1.

Overview of Metal Forming

2. Material Behavior in Metal Forming
3. Temperature in Metal Forming
4. Strain Rate Sensitivity
5. Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming

2
Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic
deformation is used to change the shape of metal workpieces
 The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that exceed the
yield strength of the metal
 The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of the die

3
 Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually
compressive
 Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
 However, some forming processes
 Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
 Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
 Still others apply shear stresses

4
 Desirable material properties:
 Low yield strength
 High ductility
 These properties are affected by temperature:
 Ductility increases and yield strength decreases
when work temperature is raised
 Other factors:
 Strain rate and friction

5
1. Bulk deformation
 Rolling
 Forging
 Extrusion
 Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking
 Bending
 Deep drawing
 Cutting
 Miscellaneous processes
6
 Characterized by significant deformations and massive shape
changes
 "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low surface
area-to-volume ratios
 Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets and rectangular
bars

 See bulk deformation in details...

7
Rolling. This is a compressive deformation process in which the
thickness of a slab or plate is reduced by two opposing
cylindrical tools called rolls.
The rolls rotate so as to draw the workpiece into the gap
between them and squeeze it.

8
 Forging. In forging, a workpiece is compressed between two
opposing dies, so that the die shapes are imparted to the work.
Forging is traditionally a hot working process, but many types
of forging are performed cold.

9
 Extrusion. This is a compression process in which the work
metal is forced to flow through a die opening, thereby taking
the shape of the opening as its own cross section.

10
 Drawing . In this forming process, the diameter of a round wire
or bar is reduced by pulling it through a die opening.

11
 Forming and related operations performed on metal sheets,
strips, and coils
 High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting metal, which
distinguishes these from bulk deformation
 Often called pressworking because presses perform these
operations
 Parts are called stampings
 Usual tooling: punch and die

12
 Bending. Bending involves straining of a metal sheet or plate to
take an angle along a (usually) straight axis.

13
 Drawing . In sheet metalworking, drawing refers to the forming of a
flat metal sheet into a hollow or concave shape, such as a cup, by
stretching the metal.
 A blankholder is used to hold down the blank while the punch
pushes into the sheet metal, as shown in Figure 18.3(b). To
distinguish this operation from bar and wire drawing, the terms cup
drawing or deep drawing are often used.

14
 Shearing. This process seems somewhat out-of-place in a list of
deformation processes, because it involves cutting rather than
forming. A shearing operation cuts the work using a punch and
die, as in Figure 18.3(c). Although it is not a forming process, it
is includedhere because it is a necessary and very common
operation in sheet metalworking.

15
 Plastic
region of stress-strain
curve is primary interest
because material is plastically
deformed
 In plastic region, metal's
behavior is expressed by the
flow curve:

  K n
 where K = strength
coefficient; and n = strain
hardening exponent
 Flow curve based on true
stress and true strain

16
 For most metals at room temperature, strength increases when
deformed due to strain hardening
 Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to continue
deforming the material

Yf  K n
 where Yf = flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a
function of strain

17
 Determined by integrating the
flow curve equation between
zero and the final strain value
defining the range of interest

_
K n
Yf 
1 n

where = average flow

stress; and  = maximum strain
during deformation process

18
19
 The strength coefficient = 550 MPa and strain-hardening
exponent = 0.22 for a certain metal. During a forming
operation, the final true strain that the metal experiences =
0.85. Determine the flow stress at this strain and the average
flow stress that the metal experienced during the operation.
Solution: Flow stress Yf = 550(0.85)0.22 = 531 MPa.
Average flow stress = 550(0.85)0.22/1.22 = 435 MPa.

20
 A metal has a flow curve with parameters: strength coefficient =
850 MPa and strain-hardening exponent = 0.30. A tensile
specimen of the metal with gage length = 100 mm is stretched
to a length = 157 mm. Determine the flow stress at the new
length and the average flow stress that the metal has been
subjected to during the deformation.
Solution: = ln (157/100) = ln 1.57 = 0.451
Flow stress Yf = 850(0.451)0.30 = 669.4 MPa.
Average flow stress = 850(0.451)0.30/1.30 = 514.9 MPa.

21
 For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on temperature
 Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are reduced at higher
temperatures
 In addition, ductility is increased at higher temperatures

 Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower

forces and power at elevated temperature
 Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
 Cold working
 Warm working
 Hot working

22
 Performed at room temperature or slightly above
 Many cold forming processes are important mass production
operations
 Minimum or no machining usually required
 These operations are near net shape or net shape processes

23
 Better accuracy, closer tolerances
 Better surface finish
 Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
 Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable directional
properties in product
 No heating of work required

24
 Higher forces and power required in the deformation operation
 Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of scale and dirt
 Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that
can be done
 In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow further deformation
 In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked

25
 Performed at temperatures above room temperature but below
recrystallization temperature
 Dividing line between cold working and warm working often
expressed in terms of melting point:
 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for metal

26
 Lower forces and power than in cold working
 More intricate work geometries possible
 Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated

27
 Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization
temperature
 Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting point
on absolute scale
 In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.5Tm
 Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm,
enhancing advantage of hot working above this level

28
 Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal - far
more than possible with cold working or warm working
 Why?
 Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at room
temperature
 Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically)
 Ductility is significantly increased

29
 Workpart shape can be significantly altered
 Lower forces and power required
 Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed
 Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
 No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
 Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently processed
by cold forming

30
 Lower dimensional accuracy
 Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to heat
the workpiece)
 Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish
 Shorter tool life

31
 Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves like a perfectly
plastic material, with strain hardening exponent n = 0
 The metal should continue to flow at the same flow stress, once that
stress is reached
 However, an additional phenomenon occurs during deformation,
especially at elevated temperatures: Strain rate sensitivity

32
 Strain rate in forming is directly related to speed of
deformation v
 Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or other movement
of the equipment
 Strain rate is defined:
. v

h
 where = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous
height of workpiece being deformed

33
 In most practical operations, valuation of strain rate is
complicated by
 Workpart geometry
 Variations in strain rate in different regions of the part

 Strain rate can reach 1000 s-1 or more for some metal forming
operations

34
 Flow stress is a function of temperature
 At hot working temperatures, flow stress also depends on strain
rate
 As strain rate increases, resistance to deformation increases
 This effect is known as strain-rate sensitivity

35
 Yf = Cε m
where C = strength constant
(similar but not equal to
strength coefficient in flow
curve equation), and m =
strain-rate sensitivity
exponent
Effect of strain rate on flow stress
at an elevated work temperature.
(b) Same relationship plotted on
log-log coordinates.

