches to the very
name of them? Why do not people go any longer to see the wax figures in
the Boston Museum? Perhaps they are not there now; perhaps they are
grown forlorn and dilapidated—indeed, they never were very splendid!—
and have been hustled away into some dim lumber-room, from whose
corners they glare out at the errant call-boy of the theatre, and frighten him
into fits. Daniel Lambert, in scarlet waistcoat and knee-breeches! the
“Drunkard’s Career,” the bare recollection of which brings a thrill of horror,
—there was one child at least who regarded you as miracles of art!
Speaking of wax reminds me of Monsieur N——, who gave us, I am
inclined to think, our first French lessons, besides those we received from
our mother. He was a very French Frenchman, with blond mustache and
imperial waxed à la Louis Napoleon, and a military carriage. He had been a
soldier, and taught fencing as well as French, though not to us. This
unhappy gentleman had married a Smyrniote woman, out of gratitude to her
family, who had rescued him from some pressing danger. Apparently he did
them a great service by marrying the young woman and taking her away,
for she had a violent temper,—was, in short, a perfect vixen. The evils of
this were perhaps lessened by the fact that she could not speak French,
while her husband had no knowledge of her native Greek. It is the simple
truth that this singular couple in their disputes, which unfortunately were
many, used often to come and ask our father to act as interpreter between
them. Monsieur N—— himself was a kind man, and a very good teacher.
There is a tale told of a christening feast which he gave in honor of
Candide, his eldest child. Julia and Flossy were invited, and also the
governess of the time, whoever she was. The company went in two hacks to
the priest’s house, where the ceremony was to be performed; on the way the
rival hackmen fell out, and jeered at each other, and, whipping up their lean
horses, made frantic efforts each to obtain the front rank in the small
cortége. Whereupon Monsieur N——, very angry at this infringement of
the dignity of the occasion, thrust his head out of the window and shrieked
to his hackman:—
“Firts or sekind, vich you bleece!” which delighted the children more
than any other part of the entertainment.
There was poor Miss R——, whom I recall with mingled dislike and
compassion. She must have been very young, and she had about as much
idea of managing children (we required a great deal of managing) as a tree
might have. Her one idea of discipline was to give us “misdemeanors,”
which in ordinary speech were “black marks.” What is it I hear her say in
the monotonous sing-song voice which always exasperated us?—“Doctor,
Laura has had fourteen misdemeanors!” Then Laura was put to bed, no
doubt very properly; but she has always felt that she need not have had the
“misdemeanors” if the teaching had been a little different. Miss R—— it
was who took away the glass eye-cup; therefore I am aware that I cannot
think of her with clear and unprejudiced mind. But she must have had bitter
times with us, poor thing! I can distinctly remember Flossy urging Harry,
with fiery zeal, not to recite his geography lesson,—I cannot imagine why.
Miss R—— often rocked in the junk with us. That reminds me that I
promised to describe the junk. But how shall I picture that perennial fount
of joy? It was crescent-shaped, or rather it was like a longitudinal slice cut
out of a watermelon. Magnify the slice a hundred-fold; put seats up and
down the sides, with iron bars in front to hold on by; set it on two grooved
rails and paint it red,—there you have the junk! Nay! you have it not entire;
for it should be filled with rosy, shouting children, standing or sitting,
holding on by the bars and rocking with might and main,—
 “Yo-ho! Here we go!
Up and down! Heigh-ho!”

