Spatial Data Structure

. Introduction to Spatial Data

Spatial data, also called geospatial data, refers to any information that has a geographic
component. It describes where things are located on the Earth and what they are. Every spatial
dataset includes:

 Location information (coordinates, latitude-longitude, etc.)

 Attributes (name, type, area, population, etc.)
 Spatial relationships (adjacency, proximity, containment, etc.)

Examples:

 Location of roads, rivers, and buildings

 Satellite images of land cover
 Elevation maps
 Land ownership boundaries

2. What is a Spatial Data Structure?

A spatial data structure is the method or format used to digitally represent spatial data in a
computer system. It defines how spatial features (like points, lines, and areas) are stored,
organized, and accessed in GIS software.

In simple terms, it answers:

 How is the location of an object stored?

 How do we store the shape and size of features?
 How do we define their relationship to other features?

Just like a library needs an indexing system to quickly find books, GIS needs spatial data
structures to quickly store, retrieve, and analyze spatial information.

3. Importance of Spatial Data Structures

Function Role in GIS
Efficient storage Stores large-scale geographic data compactly
Fast retrieval Enables quick access and searching
Spatial analysis Supports operations like overlay, buffering, network analysis
Topology enforcement Maintains geometric and logical relationships between features

Without a good data structure, GIS becomes slow, inefficient, and inaccurate.
4. Categories of Spatial Data Structures
There are two primary types of spatial data structures based on how they model space:

A. Vector Data Structures

Vector models represent discrete objects (e.g., roads, rivers, boundaries) using:

 Points – single coordinate pair (e.g., a well or tree)

 Lines – connected points forming paths (e.g., roads, rivers)
 Polygons – closed lines forming areas (e.g., lakes, fields)

Common Vector Data Structures:

1- Spaghetti Model

The spaghetti model is the simplest vector structure, where each spatial feature is stored
independently as a sequence of points.

Characteristics:

 No spatial relationships between features.

 No recognition of shared boundaries or connectivity.
 Lines or polygons are drawn like strands of spaghetti—unconnected and redundant.

Limitations:

 Redundancy: Shared boundaries between polygons are stored multiple times.

 Inefficient for spatial analysis due to lack of topology.
 Difficult to maintain data consistency.

Example: Two adjacent land parcels are stored as two separate polygons, even if they share
the same boundary—this boundary is stored twice..

2-Topological Model

Definition: This model includes both the geometry of spatial features and the topology—the spatial
relationships among those features.

Topology refers to:

 Connectivity: How lines connect at nodes.

 Adjacency: Which polygons share common edges.
 Containment: Which features are inside others.
Data Structure Components:

 Nodes: Start and end points.

 Arcs: Lines connecting nodes.
 Polygons: Formed by connected arcs.

Advantages:

 Efficient for spatial analysis: adjacency, network flow, overlay.

 No data redundancy.
 Ensures data integrity.

Limitations:

 More complex to build and maintain.

 Data editing requires updating topological relationships.

Example: A road network where intersections (nodes) and roads (arcs) are topologically
connected, allowing for shortest path analysis. Software Example: ArcInfo’s Coverage model.

3-Object-Oriented Model

This model treats spatial features as "objects" that encapsulate both geometry and attributes, and
allows for relationships between them (inheritance, aggregation).

Key Features:

o Objects have properties (like name, length) and methods (functions).

o Supports complex data modeling.
o Better integration with databases and CAD systems.

Advantages:

o More flexible and scalable.

o Natural mapping between real-world entities and digital objects.

Applications: Used in advanced GIS software and spatial databases.

B. Raster Data Structures

Raster models represent continuous surfaces (e.g., elevation, temperature) using a grid of cells.

Each cell:

 Has a fixed size (resolution)

 Stores a value (e.g., height, temperature, class code)
Common Raster Data Structures:

1-Regular Grid (Full Raster)

Structure: Each cell in a 2D grid has a uniform size and contains a single value.

Advantages:
o Easy to process and analyze using matrix operations.
o Suitable for remote sensing and environmental modeling.
Limitations:
o Large file sizes, especially with high resolution.
o Lower spatial precision for discrete features (e.g., buildings).

Example: A digital elevation model (DEM) where each cell represents elevation in meters.

2 Run-Length Encoding (RLE)

A compression technique that stores repeated values efficiently.

How It Works:
 Instead of storing every cell, RLE stores the value and number of times it repeats in a
row.
Advantages:
 Saves storage in homogeneous areas.
 Faster processing for some operations.
Limitations:
 Less effective for heterogeneous data (frequent value changes).

3-Quad-Tree Structure
Definition: A hierarchical raster structure that recursively subdivides space into quadrants (sub-
grids).
How It Works:
 Large homogeneous areas are stored as single blocks.
 Heterogeneous areas are subdivided further for more detail.
Advantages:
 Efficient data compression.
 Adaptive resolution.
 Fast spatial indexing.

Applications:
 Image processing, terrain modeling, and large-scale mapping.
5. Key Differences between Vector and Raster Structures
Feature Vector Raster
Data Type Discrete Continuous
Storage Coordinates Matrix/grid
Precision High Depends on resolution
Best For Roads, parcels, utilities Elevation, land cover, imagery
File Size Smaller (for sparse data) Larger (for detailed surfaces)

6. Hybrid Structures and Spatial Indexing

Modern GIS platforms often use hybrid models:

 Store data in both vector and raster formats as needed.

 Apply spatial indexing techniques like R-trees, quad-trees, or grid indexing for faster
queries and visualization.

These methods improve performance and help in scaling up data analysis.

7. Real-World Applications of Spatial Data Structures

Field Application
Urban Planning Zoning, infrastructure design
Environmental Management Forest cover, pollution spread
Agriculture Soil mapping, crop monitoring
Disaster Management Flood modeling, risk zones
Transport Route optimization, network analysis
Remote Sensing Image classification, NDVI, land cover change

8. Conclusion
Spatial data structures are the foundation of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). They
provide the digital blueprint for how spatial features are represented, stored, and analyzed.
Whether it is through vector models (for precise, discrete features) or raster models (for
continuous phenomena), choosing the right structure is crucial for efficiency, accuracy, and
usability of GIS data.

By understanding and applying suitable spatial data structures, GIS professionals can ensure
powerful spatial analysis, robust data management, and effective decision-making in various real-
world applications.
References
1. Chang, K. T. (2016). Introduction to Geographic Information Systems (8th Edition). McGraw-Hill Education.
2. Longley, P. A., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D. J., & Rhind, D. W. (2015). Geographic Information Systems and Science
(4th Edition). Wiley.
3. Burrough, P. A., & McDonnell, R. A. (1998). Principles of Geographical Information Systems. Oxford University Press.
4. Heywood, I., Cornelius, S., & Carver, S. (2011). An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems (4th Edition).
Pearson Education.
5. Lo, C. P., & Yeung, A. K. W. (2007). Concepts and Techniques of Geographic Information Systems (2nd Edition).
Prentice Hall.