36
Effect of temperature on flow stress
for a typical metal. The constant C,
as indicated by the intersection of
each plot with the vertical dashed
line at strain rate = 1.0, decreases,
and m (slope of each plot) increases
with increasing temperature.

37
 In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:
 Metal flow is retarded
 Forces and power are increased
 Tooling wears faster

 Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot working

38
 Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work interface in
many forming operations to reduce harmful effects of friction
 Benefits:
 Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
 Better surface finish
 Removes heat from the tooling

39
 Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal drawing,
etc.)
 Hot working or cold working
 Work material
 Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
 Ease of application
 Cost

40
1. Rolling
2. Other Deformation Processes Related to Rolling
3. Forging
4. Other Deformation Processes Related to Forging
5. Extrusion
6. Wire and Bar Drawing

41
 Metal forming operations which cause significant shape change
by deforming metal parts whose initial form is bulk rather than
sheet
 Starting forms:
 Cylindrical bars and billets,
 Rectangular billets and slabs, and similar shapes

 These processes stress metal sufficiently to cause plastic flow

into desired shape
 Performed as cold, warm, and hot working operations

42
 In hot working, significant shape change can be accomplished
 In cold working, strength is increased during shape change
 Little or no waste - some operations are near net shape or net
shape processes
 The parts require little or no subsequent machining

43
 Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between opposing rolls
 Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between opposing
dies
 Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening, thereby
taking the shape of the opening
 Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is reduced by
pulling it through a die opening

44
 Deformation process in which work thickness is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

45
 Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
 Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between
workpart and rolls
 Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross section

46
 Steelmaking provides the most common application of rolling
mill operations .
 The work starts out as a cast steel ingot that has just solidified.
While it is still hot, the ingot is placed in a furnace where it
remains for many hours until it has reached a uniform
temperature throughout, so that the metal will flow consistently
during rolling.
 For steel, the desired temperature for rolling is around 1200C.
 The heating operation is called soaking, and the furnaces in
which it is carried out are called soaking pits.

47
 Coarse-grained-brittle-porous
(CAST) structure of ingot

HOT-ROLLING
Fine grained-tough-homogeneous
(WROUGHT) structure
Changes in the grain structure of
metals during hot rolling. This is an
effective method to reduce grain size
and refine the microstructure in
metals, resulting in improved
strength and good ductility. In this
process cast structures of ingots or
continuous castings are converted to
a wrought structure. 48
49
 By geometry of work:
 Flat rolling - used to reduce
thickness of a rectangular
cross-section
 Shape rolling - a square
cross-section is formed into a
shape such as an I-beam
 By temperature of work:
 Hot Rolling – most common
due to the large amount of
deformation required
 Cold rolling – produces
finished sheet and plate stock

50
 Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill. 51
Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses,
work velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.
52
 Draft = amount of thickness reduction

d t o t f

where d = draft; to = starting thickness; and tf =

final thickness

53
 Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of starting stock
thickness:

d
r 
to
where r = reduction

54
 Conservation of matter is preserved,
so the volume of metal exiting the rolls
equals the volume entering

 Similarly, before and after volume

rates of material flow must be the
same, so the before and after
velocities can be related:

55
 Vr is greater than the entering speed
of the work Vo and less than its exiting
speed Vf.
 Since the metal flow is continuous,
there is a gradual change in velocity of
the work between the rolls.
 However, there is one point along the
arc where work velocity equals roll
velocity. This is called the no-slip
point, also known as the neutral point.
 On either side of this point, slipping
and friction occur between roll and
work.

56
 The amount of slip between the rolls
and the work can be measured by
means of the forward slip, a term used
in rolling that is defined:

 The true strain experienced by the

work in rolling is based on before and
after stock thicknesses. In equation
form,

 The true strain can be used to

determine the average flow stress Yf
applied to the work material in flat
rolling.

57
 Frictional Forces
 Required to move workpiece
 Must be overcome, increasing rolling forces and power
requirements
 The friction force on the entrance side is greater, so that the net
force pulls the work through the rolls. If this were not the case,
rolling would not be possible.

 dmax maximum draft,mm; m coefficient of friction; and R roll

radius, mm

58
 Coefficient of friction in rolling depends on lubrication, work
material, and working temperature.
 In cold rolling, the value is around 0.1; in warm working, a
typical value is around 0.2; and in hot rolling, m is around 0.4
 Hot rolling is often characterized by a condition called sticking,
in which the hot work surface adheres to the rolls over the
contact arc. This condition often occurs in the rolling of steels
and high-temperature alloys.When sticking occurs, the
coefficient of friction can be as high as 0.7.

59
 roll force F required to maintain
separation between the two rolls
can be computed by integrating
the unit roll pressure (shown as p
in Figure 19.3) over the roll-work
contact area. This can be
expressed

 An approximation of the results

obtained by Eq. can be calculated
based on the average flow stress
experienced by the work material
in the roll gap.

60
 Reducing roll force
 Reducing friction
 Using smaller-diameter rolls
 Taking smaller reductions-per-pass
 Rolling at elevated temperatures
 Applying tensions to the strip

61
 Contact length can be approximated by

 The torque in rolling can be estimated

by assuming that the roll force is
centered on the work as it passes
between the rolls, and that it acts with a
moment arm of one-half the contact
length L. Thus, torque for each roll is

62
 The power required to drive each roll is
the product of torque and angular
velocity. Angular velocity is 2 π N
 the power for each roll is 2πNT
 two powered rolls, we get the following
expression:

