Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits

Name: Class: ( ) Date:

The concepts of limits, derivatives and integrals are closely related to the graph of functions.

Intuitive Concept of Limit

𝑥 2 −9
Plot the graph of function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = below.
𝑥−3

𝑥 −4 −2 0 2 4 … 3?
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) … ??

Objective:
Find the value of 𝑓(𝑥) at different
values of 𝑥 using two methods.
1) Observing the graph
2) Calculation

When 𝑥 = 1,
1) From the graph, it is reasonable to deduce that 𝑓(𝑥) = 4.
2) By calculation, 𝑓(1) = 4 as well.

When 𝑥 = 3,
1) From the graph, it is reasonable to deduce that 𝑓(𝑥) = ________.
Reason: If the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is drawn without lifting the pen, it appears that the graph should
pass through the point (3, ______).
𝑥 2 −9
2) The function 𝑓(𝑥) = is not defined when 𝑥 = 3. 𝑓(3) cannot be calculated.
𝑥−3
However, as 𝑥 moves closer and closer to 3, the value of 𝑓(𝑥) moves closer and closer to 6.
𝑥 2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 5.9 5.99 5.999 ??? 6.001 6.01 6.1

𝑓(𝑥) is said to have a limit equal to 6 when 𝑥 approaches 3. In symbol: lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 6.
𝑥→3

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits
NOTES:
- Similarly when 𝑥 approaches 1, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4. Therefore, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(1) and 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
continuous at 𝑥 = 1. An implication is that the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is not “broken” at 𝑥 = 1. In general,

If 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒂), 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous at 𝒙 = 𝒂.

𝒙→𝒂

- If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at every point where 𝑝 < 𝑥 < 𝑞, 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on the interval (𝑝, 𝑞).

Types of interval:
(𝑝, 𝑞) means 𝑝 < 𝑥 < 𝑞, [𝑝, 𝑞] means 𝑝 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑞
(𝑝, 𝑞] and [𝑝, 𝑞) are defined similarly.

𝑥 2 −9
- On the other hand, the function is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 3. Another example is 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 with
𝑥−3
𝜋 3𝜋
discontinuities at 𝑥 = 2 , ,…
2

1
- Not all functions have a limit when 𝑥 approaches certain values. For example, the limit lim 𝑥 does
𝑥→0
not exist. (See its graph)

Operation of Limits
The formal statements of the properties of limits can be found in the textbook. In general, finding a limit
lim 𝑓(𝑥) means substituting 𝑥 = 𝑎 to the expression of 𝑓(𝑥). If the calculation cannot be done properly,
𝑥→𝑎
manipulate the expression of 𝑓(𝑥) before the substitution.

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits
Q1. Evaluate the following limits.
lim(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 8)2 lim √𝑥 + 1 lim 22
𝑥→2 𝑥→0 𝑥→3

[16] [1] [22]

2𝑥 − 1 lim 5𝑥 lim sin 𝑥
𝜋
lim 𝑥→−2 𝑥→
𝑥→0 3 − 4𝑥 2

1 1
[− ] [ ]
3 25 [1]
3𝑥 − 12 2
Example: 3𝑥 − 11𝑥 + 6
lim lim2
𝑥+2 𝑥→4 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 3𝑥 − 2
lim 2 𝑥→
3
𝑥→−2 𝑥 − 4

1 7
[− ] [1] [− ]
4 3

Example: √𝑥 − 2
9−𝑥 lim
𝑥→4 2𝑥 − 8
lim
𝑥→9 3 − √𝑥

1
[6] [ ]
8

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits

𝑥−2 𝑥
lim lim
𝑥→2 √5𝑥 𝑥→0 √𝑥 + 5 − √5
−1−3

6
[ ] [2√5]
5
𝑥−4 5 − √𝑥 2 − 75
lim lim
𝑥→4 √2𝑥 + 1 − √𝑥 + 5 𝑥→10 10 − 𝑥

[6] [2]

Please refer to Textbook Ex_______ questions __________________________________ for more practice.

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits
Limits at Infinity
Concept of infinity:
The symbol “+∞” represents the concept of positive infinity. As 𝑥 approaches positive infinity: 𝑥 → +∞,
it means that 𝑥 increases indefinitely. The symbol of negative infinity “−∞” can be understood similarly.

NOTES: “𝑥 → ∞” means 𝑥 → +∞ or 𝑥 → −∞ but it is not sure to which direction 𝑥 approaches.

All the symbols +∞, −∞ and ∞ are NOT real numbers. Operations of real numbers cannot be
performed. For example, it makes no sense to consider 𝑥 = +∞ or evaluate (+∞) + (−∞).

