Integral Calculus Notes

MATH 27 LECTURE GUIDE
UNIT 1. DERIVATIVES OF AND INTEGRALS YIELDING TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
In your basic calculus, you were already introduced with limits, derivatives, and integrals.
However, you may observe that the functions that are usually considered are algebraic in nature, i.e.,
polynomial functions, square root functions, rational functions, etc. In this section, we will deal with a
class of functions different from algebraic functions called transcendental functions. These includes
trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions, exponential and logarithmic functions, among
others.
For the first Unit, derivatives of and integrals yielding this type of functions will be discussed.
Moreover, a technique in solving derivatives of “convoluted” functions, called logarithmic
differentiation, will also be introduced. We will also look into some application problems such as
optimization and related rates problem that involves derivatives of transcendental functions. Lastly, we
evaluate limits of functions of indeterminate forms using L’Hopital’s Rule.
Our goals for this unit are as follows. By the end of the unit, you should be able to
✓ evaluate limit of functions using limit theorems

✓ find derivatives of algebraic and transcendental functions;
✓ solve integrals of and integrals yielding algebraic and transcendental functions;
✓ apply logarithmic differentiation appropriately;
✓ apply derivatives of and integrals yielding transcendental functions to real-world
problems in various fields; and
✓ evaluate limits of functions using L'Hopital's rule.
1.1 Limit of a Function
The limit of a function is a fundamental concept in calculus. It describes the behavior of a

function as its variable gets closer to a specific point. The derivatives and the definite integral are
formally defined in terms of limits.
Intuitively, when we say “the limit of 𝒇(𝒙) as 𝒙 approaches 𝒂 is 𝑳”, it means that as 𝒙 gets
closer and closer to 𝒂, the function values of 𝒇(𝒙) gets closer and closer to 𝑳.
Notation: 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳

𝒙⟶𝒂
read as “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is 𝐿”
For example, consider the function 𝒇 defined by 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 . Note that as 𝒙 gets closer and
closer to 𝟐, the value of 𝒇(𝒙) gets closer and closer to 𝟒. One can verify this fact by either looking at
the graph of 𝒇 or by investigating the values of 𝒇(𝒙) for values of 𝒙 near 𝟐 like 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 or
𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏. Then we write,
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟒
𝒙⟶𝟐
We state here its formal definition.
Definition. (Limit of a Function)

MATH 27 Lecture Guide UNIT 1 (IMSP,UPLB)
Let 𝒇 be a function defined at every number in some open interval containing 𝒂, except
possibly at 𝒂 itself. Then, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 if for every 𝜺 > 𝟎 (however small), there exists 𝜹 > 𝟎 such
𝒙⟶𝒂
that if 𝟎 < |𝒙 − 𝒂| < 𝜹, then |𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑳| < 𝜺.
The inequalities 𝟎 < |𝒙 − 𝒂| < 𝜹 and |𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑳| < 𝜺 describe the “closeness” that is referred to
when we say “𝒙 approaches 𝒂” or “𝒇(𝒙) approaches 𝑳.
1
1.1.1 Limit Theorems
Instead of using this formal definition of limit, we compute for limits using limit theorems.
MUST REMEMBER!!! Limit theorems
1. If 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳𝟏 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳𝟐 , then 𝑳𝟏 = 𝑳𝟐 . (uniqueness)