Why are there no junks nowadays? Surely it would be better for us, body
and mind, if there were; for, as for the one, the rocking exercised every
muscle in the whole bodily frame, and as for the other, black Care could not
enter the junk (at least he did not), nor weariness, nor “shadow of
annoyance.” There ought to be a junk on Boston Common, free to all, and
half a dozen in Central Park; and I hope every young person who reads
these words will suggest this device to his parents or guardians.
But teaching is not entirely confined to the archery practice of the young
idea; and any account of our teachers would be incomplete without mention
of our dancing-master,—of the dancing-master, for there was but one. You
remember that the dandy in “Punch,” being asked of whom he buys his
hats, replies: “Scott. Is there another fellah?” Even so it would be difficult
for the Boston generation of middle or elder life to acknowledge that there
could have been “another fellah” to teach dancing besides Lorenzo Papanti.
Who does not remember—nay! who could ever forget—that tall, graceful
figure; that marvellous elastic glide, like a wave flowing over glass? Who
could ever forget the shrewd, kindly smile when he was pleased, the keen
lightning of his glance when angered? What if he did rap our toes
sometimes till the timorous wept, and those of stouter heart flushed scarlet,
and clenched their small hands and inly vowed revenge? No doubt we
richly deserved it, and it did us good.
If I were to hear a certain strain played in the desert of Sahara or on the
plains of Idaho, I should instantly “forward and back and cross over,”—and
so, I warrant, would most of my generation of Boston people. There is one
grave and courteous gentleman of my acquaintance, whom to see dance the
shawl-dance with his fairy sister was a dream of poetry. As for the gavotte
—O beautiful Amy! O lovely Alice! I see you now, with your short, silken
skirts flowing out to extreme limit of crinoline; with your fair locks
confined by the discreet net, sometimes of brown or scarlet chenille,
sometimes of finest silk; with snowy stockings, and slippers fastened by
elastic bands crossed over the foot and behind the ankle; with arms and
neck bare. If your daughters to-day chance upon a photograph of you taken
in those days, they laugh and ask mamma how she could wear such queer
things, and make such a fright of herself! But I remember how lovely you
were, and how perfectly you always dressed, and with what exquisite grace
you danced the gavotte.

Laura E. Richards.

So, I think, all we who jumped and changed our feet, who pirouetted and
chasséed under Mr. Papanti, owe him a debt of gratitude. His hall was a
paradise, the stiff little dressing-room, with its rows of shoe-boxes, the
antechamber of delight,—and thereby hangs a tale. The child Laura grew
up, and married one who had jumped and changed his feet beside her at
Papanti’s, and they two went to Europe and saw many strange lands and
things; and it fell upon a time that they were storm-bound in a little wretch
of a grimy steamer in the Gulf of Corinth. With them was a travelling
companion who also had had the luck to be born in Boston, and to go to
dancing-school; the other passengers were a Greek, an Italian, and—I think
the third was a German, but as he was seasick it made no difference. Three
days were we shut up there while the storm raged and bellowed, and right
thankful we were for the snug little harbor which stretched its protecting
arms between us and the white churning waste of billows outside the bar.
We played games to make the time pass; we talked endlessly,—and in
the course of talk it naturally came to pass that we told of our adventures,
and where we came from, and, in short, who we were. The Greek
gentleman turned out to be an old acquaintance of our father, and was
greatly overjoyed to see me, and told me many interesting things about the
old fighting-days of the revolution. The Italian spoke little during this
conversation, but when he heard the word “Boston” he pricked up his ears;
and when a pause came, he asked if we came from Boston. “Yes,” we all
answered, with the inward satisfaction which every Bostonian feels at being
able to make the reply. And had we ever heard, in Boston, he went on to
inquire, of “un certo Papanti, maestro di ballo?” “Heard of him!” cried the
three dancing-school children,—“we never heard of any one else!”
Thereupon ensued much delighted questioning and counter-questioning.
This gentleman came from Leghorn, Mr. Papanti’s native city. He knew his
family; they were excellent people. Lorenzo himself he had never seen, as
he left Italy so many years ago; but reports had reached Leghorn that he
was very successful,—that he taught the best people (O Beacon street! O
purple windows and brown-stone fronts, I should think so!); that he had
invented “un piano sopra molle,” a floor on springs. Was this true?
Whereupon we took up our parable, and unfolded to the Livornese mind the
glory of Papanti, till he fairly glowed with pride in his famous fellow-
townsman.
And, finally, was not this a pleasant little episode in a storm-bound
steamer in the Gulf of Corinth?
 CHAPTER IX.

OUR FRIENDS.