63
 A 42.0 mm thick plate made of low carbon steel is to be
reduced to 34.0 mm in one pass in a rolling operation. As the
thickness is reduced, the plate widens by 4%. The yield
strength of the steel plate is 174 MPa and the tensile strength is
290 MPa. The entrance speed of the plate is 15.0 m/min. The
roll radius is 325 mm and the rotational speed is 49.0 rev/min.
Determine (a) the minimum required coefficient of friction that
would make this rolling operation possible, (b) exit velocity of
the plate, and (c) forward slip.
(a) Maximum draft dmax = 2 R
Given that d = to - tf = 42 - 34 = 8.0 mm,
2 = 8/325 = 0.0246
 = (0.0246)0.5 = 0.157
(b) Plate widens by 4%.
towovo = tfwfvf
wf = 1.04 wo
42(wo)(15) = 34(1.04wo)vf
vf = 42(wo)(15)/ 34(1.04wo) = 630/35.4 = 17.8 m/min
(c) vr = π r2N= π(0.325)2(49.0) = 16.26 m/min 64

s = (v - v )/v = (17.8 – 16.26)/16.26 = 0.0947

 19.7 A plat that is 250 mm wide and 25 mm thick is to be
reduced in a single pass in a two high rolling mill to a thickness
of 20 mm. The roll has a radius = 500 mm, and its speed = 30
m/min. The work material has a strength coefficient = 240 MPa
and a strain hardening exponent = 0.2. Determine (a) roll force,
(b) roll torque, and (c) power required to accomplish this
operation.
Solution: (a) Draft d = 25 - 20 = 5 mm,
Contact length L = (500 x 5).5 = 50 mm
True strain = ln(25/20) = ln 1.25 = 0.223
= 240(0.223)0.20/1.20 = 148.1 MPa
Rolling force F = 148.1(250)(50) = 1,851,829 N
(b) Torque T = 0.5(1,851,829)( 50 x 10-3) = 46,296 N-m
(c) N = (30 m/min)/(2π x 0.500) = 9.55 rev/min = 0.159 rev/s
Power P = 2 π(0.159)(1,851,829)(50 x 10-3) = 92,591 N-
m/s = 92,591 W

65
66
67
 Work is deformed into a contoured cross section rather than flat
(rectangular)
 Accomplished by passing work through rolls that have the
reverse of desired shape
 Products include:
 Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams, and U-channels
 Rails for railroad tracks
 Round and square bars and rods

68
 usually starting as a square shape, requires a gradual
transformation through several rolls in order to achieve the
final cross section.
 Designing the sequence of intermediate shapes and
corresponding rolls is called roll-pass design.
 Its goal is to achieve uniform deformation throughout the cross
section in each reduction. Otherwise, certain portions of the
work are reduced more than others, causing greater elongation
in these sections.

69
70
A rolling mill for hot
flat rolling. The
steel plate is seen
as the glowing
strip in lower left
corner (photo
courtesy of
Bethlehem Steel).

71
 Equipment is massive and expensive
 Rolling mill configurations:
 Two-high – two opposing rolls
 Three-high – work passes through rolls in both
directions
 Four-high – backing rolls support smaller work
rolls
 Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller
rolls
 Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills

72
 Used for hot rolling in the initial
passes
 Used on cast ingots
 Used in continuous casting
 Roll diameters .06m-1.4m

73
 To achieve a series of
reductions, the work can be
passed through from either side
by raising or lowering the strip
after each pass.
 The equipment in a three-high
rolling mill becomes more
complicated, because an
elevator mechanism is needed
to raise and lower the work.

74
 reducing roll diameter. Roll-work
contact length is reduced with a lower
roll radius, and this leads to lower
forces, torque, and power.
 Rolls are cheaper to replace
 Small rolls deflect more so they must
be supported by larger rolls
 Very adept for cold rolling thin sheets
high-strength materials

75
 Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll diameters

76
 A series of rolling stands in sequence
 eachmaking a reduction in thickness or a refinement in shape
of the work passing through.
 With each rolling step, work velocity increases, and the
problem of synchronizing the roll speeds at each stand is a
significant one.

77
 Rolls must be made of materials with high strength and
resistance to wear
 Common materials include cast iron, cast steel and forged steel
 Forged steel has higher strength, stiffness and toughness but
costs more
 Tungsten carbides can be used for smaller diameter rolls
 Rolls are polished for cold-working and special applications

78
 Bulk deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical
parts by rolling them between two dies
 Important commercial process for mass producing bolts and
screws
 Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines
 Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
 Higher production rates
 Better material utilization
 Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance due to work
hardening

79
 Figure 19.6 Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle, and
(2) end of cycle.

80
 Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of smaller
diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter
 As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed metal elongates,
causing diameter of ring to be enlarged
 Hot working process for large rings and cold working process
for smaller rings
 Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for
railroad wheels, and rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and
rotating machinery
 Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation,
strengthening through cold working

81
Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the
diameter of a ring: (1) start, and (2) completion of process.

82
83
 Deformation process in which work is compressed between
two dies
 Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from about 5000
BC
 Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears,
aircraft structural components, jet engine turbine parts
 Also, basic metals industries use forging to establish basic form
of large parts that are subsequently machined to final shape
and size

84
 Cold vs. hot forging:
 Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the significant
deformation and the need to reduce strength and increase ductility
of work metal
 Cold forging – advantage: increased strength that results from strain
hardening
 Impact vs. press forging:
 Forge hammer - applies an impact load
 Forge press - applies gradual pressure

85
 Open-die forging - work is compressed between two flat dies,
allowing metal to flow laterally with minimum constraint

86
 Impression-die forging - die contains cavity or impression that
is imparted to workpart
 Metal flow is constrained so that flash is created

87
 Flashless forging - workpart is completely constrained in die
 No excess flash is created

88
 Compression of workpart between two flat dies
 Similar to compression test when workpart has cylindrical cross
section and is compressed along its axis
 Deformation operation reduces height and increases diameter of
work
 Common names include upsetting or upset forging

89
 Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical workpart under
ideal conditions in an open-die forging operation: (1) start of
process with workpiece at its original length and diameter, (2)
partial compression, and (3) final size.

90
91
If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then
homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial flow is uniform
throughout workpart height and true strain is given by:
ho
  ln
h
where ho= starting height; and h = height at some point during
compression
 At h = final value hf, true strain is maximum value

92
 Estimates of force to perform upsetting can be calculated. The
force required to continue the compression at any given height
h during the process can be obtained by multiplying the
corresponding cross-sectional area by the flow stress:
F=YfA
 where F=force, lb (N);A=ross-sectional area of the part,mm2
(in2); andYf=flow stress corresponding to the strain

93
 Flow stress Yf also increases as a result of work hardening,
except when the metal is perfectly plastic (e.g., in hot working).
In this case, the strain-hardening exponent n=0, and flow stress
Yf equals the metal’s yield strength Y. Force reaches a maximum
value at the end of the forging stroke, when both area and flow
stress are at their highest values.