𝒙⟶𝒂 𝒙⟶𝒂
2. If 𝒄 is a constant, then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄 = 𝒄.
𝒙⟶𝒂
3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 = 𝒂 and for 𝒏 ∈ ℕ, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏 .
4. If 𝒎 and 𝒃 are any constants, then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃) = 𝒎𝒂 + 𝒃.
𝒙⟶𝒂
5. If 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑴, then
• 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝒈(𝒙)) = 𝑳 ± 𝑴
𝒙⟶𝒂
• 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝒈(𝒙)) = 𝑳 ∙ 𝑴
𝒙⟶𝒂
𝒇(𝒙) 𝑳
• 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )= provided 𝑴 ≠ 𝟎
𝒙⟶𝒂 𝒈(𝒙) 𝑴
𝒏 𝒏
6. If 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳, 𝑳 > 𝟎 and 𝒏 ∈ ℕ is even, then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 √𝒇(𝒙) = √𝑳.
𝒏 𝒏
If 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 and 𝒏 ∈ ℕ is odd, then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 √𝒇(𝒙) = √𝑳.
From the theorems, it is immediate that for polynomial functions, say 𝑷(𝒙), computing a limit
is simply evaluating 𝑷(𝒙) at 𝒙 = 𝒂, in other words, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑷(𝒙) = 𝑷(𝒂).
𝒙⟶𝒂
ILLUSTRATION:
𝟐𝒙−𝟑
1. To compute 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ), we simply evaluate the limit of the numerator and the denominator.
𝒙⟶−𝟐 𝒙𝟐 +𝟏
Note 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑) = −𝟕 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏) = 𝟓.
𝒙⟶−𝟐 𝒙⟶−𝟐
𝟐𝒙−𝟑 𝟕
Hence, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )=− .
𝒙⟶−𝟐 𝒙𝟐 +𝟏 𝟓
𝟔
2. To compute 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (√𝒙 + 𝟒 − + 𝝅𝟐 ), we simply compute for the limit term-by-term.
𝒙⟶𝟓 𝒙−𝟐
𝟔
Hence, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (√𝒙 + 𝟒 − + 𝝅 ) = 𝟑 − 𝟐 + 𝝅𝟐 = 𝟏 + 𝝅𝟐 .
𝟐
𝒙⟶𝟓 𝒙−𝟐
TRY THIS! Compute the following limits.
1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟏)

𝒙⟶−𝟏
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒
2. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙⟶𝟎 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏
3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 √ 𝒙 − 𝟐
𝒙⟶𝟐
𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑
4. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙⟶−𝟐 𝒙−𝟏
𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏
5. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙⟶−
𝟏 𝒙𝟐
𝟐
2
1.1.2 One-sided limits
We next consider one-side limit.
Consider a real number 𝒂 and a function 𝒇.
Limit from the right

Let 𝒇 be defined from the right of 𝒂, i.e. on some open interval of the form (𝒂, 𝒄).
The limit of 𝒇 from the right of 𝒂 is 𝑳 if the function values 𝒇(𝒙) approaches 𝑳 as 𝒙
approaches 𝒂 from the right.
Notation: 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳

𝒙⟶𝒂
Limit from the left

Let 𝒇 be defined from the left of 𝒂, i.e. on some open interval of the form (𝒅, 𝒂).
The limit of 𝒇 from the left of 𝒂 is 𝑳 if the function values 𝒇(𝒙) approaches 𝑳 as 𝒙
approaches 𝒂 from the left.
Notation: 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳

𝒙⟶𝒂
MUST REMEMBER!!!
Theorem. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exists and is equal to 𝑳 if and only if 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙) both exist and both
𝒙⟶𝒂 𝒙⟶𝒂 𝒙⟶𝒂
are equal to 𝑳.
ILLUSTRATION:
1. Consider the function 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙 − 𝟐 with domain 𝑫𝒇 = [𝟐, +∞).
Note that 𝒇 is defined from the right of 𝒂 = 𝟐 but is undefined from the left of 𝒂 = 𝟐.
Since 𝒇 is undefined from the left of 𝒂 = 𝟐, it is immediate that 𝐥𝐢𝐦− √𝒙 − 𝟐 does not exist.
𝒙⟶𝟐
Now, from the right of 𝒂 = 𝟐, the function values approaches 𝟎. Hence, 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ √𝒙 − 𝟐 = 𝟎.
𝒙⟶𝟐
Even if 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ √𝒙 − 𝟐 exists but 𝐥𝐢𝐦− √𝒙 − 𝟐 does not exist, the “two-sided limit” 𝐥𝐢𝐦 √𝒙 − 𝟐 does
𝒙⟶𝟐 𝒙⟶𝟐 𝒙⟶𝟐
not exist.
𝟐
2. Consider the function 𝒈(𝒙) = { 𝒙 + 𝟏 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 ≤ 𝟏 with domain 𝑫𝒈 = ℝ.
𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 > 𝟏
We focus on the behavior of the function as 𝒙 approaches 𝒂 = 𝟏.
To obtain the limit from the right, we consider the function values from the right of 𝒂 = 𝟏.
This is given by the condition 𝒙 > 𝟏.
So, 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+(𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏) = 𝟐.

