Lecture Note on Transistor

Introduction to Transistors

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals. It has three
layers of semiconductor material that form two p-n junctions. Transistors are the building blocks
of modern electronic devices, such as computers, radios, and phones.

Transistors can be classified into two main types:

1. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

2. Field-Effect Transistor (FET)

Types of Transistors

1. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

A BJT consists of three layers of semiconductor material: Emitter, Base, and Collector. The
BJT has two types based on the arrangement of these layers:

 NPN (Negative-Positive-Negative)
 PNP (Positive-Negative-Positive)

Structure of BJT:

 Emitter: Emits charge carriers (electrons or holes).

 Base: A thin layer that controls the flow of charge carriers between the emitter and
collector.
 Collector: Collects the charge carriers.

Working of BJT:

 In an NPN transistor:
o When a small current flows from the base to the emitter, it allows a much larger
current to flow from the collector to the emitter.
o The transistor operates in three regions: Active region, Cutoff region, and
Saturation region.

Current Gain (β) in BJT:

 The current gain (β) of a transistor is the ratio of the output current (collector current I C)
to the input current (base current I B).
 IC
β=
IB

2. Field-Effect Transistor (FET)

FETs use an electric field to control the flow of current through a semiconductor channel. The
most common type of FET is the Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET (MOSFET).

Types of FETs:

 Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET)

 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET):
o n-channel MOSFET
o p-channel MOSFET

Working of FET:

 FETs have three terminals: Source, Gate, and Drain.

o The Gate controls the current flowing from the Source to the Drain by applying
a voltage that creates an electric field.
o In n-channel MOSFETs, current flows when the gate-source voltage is positive.
o In p-channel MOSFETs, current flows when the gate-source voltage is negative.

Advantages of FET:

 High input impedance.

 Less power consumption than BJTs.
 Faster switching speeds.

Key Parameters of Transistors

1. Current Gain (β for BJT): Represents the ability of the transistor to amplify current.
2. Transistor Saturation: Occurs when the transistor is fully on (BJT) or conducting
(FET), and the output current reaches its maximum value.
3. Cut-off: The transistor is fully off, meaning no current flows between the collector and
emitter (BJT) or between the drain and source (FET).
4. Threshold Voltage (V_th): The voltage required at the gate to turn a MOSFET on.
5. Transistor Switching Speed: How quickly the transistor can transition from on to off
states.

1. Introduction to MOSFET
  The MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) is a type of field-
effect transistor (FET) used in electronic devices for switching and amplification.
 It is widely used in digital and analog circuits, particularly in microprocessors, memory
devices, and power control systems.
 The basic function of a MOSFET is to control the flow of current between two
semiconductor regions (source and drain) by applying a voltage to a gate terminal.

2. Structure of MOSFET

A MOSFET consists of four primary regions:

1. Source: The terminal where carriers (electrons or holes) enter the transistor.
2. Drain: The terminal where carriers exit the transistor.
3. Gate: The control terminal that modulates the current flow between the source and drain.
4. Body (or Bulk): The substrate to which the source, drain, and gate are connected.

 Gate oxide: A thin layer of insulating material (typically silicon dioxide, SiO₂) between
the gate and the channel formed by the source and drain. It prevents current from flowing
directly between the gate and the channel but allows for electric field control.

Types of MOSFETs

1. n-channel MOSFET (nMOS):

o Source is connected to the n-type material, and the drain is also n-type. The gate
voltage controls the formation of a channel for electron flow (n-type carriers).
2. p-channel MOSFET (pMOS):
o Source is connected to the p-type material, and the drain is also p-type. The gate
voltage controls the formation of a channel for hole flow (p-type carriers).