94
 Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral flow
of work, resulting in barreling effect
 In hot open-die forging, effect is even more pronounced due to
heat transfer at and near die surfaces, which cools the metal
and increases its resistance to deformation

95
 All of these factors cause the actual upsetting force to be
greater than what is predicted by Eq. (19.15). As an
approximation, we can apply a shape factor to Eq. (19.15) to
account for effects of the D/h ratio and friction:
F=KfYfA
where F, Yf, and A have the same definitions as in the previous
equation; and Kf is the forging shape factor, defined as
Kf = 1 + 0,4µD/h

96
 A cylindrical workpiece is subjected to a cold upset forging
operation. The starting piece is 75 m/min height and 50mmin
diameter. It is reduced in the operation to a height of 36mm.The
work material has a flow curve defined by K=350MPaand
n¼0.17.Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1. Determine the
force at intermediate heights of 62mm.

97
  Operations classified as open-die forging or related operations
include fullering, edging, and cogging,

The material is distributed away from an area The material is gathered into a localized area

98
 Compression of workpart by
dies with inverse of desired
part shape
 Flash is formed by metal that
flows beyond die cavity into
small gap between die plates The process is illustrated in a
 Flash must be later trimmed, three-step sequence
but it serves an important (1) just prior to initial contact
function during compression: with raw workpiece,
 As flash forms, friction resists
continued metal flow into gap, (2) partial compression, and
constraining material to fill die
cavity (3) final die closure, causing
 In hot forging, metal flow is
flash to form in gap
further restricted by cooling between die plates.
against die plates
99
 Several forming steps often required, with separate die cavities
for each step
 Beginning steps redistribute metal for more uniform deformation
and desired metallurgical structure in subsequent steps
 Final steps bring the part to final geometry

 Impression-die forging is often performed manually by skilled

operator under adverse conditions to achieve consistent
results.

100
101
 Because of flash formation in impression-die forging and the
more complex part shapes made with these dies, forces in this
process are significantly greater and more difficult to analyze
than in open-die forging
F=KfYfA
where F, Yf, and A have the same definitions as in the previous
equation; and Kf is the forging shape factor, defined as

 The maximum force is reached at the end of the forging stroke,

when the projected area is greatest and friction is maximum.
102
 Because of the flash’s high
surface-area-to-thickness ratio
, cools faster than the bulk of
the work piece
 -The flash resists deformation
more than bulk does and
helps fill the die cavity
 -Land ensures that the flash
generates sufficient resistance
of the outward flow of material
to aid in die filling without
contributing excessively to the
forging load  -The force increases gradually
as the cavity is filled,
 -The force than increases
rapidly as flash forms
103
 Advantages of impression-die forging compared to machining
from solid stock:
 Higher production rates
 Less waste of metal
 Greater strength
 Favorable grain orientation in the metal

 Limitations:
 Not capable of close tolerances
 Machining often required to achieve accuracies and features
needed

104
 Comparison of metal grain flow in a part that is: (a) hot forged with
finish machining, and (b) machined complete.

105
 Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose cavity
does not allow for flash
 Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume within
very close tolerance
 Process control more demanding than impression-die forging
 Best suited to part geometries that are simple and symmetrical
 Often classified as a precision forging process

106
 Forging process used to form heads on nails, bolts, and similar
hardware products
 More parts produced by upsetting than any other forging
operation
 Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called headers or
formers
 Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed, then
piece is cut to length
 For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to form threads

107
 is a deformation operation in which a cylindrical workpart is
increased in diameter and reduced in length

An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt or similar

hardware item The cycle consists of: (1) wire stock is fed to the
stop, (2) gripping dies close on the stock and the stop is
retracted, (3) punch moves forward, (4) bottoms to form the
head.
108
 Heading is widely used in the fastener industry to form heads
on nails, bolts, andsimilar hardware products.

Examples of heading (upset forging) operations: (a) heading a

nail using open dies, (b) round head formed by punch, (c) and
(d) two common head styles for screws formed by die, (e)
carriage bolt head formed by punch and die.
109
110
 Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece
radially inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies
 Used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod stock
 Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of
internal diameter of tubular parts

Swaging process to reduce solid rod stock; the dies rotate as

they hammer the work In radial forging, the workpiece rotates
while the dies remain in a fixed orientation as they hammer the
work. 111
 Cutting operation to remove flash from workpart in
impression-die forging
 Usually done while work is still hot, so a separate trimming
press is included at the forging station
 Trimming can also be done by alternative methods, such as
grinding or sawing

112
 Figure 19.29 Trimming operation (shearing process) to remove
the flash after impression-die forging.

113
 In this process, deformation occurs by means of a cone-shaped upper
die that is simultaneously rolled and pressed into the workpart.
 the work is supported on a lower die, which has a cavity into which the
work is compressed. Because the axis of the cone is inclined, only a
small area of the work surface is compressed at any moment.
 These operating characteristics of orbital forging result in a substantial
reduction in press load required to accomplish deformation of the work.

114
 Parting line: The parting line is the
plane that divides the upper die
from the lower die. Called the flash
line in impression-die forging, it is
the plane where the two die halves
meet. Its selection by the designer
affects grain flow in the part,
required load, and flash formation.