We had so many friends that I hardly know where to begin. First of all,
perhaps, I should put the dear old Scotch lady whom we called “D. D.” She
had another name, but that is nobody’s business but her own. D. D. was a
thousand years old. She always said so when we asked her age, and she
certainly ought to have known. No one would have thought it to look at her,
for she had not a single gray hair, and her eyes were as bright and black as a
young girl’s. One of the pleasantest things about her was the way she
dressed, in summer particularly. She wore a gown of white dimity, always
spotlessly clean, made with a single plain skirt, and a jacket. The jacket was
a little open in front, showing a handkerchief of white net fastened with a
brooch of hair in the shape of a harp. Fashions made no difference to D. D.
People might wear green or yellow or purple, as they pleased,—she wore
her white dimity; and we children knew instinctively that it was the prettiest
and most becoming dress that she could have chosen.
Another wonderful thing about D. D. was her store-closet. There never
was such a closet as that! It was all full of glass jars, and the jars were full
of cinnamon and nutmeg and cloves and raisins, and all manner of good
things. Yes, and they were not screwed down tight, as jars are likely to be
nowadays; but one could take off the top, and see what was inside; and if it
was cinnamon, one might take even a whole stick, and D. D. would not
mind. Sometimes a friend of hers who lived at the South would send her a
barrel of oranges (she called it a “bar’l of awnges,” because she was Scotch,
and we thought it sounded a great deal prettier than the common way), and
then we had glorious times; for D. D. thought oranges were very good for
us, and we thought so too. Then she had some very delightful and
interesting drawers, full of old daguerreotypes and pieces of coral, and all
kinds of alicumtweezles. Have I explained before that “alicumtweezles” are
nearly the same as “picknickles” and “bucknickles”?
D. D.’s son was a gallant young soldier, and it was his hair that she wore
in the harp-shaped brooch. Many of the daguerreotypes were of him, and he
certainly was as handsome a fellow as any mother could wish a son to be.
When we went to take tea with D. D., which was quite often, we always
looked over her treasures, and asked the same questions over and over, the
dear old lady never losing patience with us. And such jam as we had for tea!
D. D.’s jams and jellies were famous, and she often made our whole
provision of sweet things for the winter. Then we were sure of having the
best quince marmalade and the clearest jelly; while as for the peach
marmalade—no words can describe it!
D. D. was a wonderful nurse; and when we were ill she often came and
helped our mother in taking care of us. Then she would sing us her song,—a
song that no one but D. D. and the fortunate children who had her for a
friend ever heard. It is such a good song that I must write it down, being
very sure that D. D. would not care.

“There was an old man. and he was mad,

And he ran up the steeple;
He took off his great big hat.
And waved it over the people.”

To D. D. we owe the preservation of one of Laura’s first compositions,

written when she was ten years old. She gave it to the good lady, who kept
it for many years in her treasure-drawer till Laura’s own children were old
enough to read it. It is a story, and is called—

LOST AND FOUND.

