By

Ashish Kumar
 Set of computers interconnected with each other.

 Uses:
1. Resource Sharing
2. Load Sharing
3. Communication

 Connections can be wired or wireless.

 Types of Addresses:
1. Logical address – IP address
 An IP address is a unique address that identifies a device on the internet or a
local network.
 Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number.

2. Physical address – MAC address

 A Media Access Control (MAC) address is a string of characters that identifies
a device.
 It is a 48-bit number.
3. Port Number
 A port number is a way to identify a specific process.
 It is a 16-bit number.
 Open System Interconnection, is a reference model, developed in 1984.
 It is way of dividing a communications system into smaller parts called Layers.

 Layer is a collection of conceptually similar functions that provide services to

layer above it and it receives services from the layer below it.

 There are 7 Layers in OSI Model.

1. Application Layer
2. Presentation Layer
3. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Network Layer
6. Datalink Layer
7. Physical Layer
 Physical Layer (Bottom) –
1. Interfaces between two devices.
2. Convert the bitstreams into electrical and mechanical signals.
3. Physical devices – Hub, Modem, Repeater, Network Adapter, Cables.

 Data Link Layer –

1. Coverts the packets into frames and frames to packets. Frame contains
physical address/ MAC address.
2. Responsible for transferring data between devices. (HOP to HOP) (NO End to
End).
3. Flow control (HOP to HOP).
4. Error control (HOP to HOP).
5. Access control.
 Network Layer –
1. Adding source and destination IP addresses in packets.
2. Determines routes for sending packets.
3. Manages network problems such as congestions.

 Transport Layer –
1. Ensures reliable data delivery without any error (End to End).
2. Flow control (End to End).
3. Specify source port number and destination port number.
 Session Layer –
1. Establishes, maintains and end sessions across the network.
2. Provides synchronization service.

 Presentation Layer –
1. Converts different system – specific format into a common uniform format.
2. Handles Data encryption/decryption and data compression.

 Application Layer (Topmost Layer) –

1. Provides interface to application program.
2. Provide support and services to applications that require network resources.
 Application like web browser, Email, File transfer.
 The Telephone Network
 A telecommunication network that links the telephones to perform voice calls
between two or more persons
 It is used to provide voice communication.
 It uses Circuit Switching.

 Circuit Switching in Telephone Network

 Traditional telephone networks are examples of circuit-switched networks.
 Before the sender can send the information, the network must establish a
connection between the sender and the receiver.
 This is a dedicated connection for which the switches on the path between the
sender and receiver maintain connection state for that connection.
 In the jargon of telephony, this connection is called a circuit.
 When the network establishes the circuit, it also reserves a constant transmission
rate in the network’s links for the duration of the connection.
 The Internet
 The term “Internet” refers to a worldwide network of networks that
communicate with one another by utilizing the internet protocol.
 It’s a combination of domestic to worldwide different networks integrated by
a number of electrical, wireless, and optical communication networks.
 It uses packet switching.

 Packet switching in the internet.

 To send a message from a source end system to a destination end system, the
source breaks long messages into smaller chunks of data known as packets.
 Between source and destination, each packet travels through communication
links and packet switches (routers and linklayer switches).
 It uses store-and-forward transmission at the inputs to the links which means
that the packet switch must receive the entire packet before it can begin to
transmit the first bit of the packet onto the outbound link.
SL Circuit Switching Packet Switching
No.
1 In-circuit switching has there are 3 phases: In Packet switching directly data
i) Connection Establishment. transfer takes place.
ii) Data Transfer.
iii) Connection Released.
2 In-circuit switching, each data unit knows the In Packet switching, each data unit
entire path address which is provided by the just knows the final destination
source. address intermediate path is decided
by the routers.
3 In-Circuit switching, data is processed at the In Packet switching, data is processed
source system only at all intermediate nodes including
the source system.
4 Resource reservation is the feature of circuit There is no resource reservation
switching because the path is fixed for data because bandwidth is shared among
transmission. users.
SL Circuit Switching Packet Switching
No.
5 Circuit switching is more reliable. Packet switching is less reliable.

6 It is not a store and forward technique. It is a store and forward technique.

Transmission of the data is done not only

Transmission of the data is done by the
7 by the source but also by the
source.
intermediate routers.

In-circuit switching each packet follows the In packet switching packets can follow
8
same route. any route.