3. Operation of MOSFET

The MOSFET operates in different regions depending on the voltage applied to the gate:

a. Enhancement-mode MOSFET (normally off):

 nMOS: When no gate voltage is applied, there is no conductive channel between the
source and drain. When a positive voltage is applied to the gate, it attracts electrons to the
channel, creating a conductive path between the source and drain.
 pMOS: The device remains off until a negative voltage is applied to the gate, which
attracts holes to form the conductive channel.

b. Depletion-mode MOSFET (normally on):

 In this type, the MOSFET is normally conducting (on state) without any gate voltage.
Applying a gate voltage can deplete charge carriers from the channel, turning the device
off.
4. MOSFET Characteristics

 Threshold Voltage (Vth):

o The minimum gate voltage required to form a conductive channel between the
source and drain.
 Drain Current (I_D):
o The current flowing between the source and drain is controlled by the voltage
applied to the gate. The current follows a relationship based on the region of
operation (linear or saturation).
 Transfer Characteristics:
o Describes the relationship between the gate voltage and the drain current. The
relationship is nonlinear, typically showing an exponential increase of current
with gate voltage for an enhancement-mode MOSFET.
 Output Characteristics:
o Shows the relationship between the drain current and the drain-to-source voltage
(V_DS) for different gate voltages.

5. MOSFET Operating Regions

1. Cutoff Region:
o The gate voltage is less than the threshold voltage (V_GS < Vth).
o No current flows between the source and drain (I_D ≈ 0).
2. Linear (Ohmic) Region:
o When the MOSFET is "on" but the drain-to-source voltage is small (V_DS <
V_GS - Vth).
o The MOSFET behaves like a resistor, and the current increases linearly with
V_DS.
3. Saturation (Active) Region:
o When V_DS > V_GS - Vth, and the MOSFET is fully "on".
o In this region, the drain current is relatively constant and controlled by V_GS.
The current is primarily dependent on the gate voltage.

Key Parameters of MOSFET

 Drain-to-Source Voltage (V_DS): The voltage difference between the drain and source.
 Gate-to-Source Voltage (V_GS): The voltage difference between the gate and source,
which controls the current flow.
 Gate Capacitance (C_gs): The capacitance between the gate and the channel. This
affects the switching speed of the MOSFET.
 Transconductance (g_m): The rate of change of the drain current with respect to the
gate-to-source voltage. It is a measure of the MOSFET’s ability to amplify.

Advantages of MOSFETs

 High input impedance: The gate is insulated from the channel, resulting in negligible
current draw at the gate.
  Low power consumption: In switching applications, the MOSFET can be highly
efficient with minimal power dissipation.
 High-speed operation: MOSFETs can switch between on and off states very quickly,
making them ideal for high-frequency applications.
 Scalability: As semiconductor manufacturing processes advance, MOSFETs can be
made smaller, enabling more devices to be packed onto chips (Moore's Law).

Applications of MOSFET

 Digital Logic Circuits: MOSFETs are used in CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-

Semiconductor) logic circuits for processors and memory devices.
 Amplifiers: In analog circuits, MOSFETs can amplify signals.
 Switching Power Supplies: MOSFETs are crucial in power electronics, such as voltage
regulators and DC-DC converters.
 RF (Radio Frequency) Amplifiers: MOSFETs are used in RF amplifiers for
communication systems.

MOSFET in CMOS Technology

 CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) technology uses both nMOS and

pMOS transistors in a complementary manner to reduce power consumption.
 In CMOS logic, nMOS transistors pull the output low (to ground), and pMOS transistors
pull the output high (to V_DD).

MOSFET Scaling and Challenges

 As the size of MOSFETs decreases, challenges such as short-channel effects,

subthreshold conduction, and leakage currents become significant.
 FinFET and Gate-All-Around (GAA) transistors are newer transistor designs
addressing some of these challenges by improving control over the channel.

Conclusion

 The MOSFET is a versatile and essential component in modern electronics. Its ability to
efficiently switch between on and off states makes it the cornerstone of digital circuits,
power electronics, and amplification. As technology advances, MOSFETs continue to
evolve, making possible the high-speed and low-power devices that power today's
technology.
Transistor Amplification

Transistors are commonly used as amplifiers in analog electronics. The transistor amplifies the
input signal at the base (BJT) or gate (FET), producing a larger output signal at the collector
(BJT) or drain (FET).

For example, in a common-emitter amplifier (BJT) or common-source amplifier (FET), the

small input voltage causes a large change in the output current, which is useful in applications
like audio amplification.