𝒙⟶𝟏 𝒙⟶𝟏
To obtain the limit from the left, we consider the function values from the left of 𝒂 = 𝟏.
This is given by the condition 𝒙 ≤ 𝟏.
So, 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦−(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏) = 𝟐.
𝒙⟶𝟏 𝒙⟶𝟏
Since 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒈(𝒙) and 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒈(𝒙) both exist and are both equal to 𝟐, the theorem tells us that
𝒙⟶𝟏 𝒙⟶𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) also exists and that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟐.
𝒙⟶𝟏 𝒙⟶𝟏
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1.1.3 Infinite limits
It is also possible that 𝒇(𝒙) can increase or decrease without bound. We discuss this case in
the next section.
𝟏
Consider the function 𝒇(𝒙) = whose graph was given
𝒙
on the right.
𝟏
Note that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 does not exist. The function
𝒙⟶𝟎 𝒙
𝟏
values do not approach any particular values as 𝒙 ⟶ 𝟎.
𝒙
However, we can still establish the behavior of

the function as 𝒙 ⟶ 𝟎+ and as 𝒙 ⟶ 𝟎− .
𝟏
As 𝒙 ⟶ 𝟎+ , the values increases without
𝒙
𝟏 𝟏
bound. Note that 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ is of the form meaning the
𝒙⟶𝟎 𝒙 𝟎+
denominator approaches 0 through positive values.
𝟏
Hence, we write 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ = +∞ .
𝒙⟶𝟎 𝒙
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
As 𝒙 ⟶ 𝟎− , the values decreases without bound. Note that 𝐥𝐢𝐦− is of the form meaning
𝒙 𝒙⟶𝟎 𝒙 𝟎−
the denominator approaches 0 through negative values.
𝟏
Hence, we write 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ = −∞.
𝒙⟶𝟎 𝒙
Remark: Infinite limits of the form 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = +∞ or 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = −∞ describe the behavior of the
function. The limit 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) does not exist but the behavior increases without bound (+∞) or
𝒙⟶𝒂
decreases without bound (−∞).
MUST REMEMBER!!!
Theorems on Infinite Limits
Theorem. Let 𝒏 be a positive integer.

𝟏
i. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = +∞
𝒙⟶𝟎+ 𝒙𝒏
𝟏 +∞ 𝐢𝐟 𝒏 𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧
ii. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ={
𝒙⟶𝟎− 𝒙𝒏 −∞ 𝐢𝐟 𝒏 𝐢𝐬 𝐨𝐝𝐝
Moreover, if 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒄 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎, then