Marion Gray, a lovely girl of thirteen, one day tied on her gypsy hat,
and, singing a merry song, bade good-by to her mother, and ran quickly
toward the forest. She was the youngest daughter of Sir Edward Gray, a
celebrated nobleman in great favor with the king, and consequently Marion
had everything she wished for. When she reached the wood she set her
basket down under a chestnut-tree, and climbing up into the branches she
shook them till the ripe fruit came tumbling down. She then jumped down,
and having filled her basket was proceeding to another tree, when all of a
sudden a dark-looking man stepped out, who, when she attempted to fly,
struck her severely with a stick, and she fell senseless to the ground.
Meanwhile all was in confusion at the manorhouse. Marion’s faithful
dog Carlo had seen the man lurking in the thicket, and had tried to warn his
mistress of the danger. But seeing she did not mind, the minute he saw the
man prepare to spring out he had run to the house. He made them
understand that some one had stolen Marion. “Who, Carlo, who?”
exclaimed the agonized mother. Carlo instantly picked up some A-B-C
blocks which lay on the floor, and putting together the letters that form the
word “Gypsies,” looked up at his master and wagged his tail. “The
Gypsies!” exclaimed Sir Edward; “alas! if the gypsies have stolen our child,
we shall never see her again.” Nevertheless they searched and searched the
wood, but no trace of her was to be found.
.......
“Hush! here she is! Isn’t she a beauty?”
“Yes! but what is her name?”
“Marion Gray. I picked her up in the wood. A splendid addition to our
train, for she can beg charity and a night’s lodging; and then the easiest
thing in the world is just to find out where they keep the key, and let us in.
Hush! hush! she’s coming to.”
These words were spoken by a withered hag of seventy and the man who
had stolen her. Slowly Marion opened her eyes, and what was her horror to
find herself in a gypsy camp!
I will skip over the five long years of pain and suffering, and come to the
end of my story. Five years have passed, and the new king sits on his royal
throne, judging and condemning a band of gypsies. They are all condemned
but one young girl, who stands with downcast eyes before him; but when
she hears her doom, she raises her dark flashing eyes on the king. A
piercing shriek is heard, the crown and sceptre roll down the steps of the
throne, and Marion Gray is clasped in her father’s arms!
Another dear friend was Miss Mary. She was a small, brisk woman, with
“New England” written all over her. She used to stay with us a good deal,
helping my mother in household matters, or writing for our father; and we
all loved her dearly. She had the most beautiful hair, masses and masses of
it, of a deep auburn, and waving in a lovely fashion. She it was who used to
say, “Hurrah for Jackson!” whenever anything met her special approval;
and we all learned to say it too, and to this day some of us cheer the name
of “Old Hickory,” who has been in his grave these fifty years. Miss Mary
came of seafaring people, and had many strange stories of wreck and
tempest, of which we were never weary. Miss Mary’s energy was untiring,
her activity unceasing. She used to make long woodland expeditions with
us in the woods around the Valley, leading the way “over hill, over dale,
thorough bush, thorough brier,” finding all manner of wild-wood treasures,
—creeping-jenny, and ferns and mosses without end,—which were brought
home to decorate the parlors. She knew the name of every plant, and what it
was good for. She knew when the barberries must be gathered, and when
the mullein flowers were ready. She walked so fast and so far that she wore
out an unreasonable number of shoes in a season.
Speaking of her shoes reminds me that at the fire of which I spoke in a
previous chapter, at the Institution for the Blind, Miss Mary was the first
person to give the alarm. She had on a brand-new pair of morocco slippers
when the fire broke out, and by the time it was extinguished they were in
holes. This will give you some idea of Miss Mary’s energy.
Then there was Mr. Ford, one of the very best of our friends. He was a
sort of factotum of our father, and, like The Bishop in the “Bab Ballads,”
was “short and stout and round-about, and zealous as could be.” We were
very fond of trotting at his heels, and loved to pull him about and tease him,
which the good man never seemed to resent. Once, however, we carried our
teasing too far, as you shall hear. One day our mother was sitting quietly at
her writing, thinking that the children were all happy and good, and
possessing her soul in patience. Suddenly to her appeared Julia, her hair
flying, eyes wide open, mouth ditto,—the picture of despair.
“Oh, Mamma!” gasped the child, “I have done the most dreadful thing!
Oh, the most dreadful, terrible thing!”
“What is it?” exclaimed our mother, dropping her pen in distress; “what