 Draft: is the amount of taper on the sides of the part required to

remove it from the die. The term also applies to the taper on the sides
of the die cavity. Typical draft angles are 3 on aluminum and
magnesium parts and 5 to 7 on steel parts. Draft angles on precision
forgings are near zero.
 Webs and ribs A web is a thin portion of the forging that is parallel
to the parting line, while a rib is a thin portion that is perpendicular
to the parting line. These part features cause difficulty in metal flow
as they become thinner. 115
 Fillet and corner radii: Small radii tend to limit metal flow and
increase stresses on die surfaces during forging.
 Flash: Flash formation plays a critical role in impression-die forging by
causing pressure build up inside the die to promote filling of the cavity.
This pressure build up is controlled by designing a flash land and gutter
into the die The land determines the surface area along which lateral
flow of metal occurs, thereby controlling the pressure increase inside
the die. The gutter permits excess metal to escape without causing the
forging load to reach extreme values.
116
117
 Because most forgings are performed at elevated
temperatures, die materials generally must have:
 High strength
 High toughness
 High hardenability
 High resistance to mechanical and thermal shocks
 High resistance to wear
 Tool &Die steels: Cr-Ni-Mo-Va alloys

118
• Mainly reduces friction and wear
 Also serves as:
• Thermal barrier

• Parting agent

• Graphite-Mo2S-Glass

• Mineral oils-Soaps

• Cost, dimensional accuracy, peel-off, additional operation etc.

119
 Apply impact load against workpart
 Two types:
 Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling weight of a
heavy ram
 Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by pressurized air or
steam
 Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted through anvil into
floor of building
 Commonly used for impression-die forging

120
Diagram showing details
of a drop hammer for
impression-die forging.
121
 Apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression operation
 Types:
 Mechanical press - converts rotation of drive motor into linear
motion of ram
 Hydraulic press - hydraulic piston actuates ram
 Screw press - screw mechanism drives ram

122
123
 Compression forming process in which work metal is forced to
flow through a die opening to produce a desired
cross-sectional shape
 Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste
tube
 In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of uniform
cross sections
 Two basic types:
 Direct extrusion
 Indirect extrusion

124
 Also called forward extrusion
 As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of billet
remains that cannot be forced through die opening
 This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated from
extrudate by cutting it just beyond the die exit
 Starting billet cross section usually round
 Final shape of extrudate is determined by die opening

125
126
(a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow cross
sections; (b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross sections.
127
 Also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion
 As the ram penetrates into the work, the metal is forced to flow
through the clearance in a direction opposite to the motion of
the ram.
 there is no friction at the container walls, and the ramforce is
therefore lower than in direct extrusion
 Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by
 Lower rigidity of hollow ram
 Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits die

128
 Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot extrusion
 Limitation: part cross section must be uniform throughout length

 Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and warm

extrusion
 Close tolerances possible, especially in cold extrusion
 In some operations, little or no waste of material

129
 Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above its
recrystallization temperature
 Reduces strength and increases ductility of the metal, permitting
more size reductions and more complex shapes
 reduction of ram force,increased ram speed
 Lubrication is critical in hot extrusion and special lubricants have
been developed that are effective under the harsh conditions in hot
extrusion.
 Cold extrusion - generally used to produce discrete parts
 The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high speed cold
extrusion
 increased strength due to strain hardening, close tolerances,
improved surface finish, absence of oxide layers, and high
production rates.
130
 Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as

Ao
rx 
Af

where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional area of the

starting billet; and Af = final cross-sectional area of the extruded
section
 Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion

131
 The value of rx can be used to determine true strain in extrusion, given
that ideal deformation occurs with no friction and no redundant work:

19.20
 Under the assumption of ideal deformation (no friction and no redundant
work), the pressure applied by the ram to compress the billet through the
die opening can be computed as follows:

19.21

132
133
134
135
136
 In fact, extrusion is not a frictionless process, and the previous
equations grossly underestimate the strain and pressure in an
extrusion operation. Friction exists between the die and the
work as the billet squeezes down and passes through the die
opening.
 In direct extrusion, friction also exists between the container
wall and the billet surface. The effect of friction is to increase
the strain experienced by the metal. Thus, the actual pressure is
greater than that given by Eq. (19.21), which assumes no
friction.

137
 Good for low ductility metals
 Low extrusion force
 Higher extrusion ratio
 -Higher wear
 -Oxide formation
 Glass, polymer, graphite, Mo2S can be used as lubricant
Glass:-High viscosity at high T
-Good wetting
-Act as a thermal barrier thus minimize cooling

138
• RT or a few hundred degrees.
• Tooling: σ tool~3.Y 60-65 Rc
• Lubrication important
• Improved mechanical strength due to the strain hardening, no
recrystallization,
• Good control of dimensional tolerances,
• Improved surface finish
• Lack of oxide layers,
• High production rate
• Soap can be used as lubricant.

139
140
141
 Centerburst. This defect is an internal crack
that develops as a result of tensile stresses
along the centerline of the workpart during
extrusion
 Piping is a defect associated with direct
extrusion. it is the formation of a sink hole in
the end of the billet
 Surface cracking. This defect results from
high workpart temperatures that cause
cracks to develop at the surface. They often
occur when extrusion speed is too high,
leading to high strain rates and associated
heat generation

142
 Low die angle - surface area is large, which increases friction at
die-billet interface
 Higher friction results in larger ram force

 Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow during

reduction
 Turbulence increases ram force required

 Optimum angle depends on work material, billet temperature,

and lubrication

143
 Either horizontal or vertical
 Vertical Hydraulic Presses
 Max. 2000 Tons
 Short stroke, needs high ceiling or digging on the floor for long
parts
 Faster production run
 Homogeneous cooling and deformation
 Horizontal Hydraulic Presses
 Max. 16 000 tons
 Inhomogeneous deformation due to the earlier
cooling on bottom part of billet
 Extrusion presses - usually hydraulically driven, which is
especially suited to semi-continuous direct extrusion of long
sections
 Mechanical drives - often used for cold extrusion of individual
parts 144
 Cross-section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it
through a die opening
 Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die in
drawing (it is pushed through in extrusion)
 Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression also
plays a significant role since metal is squeezed as it passes
through die opening

145
 In a drawing operation, the change in size of the work is usually given by
the area reduction, defined as follows:

 The draft is simply the difference between original and final stock
diameters:

146
147
148
149
 Difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is stock size
 Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod stock
 Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire sizes down to 0.03 mm
(0.001 in.) are possible
 Although the mechanics are the same, the methods, equipment,
and even terminology are different

150
 Drawing practice:
 Usually performed as cold working
 Most frequently used for round cross sections

 Products:
 Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat hangers, and
shopping carts
 Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
 Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and other processes

151
 Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the stock is pulled
through one die opening
 Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight cylinder
 Requires a batch type operation