𝒇(𝒙) +
i. If 𝒄 > 𝟎 and 𝒈(𝒙) ⟶ 𝟎+ , then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = +∞. ( +)
𝒙⟶𝒂 𝒈(𝒙) 𝟎
𝒇(𝒙) +
ii. If 𝒄 > 𝟎 and 𝒈(𝒙) ⟶ 𝟎− , then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = −∞. ( −)
+ 𝒇(𝒙) −
iii. If 𝒄 < 𝟎 and 𝒈(𝒙) ⟶ 𝟎 , then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = −∞. ( +)
− 𝒇(𝒙) −
iv. If 𝒄 < 𝟎 and 𝒈(𝒙) ⟶ 𝟎 , then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = +∞. ( −)
ILLUSTRATION:
𝟐𝒙−𝟏
To obtain 𝐥𝐢𝐦 + , note that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 +(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏) = −𝟕 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 + (𝒙 + 𝟑) = 𝟎+ , i.e. 𝒙 + 𝟑
𝒙⟶−𝟑 𝒙+𝟑 𝒙⟶−𝟑 𝒙⟶−𝟑
approaches 𝟎 through positive values.
𝟐𝒙−𝟏 −𝟕 𝟐𝒙−𝟏 −𝟕
Hence, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 + = −∞ ( + ). Similarly, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 − = +∞ ( − ).
𝒙⟶−𝟑 𝒙+𝟑 𝟎 𝒙⟶−𝟑 𝒙+𝟑 𝟎
4
1.1.4 Limits at Infinity
Next, we look at the case when 𝒙 increases or decreases without bound.
Let 𝒇 be a function defined on the interval (𝒂, +∞). The limit of 𝒇(𝒙) as 𝒙 increases without
bound is 𝑳 if the function values 𝒇(𝒙) approaches 𝑳 as 𝒙 ⟶ +∞.
Notation: 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙⟶+∞
Let 𝒈 be a function defined on the interval (−∞, 𝒃). The limit of 𝒈(𝒙) as 𝒙 decreases without
bound is 𝑳 if the function values 𝒈(𝒙) approaches 𝑳 as 𝒙 ⟶ −∞.
Notation: 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙⟶−∞
MUST REMEMBER!!! Theorem on Limits at Infinity

𝟏 𝟏
Theorem. Let 𝒏 be a positive integer. Then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝟎.
𝒙⟶+∞ 𝒙𝒏 𝒙⟶−∞ 𝒙𝒏
We discuss more of infinite limits and limits at infinity in Section ___ , which is about indeterminate
forms.
TRY THIS! Compute the following limits. If the limit does not exist, write “The limit does not exist.”
𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒
1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦−
𝒙⟶ 𝟎 𝒙𝟐
𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐
2. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙⟶+∞ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏
𝒙+𝟏
3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙⟶−∞ 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏
_________________________
For the following conditional functions, properly implement one-sided limits to determine whether
the limit at the indicated point exists or does not exist.
𝟑
1. 𝒇(𝒙) = { 𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 < 𝟏
𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 > 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)

𝒙⟶𝟏+ 𝒙⟶𝟏− 𝒙⟶𝟏
𝟐 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 < −𝟐
2. 𝒉(𝒙) = { 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐 𝐢𝐟 −𝟐 ≤ 𝒙 < 𝟐
−𝟐 𝐢𝐟 𝒙≥𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉(𝒙)

𝒙⟶−𝟐+ 𝒙⟶−𝟐− 𝒙⟶−𝟐
REMINDER: For a thorough discussion of limits, students are advised to refer to Module III. Limits
of MATH 27 BASIC CALCULUS Preparatory Modules.
5
1.2 Derivatives and Integrals of Functions
We first talk about basic differentiation of functions. Differentiation is the process of finding the
derivative of a function. The derivative of a function is defined in terms of limit of a function which was
discussed in the previous section.
REMEMBER THIS!!! Definition of Derivative
The derivative of the function 𝒇, denoted by 𝒇′, is defined by
𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) − 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒉→𝟎 𝒉
if this limit exists.
Further, if 𝒙𝟎 is a particular number in the domain of 𝒇, then the derivative of 𝒇 at 𝒙𝟎 may also be
defined as
𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )
𝒇′ (𝒙𝟎 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝒙𝟎 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎
if this limit exists.
Alternative notations:
𝒅𝒚
For a function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙), the derivative 𝒇′ is also denoted by , 𝑫𝒙 𝒇, or 𝒇𝒙 . If 𝒇′ (𝒙𝟎 ) exists,
𝒅𝒙
then we say that 𝒇 is differentiable at 𝒙𝟎 .
Instead of using limits, we will compute for derivatives using the following rules of
differentiation.
REMEMBER THIS!!! Basic Rules on Differentiation
1. If 𝒄 is a given constant, then 𝑫𝒙 [𝒄] = 𝟎.
2. Power Rule If 𝒏 is a given real number, then 𝑫𝒙 [𝒙𝒏 ] = 𝒏𝒙𝒏−𝟏 .
3. If 𝒄 is a given constant and 𝒇 is a given function, then 𝑫𝒙 [𝒄 ⋅ 𝒇(𝒙)] = 𝒄 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙)].
4. Sum/Difference Rule
If 𝒇 and 𝒈 are given functions, then 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙)] ± 𝑫𝒙 [𝒈(𝒙)].
In general, if 𝒇𝟏 , 𝒇𝟐 , … , 𝒇𝒏 are given functions, then
𝑫𝒙 [𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) ± 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙) ± ⋯ ± 𝒇𝒏 (𝒙)] = 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇𝟏 (𝒙)] ± 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇𝟐 (𝒙)] ± ⋯ ± 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇𝒏 (𝒙)].
5. Product Rule If 𝒇 and 𝒈 are given functions, then
𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) ⋅ 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒇(𝒙) ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 [𝒈(𝒙)] + 𝒈(𝒙) ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙)].