have you done, dear? Tell me quickly!”
“Oh, I cannot tell you!” sobbed the child; “I cannot!”
“Have you set the house on fire?” cried our mother.
“Oh, worse than that!” gasped poor Julia, “much worse!”
“Have you dropped the baby?”
“Worse than that!”
Now, there was nothing worse than dropping the baby, so our mother
began to feel relieved.
“Tell me at once, Julia,” she said, “what you have done!”
 “I—I—” sobbed poor Julia,—“I pulled—I pulled—off—Mr. Ford’s
wig!”
There were few people we loved better than Tomty, the gardener. This
dear, good man must have been a martyr to our pranks, and the only wonder
is that he was able to do any gardening at all. It was “Tomty” here and
“Tomty” there, from morning till night. When Laura wanted her bonnet-
strings tied (oh, that odious little bonnet! with the rows of pink and green
quilled ribbon which was always coming off), she never thought of going
into the house to Mary, though Mary was good and kind too,—she always
ran to Tomty, who must “lay down the shovel and the hoe,” and fashion
bow-knots with his big, clumsy, good-natured fingers. When Harry was
playing out in the hot sun without a hat, and Mary called to him to come in
like a good boy and get his hat, did he go? Oh, no! He tumbled the potatoes
or apples out of Tomty’s basket, and put that on his head instead of a hat,
and it answered just as well.
Poor, dear Tomty! He went to California in later years, and was cruelly
murdered by some base wretches for the sake of a little money which he
had saved.
Somehow we had not very many friends of our own age. I suppose one
reason was that we were so many ourselves that there were always enough
to have a good time.
There were one or two little girls who used to go with us on the famous
maying-parties, which were great occasions. On May-day morning we
would take to ourselves baskets,—some full of goodies, some empty,—and
start for a pleasant wooded place not far from Green Peace. Here, on a
sunny slope where the savins grew not too thickly to prevent the sun from
shining merrily down on the mossy sward, we would pitch our tent (only
there was no tent), and prepare to be perfectly happy. We gathered such
early flowers as were to be found, and made garlands of them; we chose a
queen and crowned her; and then we had a feast, which was really the
object of the whole expedition.
It was the proper thing to buy certain viands for this feast, the home
dainties being considered not sufficiently rare.
Well, we ate our oranges and nibbled our cocoanut, and the older ones
drank the milk, if there was any in the nut: this was considered the very
height of luxury, and the little ones knew it was too much for them to
expect. I cannot remember whether we were generally ill after these feasts,
but I think it highly probable.
In mentioning our friends, is it right to pass over the good “four-footers,”
who were so patient with us, and bore with so many of our vagaries? Can
we ever forget Oggy the Steamboat, so called from the loudness of her
purring? Do not some of us still think with compunction of the day when
this good cat was put in a tin pan, and covered over with a pot-lid, while on
the lid was set her deadly enemy Ella, the fat King Charles spaniel? What a
snarling ensued! what growls, hisses, yells, mingled with the clashing of tin
and the “unseemly laughter” of naughty children!
And Lion, the good Newfoundland dog, who let us ride on his back—
when he was in the mood, and tumbled us off when he was not! He was a
dear dog; but Fannie, his mate, was anything but amiable, and sometimes
gave sore offence to visitors by snapping at their heels and growling.
But if the cats and dogs suffered from us, we suffered from José! O José!
what a tyrannous little beast you were! Never was a brown donkey prettier,
I am quite sure; never did a brown donkey have his own way so completely.
Whether a child could take a ride or not depended entirely on whether
José was in the mood for it. If not, he trotted a little way till he got the child
alone; and then he calmly rubbed off his rider against a tree or fence, and
trotted away to the stable. Of course this was when we were very little; but
by the time the little ones were big enough to manage him José was dead;
so some of us never “got even with him,” as the boys say. When the dearest
uncle in the world sent us the donkey-carriage, things went better; for the
obstinate little brown gentleman could not get rid of that, of course, and
there were many delightful drives, with much jingling of harness and all
manner of style and splendor.
These were some of our friends, two-footers and four-footers. There
were many others, of course, but time and space fail to tell of them. After
all, perhaps they were just like other children’s friends. I must not weary my
readers by rambling on indefinitely in these long-untrodden paths; but I
wish other children could have heard Oggy purr!
 CHAPTER X.