Intuitive concept of limit at infinity:

The limit lim 𝑓(𝑥) describes the behaviour of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 increases indefinitely. If 𝑓(𝑥) gets closer and
𝑥→+∞
closer to a certain value, lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists and is equal to that value.
𝑥→+∞

1
- For example, the graph on the right shows the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥. The
value of 𝑓(𝑥) gets closer and closer to 0 when 𝑥 increases
1
indefinitely. As a result, lim = 0.
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥

1
The limit lim 𝑓(𝑥) can be understood similarly: lim = 0.
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥

- Limit at infinity may not exist. For example lim 2𝑥 → +∞.

𝑥→+∞

Evaluating Limit at Infinity:

Many limits at infinity can be found using the following statement:

1
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞, then lim = 0.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑓(𝑥)
Important examples:
1 1
lim 𝑛 = lim 𝑛 = 0 when 𝑛 > 0.
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥
1
lim = lim 𝑎−𝑥 = lim 𝑎 𝑥 = 0 when 𝑎 > 1.
𝑥→+∞ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞

To evaluate lim 𝑓(𝑥), try to substitute the above limits to the expression of 𝑓(𝑥). If the calculation cannot
𝑥→+∞
be done properly:
number
- If the expression becomes “ 0
”, the limit does not exist.
∞ 0
- If the expression becomes “∞”, “0” or “(+∞) − (+∞)”, manipulate the expression of 𝑓(𝑥) before
the substitution.

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits
Q3. Evaluate the following limits.
Example: Example:
5𝑥 + 2 lim 2(33𝑥 + 1)
lim 𝑥→−∞
𝑥→+∞ 3𝑥 − 1

5
[ ] [2]
3

Example: Example:
𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 −4𝑥 2 + 1
lim lim
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 + 5 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 3 − 7

[does not exist] [0]

11𝑥 + 3 2
6𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 1
lim lim
𝑥→+∞ 7𝑥 + 2 𝑥→+∞ 3 − 4𝑥 − 5𝑥 2

11 6
[ ] [− ]
7 5

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits

𝑥−4 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 1
lim lim
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 2 − 16 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 + 23

[0]
[does not exist]
1 (3𝑥
+ 3)2
lim 6𝑥 + 4(5−3𝑥 ) lim
𝑥→+∞ 5 𝑥→−∞ 1 − 32𝑥+1

[0] [9]

More challenging:
√𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 11 (𝑥 − 6)2 (𝑥 + 2)
lim lim
𝑥→+∞ 2𝑥 + 5 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥3

1
[ ]
2 [1]

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits

𝑥
lim (2𝑥 + 3)(4𝑥 2 − 9)
𝑥→−∞ √2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 13 lim √
𝑥→−∞ (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥 + 1)

√2 2√3
[− ] [ ]
2 3

√6𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 2 − 3 24𝑥
lim lim
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥2 𝑥→+∞ 5(24𝑥 ) + 1

1
[√6] [ ]
5
5𝑥+3 2𝑥 + 2
lim 𝑥 lim 𝑥
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞ 3 + 3
262 √5

[0] [0]

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits

8
lim
𝑥→+∞ √𝑥 2 +1−𝑥−4

[−2]

lim (√3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 11 − √3𝑥)

𝑥→+∞

√3
[ ]
6

Please refer to Textbook Ex_______ questions __________________________________ for more practice.

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits
Limits of trigonometric functions
Q4. Evaluate the following limits.
Example: sin 2𝑥
𝜋 lim
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥
lim𝜋 {cos 𝑥 [sec (𝑥 + ) − sec 𝑥]}
𝑥→ 2
2

[−1] [2]
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
√2 sin (2𝑥 + 4 ) − 1 sin (2𝑥 + 4) + sin (2𝑥 − 4 )
lim lim
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥

[2] [2√2]

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits
sin 𝑥
When 𝑥 → 0, sin 𝑥 → 0. What happens to the limit of when 𝑥 → 0?
𝑥
It can be visualized by the following figure: sector 𝑂𝐴𝐵 with centre 𝑂 and radius 𝑟.

sin 𝑥
NOTE: It is essential to show the expression of lim explicitly when evaluating more complicated limits.
𝑥→0 𝑥

Q5. Evaluate the following limits.