Mnemonic: left de-right plus right de-left
6. Quotient Rule If 𝒇 and 𝒈 are given functions, then
𝒇(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙) ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙)] − 𝒇(𝒙) ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 [𝒈(𝒙)]

𝑫𝒙 [ ]= .
𝒈(𝒙) [𝒈(𝒙)]𝟐
Mnemonic: low de-high minus high de-low all over low-squared
6
1.2.1 Algebraic Functions
We first apply the theorems in algebraic functions such as polynomial, radical and rational
functions.
ILLUSTRATION:
𝟏
𝟏
1. For the function 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟑 − √𝒙 + 𝟒𝒙𝟐 , express it in the form 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙−𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙.
𝒙
Then, implement the Power Rule to each term.
𝟏
𝟏
Hence, the derivative is given by 𝒈′ (𝒙) = −𝟑𝒙−𝟒 − 𝒙−𝟐 + 𝟒.
𝟐
2. To obtain the derivative of 𝒉(𝒙) = (𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓)(𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏), implement the Product Rule.
So, 𝒉′(𝒙) = (𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓)𝑫𝒙 (𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏) + (𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏)𝑫𝒙 (𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓) = (𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓)(𝟒) + (𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝟒𝒙).
𝒙𝟑 −𝒙𝟐 +𝟖
3. To obtain the derivative of 𝒚 = , implement the Quotient Rule.
𝟑𝒙𝟒 −𝟐
So,
𝒅𝒚 (𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐)𝑫𝒙 (𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖) − (𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖)𝑫𝒙 (𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐)
=
𝒅𝒙 (𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐)𝟐
(𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐)(𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙) − (𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖)(𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟑 )

= .
(𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐)𝟐
There are functions wherein the given basic differentiation rules do not apply. We introduce here a
rule that can be used in these cases.
Chain Rule
Chain Rule is a very tool in differentiating composition of functions. A composition is of the form
𝒉(𝒙) = (𝒈 ∘ 𝒇)(𝒙) = 𝒈(𝒇(𝒙)).
REMEMBER THIS! Chain Rule
If 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝒈(𝒇(𝒙)), then 𝒉′(𝒙) = 𝒈′ (𝒇(𝒙)) ⋅ 𝒇′ (𝒙). In other notation, if 𝒚 = 𝒈(𝒖) and 𝒖 = 𝒇(𝒙),
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖
then = ⋅ .
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒙
ILLUSTRATION:
1. The function 𝒉(𝒙) = (𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒)𝟓 is a composition 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝒈(𝒇(𝒙)),

where 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟓 and 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒.
Applying Chain Rule,

𝒉′ (𝒙) = 𝒈′ (𝒇(𝒙)) ⋅ 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝟓[𝒇(𝒙)]𝟒 ⋅ (𝟔𝒙 − 𝟐) = 𝟓(𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒)𝟒 ⋅ (𝟔𝒙 − 𝟐)
𝟐𝒙−𝟕 𝟑
2. To compute for 𝑫𝒙 [( ) ], apply the Power Rule. Then, by Chain Rule, apply the Quotient
𝟑−𝒙
Rule to the innermost expression. Hence,
𝟐𝒙 − 𝟕 𝟑 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟕 𝟐 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟕 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟕 𝟐 (𝟑 − 𝒙)(𝟐) − (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟕)(−𝟏)