OUR GUESTS.

Many interesting visitors came and went, both at Green Peace and the
Valley,—many more than I can recollect. The visit of Kossuth, the great
Hungarian patriot, made no impression upon me, as I was only a year old
when he came to this country; but there was a great reception for him at
Green Peace, and many people assembled to do honor to the brave man
who had tried so hard to free his country from the Austrian yoke, and had so
nearly succeeded. I remember a certain hat, which we younger children
firmly believed to have been his, though I have since been informed that we
were mistaken. At all events, we used to play with the hat (I wonder whose
it was!) under this impression, and it formed an important element in
“dressing up,” which was one of our chief delights.
One child would put on Kossuth’s hat, another Lord Byron’s helmet,—a
superb affair of steel and gold, which had been given to our father in
Greece, after Byron’s death (we ought not to have been allowed to touch so
precious a relic, far less to dress up in it!); while a third would appropriate a
charming little square Polish cap of fine scarlet, which ought to have
belonged to Thaddeus of Warsaw, but did not, I fear.
What pleasant things we had to dress up in! There was our father’s
wedding-coat, bright blue, with brass buttons; and the waistcoat he had
worn with it, white satin with raised velvet flowers,—such a fine waistcoat!
There were two embroidered crape gowns which had been our
grandmother’s, with waists a few inches long, and long, skimp skirts; and
the striped blue and yellow moiré, which our mother had worn in some
private theatricals,—that was beyond description! And the white gauze with
gold flounces—oh! and the peach-blossom silk with flowers all over it—ah!
But this is a digression, and has nothing whatever to do with our guests,
who never played “dressing up,” that I can remember.
One of our most frequent visitors at Green Peace was the great statesman
and patriot, Charles Sumner. He was a very dear friend of our father, and
they loved to be together whenever the strenuous business of their lives
would permit.
We children used to call Mr. Sumner “the Harmless Giant;” and indeed
he was very kind to us, and had always a pleasant word for us in that deep,
melodious voice which no one, once hearing it, could ever forget. He
towered above us to what seemed an enormous height; yet we were told that
he stood six feet in his stockings,—no more. This impression being made
on Laura’s mind, she was used to employ the great senator as an imaginary
foot-rule (six-foot rule, I should say), and, until she was almost a woman
grown, would measure a thing in her own mind by saying “two feet higher
than Mr. Sumner,” or “twice as high as Mr. Summer,” as the case might be.
I can remember him carrying the baby Maud on his shoulder, and bowing
his lofty crest to pass through the doorway. Sometimes his mother, Madam
Sumner, came with him, a gracious and charming old lady. I am told that on
a day when she was spending an hour at Green Peace, and sitting in the
parlor window with our mother, Laura felt it incumbent upon her to
entertain the distinguished visitor; so, being arrayed in her best white frock,
she took up her station on the gravel path below the window, and filling a
little basket with gravel, proceeded to pour it over her head, exclaiming,
“Mit Humner! hee my ektibiton!” This meant “exhibition.” Laura could not
pronounce the letter S in childhood’s happy hour. “Mamma,” she would
say, if she saw our mother look grave, “Id you had? Why id you had?” and
then she would bring a doll’s dish, or it might be a saucepan, and give it to
her mother and say, with infinite satisfaction, “Dere! ’mooge you’helf wid
dat!”
Another ever welcome guest was John A. Andrew, the great War
Governor, as we loved to call him. He was not governor in those days,—
that is, when I first remember him; but he was then, as always, one of the
most delightful of men. Who else could tell a story with such exquisite
humor? The stories themselves were better than any others, but his way of
telling them set every word in gold. The very sound of his voice made the
air brighter and warmer, and his own delightful atmosphere of sunny
geniality went always with him. That was a wonderful evening when at one
of our parties some scenes from Thackeray’s “The Rose and the Ring” were
given. Our mother was Countess Gruffanuff, our father Kutasoff Hedzoff;
Governor Andrew took the part of Prince Bulbo, while Flossy made a
sprightly Angelica, and Julia as Betsinda was a vision of rarest beauty. I
cannot remember who was Prince Giglio, but the figure of Bulbo, with
closely curling hair, his fine face aglow with merriment, and the magic rose
in his buttonhole, comes distinctly before me.
Who were the guests at those dinner-parties so well remembered? Alas! I
know not. Great people they often were, famous men and women, who
talked, no doubt, brilliantly and delightfully. But is it their conversation
which lingers like a charm in my memory? Again, alas! my recollection is
of finger-bowls, crimson and purple, which sang beneath the wetted finger
of some kindly elder; of almonds and raisins, and bonbons mystic,
wonderful, all gauze and tinsel and silver paper, with flat pieces of red sugar
within. The red sugar was something of an anticlimax after the splendors of
its envelope, being insipidly sweet, with no special flavor. The scent of
coffee comes back to me, rich, delicious, breathing of “the golden days of
good Haroun Alraschid.” We were never allowed to drink coffee or tea; but
standing by our mother’s chair, just before saying good-night, we received
the most exquisite dainty the world afforded,—a “coffee-duck,” which to
the ignorant is explained to be a lump of sugar dipped in coffee (black
coffee, bien entendu) and held in the amber liquid till it begins to melt in
delicious “honeycomb” (this was probably the true ambrosia of the gods);
and then we said good-night, and—and—went and begged the cook for a
“whip,” or some “floating-island,” or a piece of frosted cake! Was it strange
that occasionally, after one of these feasts, Laura could not sleep, and was
smitten with the “terror by night” (it was generally a locomotive which was
coming in at the window to annihilate her; Julia was the one who used to
weep at night for fear of foxes), and would come trotting down into the
lighted drawing-room, among all the silks and satins, arrayed in the simple
garment known as a “leg-nightgown,” demanding her mother? Ay, and I
remember that she always got her mother, too.
But these guests? I remember the great Professor Agassiz, with his wise,
kindly face and genial smile. I can see him putting sugar into his coffee,
lump after lump, till it stood up above the liquid like one of his own
glaciers. I remember all the “Abolition” leaders, for our own parents were
stanch Abolitionists, and worked heart and soul for the cause of freedom. I
remember when Swedish ships came into Boston Harbor, probably for the
express purpose of filling our parlors with fair-haired officers, wonderful,
magnificent, shining with epaulets and buttons. There may have been other
reasons for the visit; there may have been deep political designs, and all
manner of mysteries relating to the peace of nations I know not. But I know
that there was a little midshipman in white trousers, who danced with
Laura, and made her a bow afterward and said, “I tanks you for de polska.”
He was a dear little midshipman! There was an admiral too, who
corresponded more or less with Southey’s description,—