Example: Example:
tan 𝑥 sin 6𝑥
lim lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥

[1] [2]
2 4𝑥
lim 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑥→0 lim
𝑥→0 sin 2𝑥

[0] [2]

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits

sin 3𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 lim tan 3𝑥 csc 5𝑥

lim 𝑥→0
𝑥→0 𝑥

[5] 3
[ ]
5
2 2
sin 2𝑥 tan 𝑥
lim lim
𝑥→0 sin2 2𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 3𝑥

1 1
[ ] [ ]
2 3
2 2
1 − cos 𝑥 sec 2𝑥 − 1
lim lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥 tan 3𝑥

4
[1] [ ]
3

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits

1 − cos 4𝑥 cos 2𝑥 − cos 𝑥

lim lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 3𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥

8 [0]
[ ]
3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
sin (6 + 𝑥) − sin ( 6 − 𝑥) sec (𝑥 + 4) − sec (𝑥 − 4 )
lim lim
𝑥→0 2𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

√3
[ ]
2
[2√2]

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits
More challenging:
sin 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 4𝑥 2 + cos 6𝑥 − cos 2𝑥
lim lim
𝑥→0 sin 5𝑥 + 3𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥(sin 5𝑥 + sin 𝑥)

3 2
[ ] [− ]
8 3
1 1 3
lim 𝑥 2 sin ( ) tan ( ) lim (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 7) sin2
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥

[1] [9]

Please refer to Textbook Ex_______ questions __________________________________ for more practice.

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits
The number e
Fill in the following table:

𝑛 1 2 3 4 ⋯
𝑛
1
(1 + )
𝑛

1 𝑛
Observation 1: As 𝑛 increases, the expression (1 + 𝑛) is always increasing / decreasing.

1 𝑛
Expanding the expression (1 + 𝑛) :

1 𝑛
Observation 2: The expression (1 + 𝑛) is always less than 3.

1 𝑛
It is reasonable to deduce that as 𝑛 → +∞, (1 + 𝑛) approaches a certain number. This is the number 𝑒.

1 𝑛
lim (1 + ) = 𝑒 = 2.718281828459045 …
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛

1 𝑛 1 1 1
Observation 3: As 𝑛 → +∞, (1 + ) → 1 + + + +⋯
𝑛 1! 2! 3!

Other expressions related to 𝑒:

1
𝑒 = lim(1 + 𝑡) 𝑡
𝑡→0
𝑥 𝑛
𝑒 𝑥 = lim (1 + )
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛
2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥3
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + + + + ⋯
1! 2! 3!

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits
NOTES:
- 𝑒 is an irrational number. It is not an unknown or variable.
- The exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 is similar to other exponential functions like 𝑦 = 2𝑥 , with the base
2 replaced by the number 𝑒.
- Laws of indices are applicable to powers of 𝑒.
- The logarithm with base 𝑒 is called the natural logarithm: log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 𝑥.
𝑀 = 𝑒 𝑁 ⇔ 𝑁 = ln 𝑀
- Rules of operations of logarithm are applicable to ln( ).

Q5. Solve the following problems related to 𝑒.

Without using calculator, find
1 𝑒2 1
(a) ln 𝑒 (b) 𝑒 ln 3 (c) ln (𝑒−1) − ln (𝑒−1)

[(a) −1, (b) 3, (c) 2]

Solve the equations
(a) 𝑒 2𝑥 − 4𝑒 𝑥 − 5 = 0 (b) 2𝑒 𝑥 + 10𝑒 −𝑥 − 9 = 0

5
[(a) ln 5, (b) ln 2 or ln ]
2

Please refer to Textbook Ex_______ questions __________________________________ for more practice.

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits
Q6. Evaluate the following limits.
lim 𝑒 𝑥 (4𝑥 2 + 1) lim ln(𝑒 𝑥
2 +3
+ 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑥→0 𝑥→2

[1] [7]
𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥
+ 1) 5𝑒 𝑥
lim lim
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑒 𝑥 − 1

[0] [5]
𝑥+1 3𝑥
1 5
lim (1 + ) lim (1 − )
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥

[𝑒] 1
[ ]
𝑒 15

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits

𝑥+2 𝑥 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9
𝑥
lim ( ) lim ( 2 )
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 + 11 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 + 8𝑥 + 15

1
[ 9] 1
𝑒 [ 2]
𝑒

𝑒 𝑥 −1
A special limit related to the number 𝑒: lim .
𝑥→0 𝑥

An illustration (not a proof):

𝑥
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑒 = 1+ + + +⋯
1! 2! 3!

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits
Q7. Evaluate the following limits.
𝑒 4𝑥 − 1 𝑥
lim lim
𝑥→0 1 − 𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥

1
[4] [ ]
2
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒3 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 2𝑥 − 2
lim lim
𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3 𝑥→0 𝑥

[𝑒 3 ] [3]
𝑥 3
5 −1 𝑥
lim lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑒 𝑥3 − 𝑒 3𝑥
2

[ln 5] [0]

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Mathematics Extended Module 2 – Limits
More challenging:
𝑒𝑥 − 1 𝑒 sin 𝑥 − 1
lim lim
𝑥→0 tan 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

[1] [1]
lim(𝑒 3𝑥 −𝑒 𝑥)
cot 𝑥
𝑥→0

[2]
2𝑥 −2𝑥
𝑒 +𝑒 −2
lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 4𝑥

[1]

Please refer to Textbook Ex_______ questions __________________________________ for more practice.

End of Notes
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