𝑫𝒙 [( ) ] = 𝟑( ) ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 ( ) = 𝟑( ) ( ).
𝟑−𝒙 𝟑−𝒙 𝟑−𝒙 𝟑−𝒙 (𝟑 − 𝒙)𝟐
7
REMINDER: For a thorough discussion of derivatives of algebraic functions, students are advised
to refer to Module I. Derivatives of MATH 27 BASIC CALCULUS Preparatory Modules to better
understand the concept of derivative and the use of chain rule in solving derivatives involving
algebraic functions. The given rules on differentiation will also hold for transcendental functions,
which is the concern of this course.
TRY THIS! Compute for the derivatives of the following functions using rules for differentiation.
1. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙𝟓 − 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟒𝒙 − 𝟓
𝟐
2. 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟔𝒙 ⁄𝟑 − √𝒙 + 𝟑 √𝒙
𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
3. 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − + 𝟐
𝒙 𝒙
4. 𝒈(𝒙) = (√𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 )(𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙 + √𝟐)
𝒙𝟑 −𝒙𝟐
5. 𝒉(𝒙) =
𝒙𝟐 +𝒙+𝟏
𝟒
6. 𝑫𝒙 ( √ 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟑 )
𝟑 𝟐
7. 𝑫𝒙 [(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + 𝟏) − (𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 ) ]
𝟏 𝒅𝒚
8. If 𝒚 = √𝒙 + and 𝒙 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟒, then =
𝒙 𝒅𝒖
We now talk about the inverse process of differentiation. Antidifferentiation is the process of
finding all the antiderivatives of a given function.
Recall that if 𝑭′ (𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙), then

∫ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑭(𝒙) + 𝑪,
where 𝑪 is an arbitrary constant. In this case, we call 𝑭(𝒙) an antiderivative of 𝒇(𝒙). We also say that
the indefinite integral of 𝒇(𝒙) with respect to 𝒙 is 𝑭(𝒙). The symbol ∫ is called the integral sign and
𝒇(𝒙) is referred to as the integrand.
8
REMEMBER THIS!!! Basic Rules of Antidifferentiation
𝒙𝒏+𝟏
1. (Power rule) If 𝒏 is any rational number, then ∫ 𝒙𝒏 𝒅𝒙 = + 𝑪, where 𝒏 ≠ −𝟏.
𝒏+𝟏
2. ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙 + 𝑪
3. ∫ 𝒂 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒂 ∫ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙
4. ∫[𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) ± 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙) ± ⋯ ± 𝒇𝒏 (𝒙)] 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 ± ∫ 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 ± ⋯ ± ∫ 𝒇𝒏 (𝒙) 𝒅𝒙
CAUTION!!! There is NO immediate rule for antiderivative of product nor of quotient. Thus, the
following may not hold true:
∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 ≠ ∫ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 ∫ 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙
𝒇(𝒙) ∫ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙
∫ 𝒅𝒙 ≠
𝒈(𝒙) ∫ 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙
ILLUSTRATION:
1. To compute for ∫(𝟒𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓) 𝒅𝒙, simply take the antiderivative of each term. Hence,
𝟑𝒙𝟐
∫(𝟒𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙𝟒 − + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝑪.
𝟐
2. There is NO quotient rule for antiderivatives. Some quotients can be written in the form where
Power Rule is applicable. So,
𝟏 𝒙−𝟒 𝟏
∫ 𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒙−𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = + 𝑪 = − + 𝑪.
𝒙 −𝟏 𝒙
3. There is NO product rule for antiderivatives. Whenever possible, first take the product of the
expressions. Then, compute for the term-by-term antiderivatives. Hence,
𝒕𝟒 𝒕𝟑 𝟔𝒕𝟐 𝒕𝟒 𝒕𝟑
∫(𝒕𝟐 + 𝟑𝒕)(𝒕 − 𝟐)𝒅𝒕 = ∫(𝒕𝟑 + 𝒕𝟐 − 𝟔𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 = + − + 𝑪 = + − 𝟑𝒕𝟐 + 𝑪.
𝟒 𝟑 𝟐 𝟒 𝟑
Substitution Technique
Simple substitution techniques can be used to compute some integral forms. This is best
used in solving integrals of some products or quotients.
In general, given a function and its derivative ’, then