152
153
154
 Entry region - funnels lubricant into the die to prevent scoring
of work and die
 Approach - cone-shaped region where drawing occurs
 Bearing surface - determines final stock size
 Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back relief angle
(half-angle) of about 30
 Die materials: tool steels or cemented carbides

155
 Annealing – to increase ductility of stock
 Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface and draw die
 Pointing – to reduce diameter of starting end to allow insertion
through draw die

156
1. Cutting Operations
2. Bending Operations
3. Drawing
4. Other Sheet Metal Forming Operations
5. Dies and Presses for Sheet Metal Processes
6. Sheet Metal Operations Not Performed on Presses
7. Bending of Tube Stock

157
 Cutting and forming operations performed on relatively thin
sheets of metal
 Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm (1/64 in) to 6 mm (1/4 in)
 Thickness of plate stock > 6 mm
 Operations usually performed as cold working

158
 Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and industrial
products such as
 Automobiles and trucks
 Airplanes
 Railway cars and locomotives
 Farm and construction equipment
 Small and large appliances
 Office furniture
 Computers and office equipment

159
 High strength
 Good dimensional accuracy
 Good surface finish
 Relatively low cost
 Economical mass production for large quantities

160
 Punch-and-die - tooling to perform cutting, bending, and
drawing
 Stamping press - machine tool that performs most sheet metal
operations
 Stampings - sheet metal products

161
 Cutting
 Shearing to separate large sheets
 Blanking to cut part perimeters out of sheet metal
 Punching to make holes in sheet metal

 Bending
 Straining sheet around a straight axis

 Drawing
 Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes

162
1. just before the punch contacts work;
2. punch begins to push into work, causing plastic deformation;
3. punch compresses and penetrates into work causing a
smooth cut surface;
4. fracture is initiated at the opposing cutting edges which
separates the sheet.

163
 At the top of the cut surface is a region called the rollover. This
corresponds to the depression made by the punch
 It is where initial plastic deformation occurred in the work. Just
below the rollover is a relatively smooth region called the
burnish.
 Beneath the burnish is the fractured zone, a relatively rough
surface of the cut edge where continued downward movement
of the punch caused fracture of the metal.
 At the bottom of the edge is a burr, a sharp corner on the edge
caused by elongation of the metal

164
 Three principal operations in pressworking that cut sheet
metal:
 Shearing
 Blanking
 Punching

165
 Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between two
cutting edges
 Typically used to cut large sheets
 It is performed on a machine called a power shears, or
squaring shears.
 The upper blade of the power shears is often inclined to reduce
the required cutting force

166
 Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece (called a
blank) from surrounding stock
 Punching - similar to blanking except cut piece is scrap, called
a slug

167
(a) Blanking and (b) punching.
  Distance between punch cutting edge and die cutting edge
 Typical values range between 4% and 8% of stock thickness

If too small, fracture lines If too large, metal is pinched

pass each other, causing between cutting edges and
double burnishing and larger excessive burr results
168
force
  Recommended clearance is calculated by:
c = A ct
where c = clearance; Ac = allowance; and t = stock thickness
Allowance is determined according to type of metal

Metal group Ac
1100S and 5052S aluminum alloys, all tempers 0.045
2024ST and 6061ST aluminum alloys; brass, soft cold rolled
0.060
steel, soft stainless steel
Cold rolled steel, half hard; stainless steel, half hard and full
0.075
hard
169
 For a round blank of diameter Db:
 Blanking punch diameter = Db - 2c
 Blanking die diameter = Db
 where c = clearance

 For a round hole of diameter Dh:

 Hole punch diameter = Dh
 Hole die diameter = Dh + 2c
 where c = clearance

170
 Purpose: allows slug or
blank to drop through
die
 Typical values: 0.25 to
1.5 on each side

171
Important for determining press size (tonnage)
F=StL
where S = shear strength of metal; t = stock thickness, and L =
length of cut edge
alternative way of estimating the cutting force is to use the
tensile strength:
F = 0,7 (TS) t L

172
173
 Cut-Off Parting

174
Slotting Perforating Notching
 Cut-Off Parting

 Cutoff is a shearing operation in

which blanks are separated from a
sheet-metal strip by cutting the  Parting involves cutting a sheet-
opposite sides of the part in metal strip by a punch with two
sequence. cutting edges that match the
opposite sides of the blank.
 With each cut, a new part is
produced. The features of a cutoff  This might be required
operation that distinguish it from a because the part outline has an
conventional shearing operationare irregular shape that precludes
perfect nesting of the blanks on the
(1) the cut edges are not strip.
necessarily straight, and  Parting is less efficient than cutoff
in the sense that it results in some
(2) the blanks can be nested on the wasted material.
strip in such a way that scrap is 175
avoided.
 Slotting is the term sometimes used for a punching operation
that cuts out an elongated or rectangular hole.
 Perforating involves the simultaneous punching of a pattern of
holes in sheet metal,
 Notching involves cutting out a portion of metal from the side of
the sheet or strip.
 Seminotching removes a portion of metal from the interior of
the sheet.

Slotting Perforating Notching 176

• Fine blanking is a shearing operation used to blank sheet-metal parts
with closebtolerances and smooth, straight edges in one step.
• At the start of the cycle, a pressure pad with a V-shaped projection
applies a holding force against the work adjacent to the punch in
order to compress the metal and prevent distortion.
• The punch then descends with a slower-than-normal velocity and
smaller clearances to provide the desired dimensions and cut edges.

177
 Straining sheetmetal around a straight axis to take a permanent
bend
 Metal on inside of neutral plane is compressed, while metal on
outside of neutral plane is stretched

178
 V-bending - performed with a V-shaped die (Figure A)
 Edge bending - performed with a wiping die (Figure B)

 For low production  For high production

 Performed on a press brake  Pressure pad required
 V-dies are simple and  Dies are more complicated
inexpensive and costly
179
 If bend radius is small relative to stock thickness, metal tends to stretch
during bending
 Important to estimate amount of stretching, so final part length =
specified dimension
 Problem: to determine the length of neutral axis of the part before
bending. This length is called the bend allowance, and it can be
estimated as follows: α
Ab = 2π ( R + K ba t )
360
 where Ab = bend allowance;  = bend angle; R= bend radius; t = stock
thickness; and Kba is factor to estimate stretching
 If R < 2t, Kba = 0.33
 If R  2t, Kba = 0.50

180
 A bending operation is to be performed on 5.00 mm thick cold
rolled steel. The part drawing is given in Figure P20.9.
Determine the blank size required.