The circuit switching network is Packet switching is implemented at the

9
implemented at the physical layer. datalink layer and network layer
 End systems connect into the Internet via an access ISP.
 The access ISP can provide either wired or wireless connectivity, using an array
of access technologies including DSL, cable, FTTH, Wi-Fi, and cellular.
 In any given region, there may be a regional ISP to which the access ISPs in the
region connect.
 Each regional ISP then connects to tier-1 ISPs. Tier-1 ISPs are similar to global
transit ISP.
 Tier-1 ISPs do not have a presence in every city in the world. There are
approximately a dozen tier-1 ISPs, including Level 3 Communications, AT&T,
Sprint, and NTT.
 In such a hierarchy, each access ISP pays the regional ISP to which it connects,
and each regional ISP pays the tier-1 ISP to which it connects.
 A third-party company can create an Internet Exchange Point (IXP) which is a
meeting point where multiple ISPs can peer together.
1. The Development of Packet Switching: 1961–1972
 Early 1960s: when the telephone network was the world’s dominant
communication network that uses circuit switching to transmit information
from a sender to a receiver.
 Three research groups around the world, each unaware of the others’ work,
began inventing packet switching as an efficient and robust alternative to
circuit switching.

 1961: The first published work on packet-switching techniques was that of

Leonard Kleinrock, then a graduate student at MIT. Using queuing theory,
Kleinrock’s work demonstrated the effectiveness of the packet-switching
approach for bursty traffic sources.

 1964: Paul Baran at the Rand Institute had begun investigating the use of
packet switching for secure voice over military networks.
1. The Development of Packet Switching: 1961–1972
 1967: J. C. R. Licklider and Lawrence Roberts, both colleagues of Kleinrock’s
at MIT, went on to lead the computer science program at the Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the United States.
 Roberts published an overall plan for the ARPAnet, the first packet-switched
computer network and a direct ancestor of today’s public Internet.
 1969: The first packet switch was installed at UCLA under Kleinrock’s
supervision, and three additional packet switches were installed shortly
thereafter at the Stanford Research Institute (SRI), UC Santa Barbara, and
the University of Utah.
 1972: ARPAnet had grown to approximately 15 nodes and was given its first
public demonstration by Robert Kahn. The first host-to-host protocol
between ARPAnet end systems, known as the network-control protocol
(NCP), was completed.
 With an end-to-end protocol available, applications could now be written.
Ray Tomlinson wrote the first e-mail program in 1972.
 2. Proprietary Networks and Internetworking 1972-1980
 The initial ARPAnet was a single, closed network. In the early to mid-1970s,
additional stand-alone packet-switching networks besides ARPAnet came:
ALOHANet, Telenet, Cyclades, Tymnet.

 The number of networks was growing. Pioneering work on interconnecting

networks (under the sponsorship of the Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA)), in essence creating a network of networks, was
done by Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn. The term internetting was coined to
describe this work.

 The three key Internet protocols that we see today—TCP, UDP, and IP—were
conceptually in place by the end of the 1970s.
-
3. A Proliferation of Networks: 1980-1990
 By the end of the 1970s, approximately two hundred hosts were connected
to the ARPAnet. By the end of the 1980s the number of hosts connected to
the public Internet reached a hundred thousand.

 BITNET provided e-mail and file transfers among several universities in the
Northeast.

 CSNET (computer science network) was formed to link university researchers

who did not have access to ARPAnet.

 In 1986, NSFNET was created to provide access to NSF-sponsored

supercomputing centers.
3. A Proliferation of Networks: 1980-1990
 1983 saw the official deployment of TCP/IP as the new standard host
protocol for ARPAnet (replacing the NCP protocol).

 In the early 1980s the French launched the Minitel project, an ambitious
plan to bring data networking (for providing data transmission services) into
everyone’s home. Sponsored by the French government, the Minitel system
consisted of a public packet-switched network (based on the X.25 protocol
suite), Minitel servers, and inexpensive terminals with built-in low-speed
modems.

 In the mid 1990s, it offered more than 20,000 services, ranging from home
banking to specialized research databases.
4. The internet Explosion (1990s)
 The main event of the 1990s was to be the emergence of the World Wide
Web application, which brought the Internet into the homes and businesses
of millions of people worldwide.
 The Web served as a platform for enabling and deploying hundreds of new
applications that we take for granted today.
 By the end of 1993 there were about two hundred Web servers in operation.
 By 1995, university students were using Netscape browsers to surf the Web
on a daily basis.
 In 1996, Microsoft started to make browsers, which started the browser war
between Netscape and Microsoft, which Microsoft won a few years later.
 By the end of the millennium the Internet was supporting hundreds of
popular applications, including four main applications: E-mail, The Web,
Instant messaging, Peer-to-peer file sharing.
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