Applications of Transistors

1. Amplifiers: In audio, radio, and other communication devices.

2. Switching: In digital circuits, transistors act as switches in logic gates and memory
devices.
3. Oscillators: Used in radio frequency (RF) circuits to generate sine or square waves.
4. Regulators: In voltage regulation systems, where transistors help maintain a steady
output voltage.
5. Signal Modulation: In communication systems, transistors modulate signals for
transmission.

Common Transistor Configurations

1. Common-Emitter Configuration (BJT):

o High voltage gain, moderate current gain.
o Used in amplification.
2. Common-Base Configuration (BJT):
o High voltage gain, no current gain.
o Used in high-frequency applications.
3. Common-Collector Configuration (BJT):
o High current gain, no voltage gain.
o Used for impedance matching.
4. Common-Source Configuration (FET):
o Similar to common-emitter in BJT, used for amplification.
5. Common-Gate Configuration (FET):
o High frequency, low input impedance.

Voltage Amplifiers

A voltage amplifier is an electronic circuit that increases the amplitude of an input voltage signal
while maintaining its original waveform shape. Voltage amplifiers are fundamental components
in various applications such as audio systems, communication devices, and instrumentation.
 Characteristics of Voltage Amplifiers

1. Voltage Gain (Av):

o Ratio of the output voltage (Vout) to the input voltage (Vin).
o Defined as:
o Measured in volts per volt (V/V) or in decibels (dB):
2. Input Impedance (Zin):
o Determines how much current the amplifier draws from the source.
o A high Zin minimizes loading effects on the signal source.
3. Output Impedance (Zout):
o Represents the impedance seen by the load connected to the amplifier.
o A low Zout ensures maximum signal transfer to the load.
4. Bandwidth:
o The range of frequencies over which the amplifier maintains a consistent gain.
o Defined by the lower (fL) and upper (fH) cutoff frequencies, where the gain drops
by 3 dB.
o Bandwidth (BW):
5. Distortion:
o Refers to any deviation in the output signal from the amplified version of the
input.
o Ideally, amplifiers should exhibit minimal distortion.

3. Types of Basic Voltage Amplifiers

3.1 Common Emitter (CE) Amplifier

 Configuration: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) with the emitter terminal common to
both input and output.
 Key Features:
o High voltage gain
o Moderate input impedance
o Moderate output impedance
 Voltage Gain Approximation:

Where:

o : Transconductance
o : Collector resistance
o : Emitter resistance
 Common Source (CS) Amplifier

 Configuration: MOSFET with the source terminal common to both input and output.
 Key Features:
o High voltage gain
o High input impedance
o Moderate output impedance
 Voltage Gain Approximation:

Where:

o : Transconductance
o : Drain resistance

Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) Voltage Amplifier

 Configuration: A high-gain differential amplifier with feedback used to control gain.

 Key Features:
o Extremely high input impedance
o Very low output impedance
o Configurable gain through external resistors
 Voltage Gain in Non-Inverting Configuration:

Where:

o : Feedback resistor
o : Input resistor
 Voltage Gain in Inverting Configuration:

4. Performance Metrics

1. Slew Rate:
o Maximum rate of change of the output voltage per unit time.
o Important for handling high-frequency signals without distortion.
2. Gain-Bandwidth Product (GBP):
o Product of the amplifier’s gain and its bandwidth.
o For Op-Amps, .
3. Linearity:
o Determines how faithfully the amplifier reproduces the input signal.
5. Practical Considerations

1. Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR):

o Measures how well the amplifier rejects variations in the power supply.
2. Thermal Stability:
o Ensures consistent performance over temperature variations.
3. Noise Performance:
o Amplifiers introduce noise, which can degrade signal quality.
o Low-noise designs are critical in sensitive applications.

6. Applications of Voltage Amplifiers

 Audio Amplification: Enhancing audio signals for speakers or headphones.

 Signal Conditioning: Amplifying small signals in sensors and instrumentation.
 Communication Systems: Boosting RF signals in transmitters and receivers.
 Data Acquisition: Amplifying signals before analog-to-digital conversion.