Solution: From drawing, ’ = 40, R = 8.50 mm

 = 180 - ’ = 140.
Ab = 2(/360)(R + Kbat)
R/t = (8.5)/(5.00) = 1.7, which is less than 2.0;
therefore, Kba = 0.333
Ab = 2(140/360)(8.5 + 0.333 x 5.0) = 24.84 mm
Dimensions of starting blank: w = 35 mm, L = 58 +
24.84 + 46.5 = 129.34 mm
181
• In Bending ,after plastic deformation there is an elastic
recovery this recovery is called spring back.
• Spring back Increases as (R/T ratio & yield stress of material )
• increases as elastic modulus E decreases

182
 Increase in included angle of bent part relative to included
angle of forming tool after tool is removed
 Reason for springback:
 When bending pressure is removed, elastic energy remains in bent
part, causing it to recover partially toward its original shape

1. during bending, the work is forced to take radius Rb and included

angle b' of the bending tool,
2. after punch is removed, the work springs back to radius R and
angle ‘.
183
 Over bending of part (a,b)
 Bottoming the punch – coin the bend area by subjecting it to
high localized compressive between the technique tip of the
punch and the die surface.(c,d)
 Stretch bending – Part is subjected to tension while being bent.

184
 Maximum bending force estimated as follows:

K bf TSwt 2
F
D
where F = bending force; TS = tensile strength of sheet metal;
w = part width in direction of bend axis; and t = stock thickness. For
V- bending, Kbf = 1.33; for edge bending, Kbf = 0.33

185
186
 Flanging is a bending operation in which the edge of a sheet-
metal part is bent at a 90o angle (usually) to form a rim or
flange.
 It is often used to strengthen or stiffen sheet metal. The flange
can be formed over a straight bend axis.

187
 Hemming involves bending the edge of the sheet over on itself,
in more than one bending step. This is often done to eliminate
the sharp edge on the piece, to increase stiffness, and to
improve appearance.
 Seaming is a related operation in which two sheet-metal edges
are assembled.
 Curling, also called beading, forms the edges of the part into a
roll or curl. As in hemming, it is done for purposes of safety,
strength, and aesthetics.

188
 Sheet metal forming to make cup-shaped, box-shaped, or other
complex-curved, hollow-shaped parts
 Sheet metal blank is positioned over die cavity and then punch
pushes metal into opening
 Products: beverage cans, ammunition shells, automobile body
panels
 Also known as deep drawing (to distinguish it from wire and
bar drawing)

189
 Round sheet metal block is placed over a circular die opening
and held in a place with blank holder & punch forces down
into the die cavity

(a) Drawing of cup-shaped part:

1. before punch contacts work,
2. near end of stroke;
(b) workpart:
1. starting blank,
2. drawn part.

190
 Stages in deformation of the work in deep drawing:
(1) punch makes initial contact with work,
(2) bending,
(3) straightening,
(4) friction and compression, and
(5) final cup shape showing effects of thinning in the cup walls. 191
 Properties of the sheet
 ratio of blank die and punch die
 clearance
 punch and die corner radii
 speed of punch
 holding force etc

192
 :

 Normal anisotropy: measure of the resistance of the material to

thinning.

 Average anisotropy:

 Planar anisotropy:indication of the amount of earring

Typical earing in a drawn

steel cup, caused by the
193
planar anisotropy of the
sheet metal.
 Sides of punch and die separated by a clearance c given by:
c = 1.1 t
where t = stock thickness
In other words, clearance is about 10% greater than stock
thickness

194
 Drawing ratio: One of the measures of the severity of a deep
drawing operation

Db
DR 
Dp

 The greater the ratio, the more severe the operation

 Upper limit: DR  2.0
 The actual limiting value for a given operation depends on
1. punch and die corner radii (Rp and Rd)
2. friction conditions
3. depth of draw
4. characteristics of the sheet metal (e.g., ductility, degree of
directionality of strength properties in the metal).
195
 Another way to characterize a given drawing operation is by
the reduction r, where
Db  Dp
r
Db
 Value of r should be less than 0.50
 third measure in deep drawing is the thickness-to-diameter
ratio t/Db
 it is desirable for the t/Db ratio to be greater than 1%.
 As t/Db decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases.

196
197
 The drawing force required to perform a given
operation can be estimated roughly by the formula:

 The constant 0.7 is a correction factor to account for

friction
 The holding force is an important factor in a drawing
operation. As a rough approximation, the holding
pressure can be set at a value = 0.015 of the yield
strength of the sheet metal .

198
199
 (a) Die corner radius too small; typically, it should be 5 to 10 times the
sheet thickness.
 (b) Punch corner radius too small. Because friction between the cup and
the punch aids in the drawing operation, excessive lubrication of the
punch is detrimental to drawability.

200
 For final dimensions of drawn shape to be correct, starting
blank diameter Db must be right
 Solve for Db by setting starting sheet metal blank volume =
final product volume
 To facilitate calculation, assume negligible thinning of part wall

201
 If the shape change required by the part design is too severe
complete forming of the part may require more than one
drawing step. The second drawing step, and any further rawing
steps if needed, are referred to as redrawing.

202
 Square or rectangular boxes (as in sinks),
 Stepped cups
 Cones
 Cups with spherical rather than flat bases
 Irregular curved forms (as in automobile body panels)

203
(a) Wrinkling in the flange. Wrinkling in a drawn part consists of a
series of ridges that form radially in the undrawn flange of the workpart
due to compressive buckling.
(b) Wrinkling in the wall. If and when the wrinkled flange is drawn into
the cup, these ridges appear in the vertical wall.
(c) Tearing. Tearing is an open crack in the vertical wall, usually near
the base of the drawn cup, due to high tensile stresses that cause
thinning and failure of the metal at this location. This type of failure can
also occur as the metal is pulled over a sharp die corner.