“And last of all an admiral came,

A terrible man with a terrible name,—
A name which, you all must know very well,
Nobody can speak, and nobody can spell.”

The admiral said to Harry, “I understand you shall not go to sea in future
times?” and that is all I remember about him.
I remember Charlotte Cushman, the great actress and noble woman, who
was a dear friend of our mother; with a deep, vibrating, melodious voice,
and a strong, almost masculine face, which was full of wisdom and
kindliness.
I remember Edwin Booth, in the early days, when his brilliant genius
and the splendor of his melancholy beauty were taking all hearts by storm.
He was very shy, this all-powerful Richelieu, this conquering Richard, this
princely Hamlet. He came to a party given in his honor by our mother, and
instead of talking to all the fine people who were dying for a word with
him, he spent nearly the whole evening in a corner with little Maud, who
enjoyed herself immensely. What wonder, when he made dolls for her out
of handkerchiefs, and danced them with dramatic fervor? She was very
gracious to Mr. Booth, which was a good thing; for one never knew just
what Maud would say or do. Truth compels me to add that she was the
enfant terrible of the family, and that the elders always trembled when
visitors noticed or caressed the beautiful child.
One day, I remember, a very wise and learned man came to Green Peace
to see our mother,—a man of high reputation, and withal a valued friend.
He was fond of children, and took Maud on his knee, meaning to have a
pleasant chat with her. But Maud fixed her great gray eyes on him, and
surveyed him with an air of keen and hostile criticism. “What makes all
those little red lines in your nose?” she asked, after an ominous silence. Mr.
H——, somewhat taken aback, explained as well as he could the nature of
the veins, and our mother was about to send the child on some suddenly-
bethought-of errand, when her clear, melodious voice broke out again,
relentless, insistent: “Do you know, I think you are the ugliest man I ever
saw in my life!” “That will do, Maud!” said Mr. H——, putting her down
from his knee. “You are charming, but you may go now, my dear.” Then he
and our mother both tried to become very much interested in metaphysics;
and next day he went and asked a mutual friend if he were really the ugliest
man that ever was seen, telling her what Maud had said.
Again, there was a certain acquaintance—long since dead—who was in
the habit of making interminable calls at Green Peace, and who would talk
by the hour together without pausing. Our parents were often wearied by
this gentleman’s conversational powers, and one of them (let this be a
warning to young and old) chanced one day to speak of him in Maud’s
hearing as “a great bore.” This was enough! The next time the unlucky
talker appeared, the child ran up to him, and greeted him cordially with,
“How do you do, bore? Oh, you great bore!” A quick-witted friend who was
in the room instantly asked Mr. S—— if he had seen the copy of Snyder’s
“Boar Hunt” which our father had lately bought, thinking it better that he
should fancy himself addressed as a beast of the forest than as Borus
humanus; but he kept his own counsel, and we never knew what he really
thought of Maud’s greeting.
But of all visitors at either house, there was one whom we loved more
than all others put together. Marked with a white stone was the happy day
which brought the wonderful uncle, the fairy godfather, the realization of all
that is delightful in man, to Green Peace or the Valley. Uncle Sam Ward!—
uncle by adoption to half the young people he knew, but our very own
uncle, our mother’s beloved brother. We might have said to him, with
Shelley,—