204
 (d) Earing. This is the formation of irregularities (called ears) in
the upper edge of a deep drawn cup, caused by anisotropy in
the sheet metal. If the material is perfectly isotropic, ears do not
form.
 (e) Surface scratches. Surface scratches can occur on the drawn
part if the punch and die are not smooth or if lubrication is
insufficient.

205
 One of the primary functions of the
blankholder is to prevent wrinkling
of the flange while the cup is being
drawn.
 The tendency for wrinkling is
reduced as the thickness-to-
diameter ratio of the blank
increases.
 If the t=Db ratio is large enough,
drawing can be accomplished
without a blankholder

206
 Other sheet metal forming operations performed on
conventional presses
 Operations performed with metal tooling
 Operations performed with flexible rubber tooling

207
  Makes wall thickness of cylindrical cup more uniform

Ironing to achieve more uniform wall thickness in a drawn cup:

(1) start of process; (2) during process. Note thinning and
elongation of walls.
208
 Creates indentations in sheet, such as raised (or indented)
lettering or strengthening ribs

Embossing: (a) cross-section of punch and die configuration

during pressing; (b) finished part with embossed ribs. 209
 The Guerin process uses a thick rubber pad to form sheet
metal over a positive form block.
 The rubber pad is confined in a steel container. As the ram
descends, the rubber gradually surrounds the sheet, applying
pressure to deform it to the shape of the form block

 Guerin process: (1) before and (2) after. Symbols v and F

indicate motion and applied force respectively.
210
 Low tooling cost
 Form block can be made of wood, plastic, or other materials
that are easy to shape
 Rubber pad can be used with different form blocks
 Process attractive in small quantity production

211
 Hydroforming is similar to the Guerin process; the difference is
that it substitutes a rubber diaphragm filled with hydraulic fluid
 preventing wrinkling in deep formed parts.
 deeper draws can be achieved with the hydroform process
 the uniform pressure in hydroforming forces the work to
contact the punch throughout its length,
 increasing friction and reducing the tensile stresses that cause
tearing at the base of the drawn cup

1. start-up, no fluid in cavity;

2. press closed, cavity
pressurized with hydraulic
fluid;
3. punch pressed into work to
form part.
212
Most pressworking operations performed with conventional
punch-and-die tooling
 Custom-designed for particular part
 The term stamping die sometimes used for high production
dies

213
 Components of a punch and die for a blanking operation.

214
 (a) Progressive die; (b) associated strip development 215
 Components of a typical mechanical drive stamping press

216
 Gap frame
 Configuration of the letter C and often referred to as a C-frame

 Straight-sided frame
 Box-like construction for higher tonnage

217
 Gap frame press for
sheet metalworking
(ohoto courtesy of E. W.
Bliss Co.); capacity =
1350 kN (150 tons)

218
Figure 20.34 Press
brake (photo courtesy
of Niagara Machine &
Tool Works); bed
width = 9.15 m (30 ft)
and capacity = 11,200
kN (1250 tons).

219
Figure 20.35 Sheet metal parts produced on a turret press, showing
variety of hole shapes possible (photo courtesy of Strippet Inc.).
220
Figure 20.36 Computer numerical control turret press (photo
courtesy of Strippet, Inc.).
221
Figure 20.37
Straight-sided frame
press (photo courtesy of
Greenerd Press &
Machine Company,
Inc.).

222
 Hydraulic presses - use a large piston and cylinder to drive the
ram
 Longer ram stroke than mechanical types
 Suited to deep drawing
 Slower than mechanical drives

 Mechanical presses – convert rotation of motor to linear motion

of ram
 High forces at bottom of stroke
 Suited to blanking and punching

223
 Stretch forming
 Roll bending and forming
 Spinning
 High-energy-rate forming processes.

224
 Sheet metal is stretched and simultaneously bent to achieve
shape change

(1) start of process; (2) form die is pressed into the work with
force Fdie, causing it to be stretched and bent over the form. F =
stretching force.
225
 F  LtYf
 where F = stretching force; L = length of sheet in direction
perpendicular to stretching; t = instantaneous stock thickness;
and Yf = flow stress of work metal
 Die force Fdie can be determined by balancing vertical force
components

226
 Large metal sheets and plates are formed into curved sections
using rolls

Figure 20.40 Roll bending.

227
 Continuous bending process in which opposing rolls produce
long sections of formed shapes from coil or strip stock

Roll forming of a continuous channel section: (1) straight

rolls, (2) partial form, (3) final form.
228
 Metal forming process in which an axially symmetric part is
gradually shaped over a rotating mandrel using a rounded tool
or roller
 Three types:
 Conventional spinning
 Shear spinning
 Tube spinning

229
 Figure 20.42 Conventional spinning: (1) setup at start of
process; (2) during spinning; and (3) completion of process.

230
 Processes to form metals using large amounts of energy over a
very short time
 HERF processes include:
 Explosive forming
 Electrohydraulic forming
 Electromagnetic forming

231
 Use of explosive charge to form sheet (or plate) metal into a die
cavity
 Explosive charge causes a shock wave whose energy is
transmitted to force part into cavity
 Applications: large parts, typical of aerospace industry

(1) setup,
(2) explosive is detonated,
(3) shock wave forms part
and plume escapes water
surface.

232
 Sheet metal is deformed by mechanical force of an
electromagnetic field induced in the workpart by an energized
coil
 Presently the most widely used HERF process
 Applications: tubular parts

(1) setup in which coil is

inserted into tubular workpart
surrounded by die;
(2) formed part.

233
Describe each of the two types of sheet metal bending operations:
V-bending and edge bending.
Answer. In V-bending, a simple punch and die that each have the included
angle are used to bend the part. In edge bending, the punch forces a
cantilevered sheet metal section over a die edge to obtain the desired bend
angle.
What is springback in sheet metal bending?
Answer. Springback is the elastic recovery of the sheet metal after bending;
it is usually measured as the difference between the final included angle of
the bent part and the angle of the tooling used to make the bend, divided by
the angle of the tooling.
Sheet metal bending involves which of the following stresses and strains (two
correct answers): (a) compressive, (b) shear, and (c) tensile?
Answer. (a) and (c).
Most sheet metalworking operations are performed as which of the
following: (a) cold working, (b) hot working, or (c) warm working?
234
Answer. (a).