“Rarely, rarely comest thou,

Spirit of delight!”

for he was a busy man, and Washington was a long way off; but when he
did come, as I said, it was a golden day. We fairly smothered him,—each
child wanting to sit on his knee, to see his great watch, and the wonderful
sapphire that he always wore on his little finger. Then he must sing for us;
and he would sing the old Studenten Lieder in his full, joyous voice; but he
must always wind up with “Balzoroschko Schnego” (at least that is what it
sounded like), a certain Polish drinking-song, in which he sneezed and
yodeled, and did all kinds of wonderful things.
Then would come an hour of quiet talk with our mother, when we knew
enough to be silent and listen,—feeling, perhaps, rather than realizing that it
was not a common privilege to listen to such talk.
“No matter how much I may differ from Sam Ward in principles or
opinion,” said Charles Sumner once, “when I have been with him five
minutes, I forget everything except that he is the most delightful man in the
world.”
Again (but this was the least part of the pleasure), he never came empty-
handed. Now it was a basket of wonderful peaches, which he thought might
rival ours; now a gold bracelet for a niece’s wrist; now a beautiful book, or
a pretty dress-pattern that had caught his eye in some shop-window. Now he
came direct from South America, bringing for our mother a silver pitcher
which he had won as a prize at a shooting-match in Paraguay. One of us
will never forget being waked in the gray dawn of a summer morning at the
Valley, by the sound of a voice singing outside,—will never forget creeping
to the window and peeping out through the blinds. There on the door-step
stood the fairy uncle, with a great basket of peaches beside him; and he was
singing the lovely old French song, which has always since then seemed to
me to belong to him:

“Noble Châtelaine,
Voyez notre peine,
Et dans vos domaines
Rendez charité!
Voyez le disgrace
Qui nous menace,
Et donnez, par grace,
L’hospitalité!
Toi que je révère,
Entends ma prière.
O Dieu tutelaire,
Viens dans ta bonte,
Pour sauver l’innocence,
Et que ta puissance
Un jour recompense
L’hospitalité!”
There is no sweeter song. And do you think we did not tumble into our
clothes and rush down, in wrappers, in petticoats, in whatever gown could
be most quickly put on, and unbar the door, and bring the dear wanderer in,
with joyful cries, with laughter, almost with tears of pure pleasure?
All, that was “long ago and long ago;” and now the kind uncle, the great
heart that overflowed with love and charity and goodwill to all human kind,
has passed through another door, and will not return! Be sure that on
knocking at that white portal, he found hospitality within.

And now it is time that these rambling notes should draw to a close.
There are many things that I might still speak of. But, after all, long ago is
long ago, and these glimpses of our happy childhood must necessarily be
fragmentary and brief. I trust they may have given pleasure to some
children. I wish all childhood might be as bright, as happy, as free from care
or sorrow, as was ours.
THE END.

FOOTNOTES:
[1] I find it to be stone clover.
[2] In the book entitled “Queen Hildegarde.”
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