[𝒇(𝒙)]𝒏+𝟏
∫[𝒇(𝒙)]𝒏 ∙ 𝒇′(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = +𝑪.
𝒏+𝟏
The technique here is to let 𝒖 = 𝒇(𝒙) so that 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒇′(𝒙)𝒅𝒙.
By substitution, the left side can then be written as

𝒖𝒏+𝟏
∫ 𝒖𝒏 𝒅𝒖 = +𝑪.
𝒏+𝟏
9
ILLUSTRATION:
𝟏
1. To solve for ∫ 𝒙√𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 𝒅𝒙, we let 𝒖 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 so that 𝒅𝒖 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙 and 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝒖. Hence,
𝟐
𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒖𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟑
∫ 𝒙 √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ √𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = ∫ 𝒖𝟐 𝒅𝒖 = ⋅ + 𝑪 = ⋅ 𝒖𝟐 + 𝑪 = ⋅ (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒)𝟐 + 𝑪.
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐
𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙
2. To solve for ∫ 𝟑 𝟐 𝟒 𝒅𝒙, we let 𝒖 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓 so that 𝒅𝒖 = (𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 and
(𝒙 +𝟑𝒙 +𝟓)
𝟏
(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝒖. Hence,
𝟑
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟒
𝟏 𝒖−𝟑
∫ 𝟑 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒅𝒖 = ∫ 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = ⋅ +𝑪
(𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓)𝟒 𝟑 𝒖𝟒 𝟑 𝟑 −𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
=− +𝑪=− +𝑪
𝟗𝒖𝟑 𝟗(𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓 )𝟑
REMINDER: For a thorough discussion of antidrivatives of algebraic functions, it is recommended

that students should refer to Module II. INTEGRALS of MATH 27 BASIC CALCULUS
Preparatory Modules. The given rules on anti-differention is also valid for thranscendental
functions.
TRY THIS! Compute the following antiderivatives.
𝟓 𝟒
1. ∫(𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟕) 𝒅𝒙
𝟑 𝟏 𝟑
2. ∫ ( √𝒙 + 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙 + 𝝅) 𝒅𝒙
∫(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑)(𝒙 + 𝟕) 𝒅𝒙
3.
𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟒
4. ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟐
𝟐𝒙
∫ 𝒅𝒙
5. (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝟓)𝟐
𝟗
6. ∫(𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟖) 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
7. ∫ 𝒅𝒙
√ 𝟕𝒙 − 𝟓
10
1.2.2 Trigonometric Functions
First on the list is trigonometric function. We first determine the derivatives of this type of
function. Integrals yielding trigonometric functions will directly follow. In the later sections, integrals of
trigonometric functions will also be considred.
Recall the following facts for basic trigonometric functions:
Function Domain
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ℝ
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 ℝ
𝒇(𝒙) = tan 𝒙 𝒌𝝅
ℝ − { | 𝒌 is an odd integer}
𝟐
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 ℝ − {𝒌𝝅| 𝒌 is an odd integer}
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝒌𝝅
ℝ − { | 𝒌 is an odd integer}
𝟐
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 ℝ − {𝒌𝝅| 𝒌 is an odd integer}
Morever, the given basic trigonometric functions are continuous over their respective domains. (To
know more about continuity of a function, please refer to Module III. Limits of MATH 27 BASIC
CALCULUS Preparatory Modules.)
Using the definition of a derivative, it can be shown that
𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 and 𝑫𝒙 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙) = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙.
Now, formulate 𝑫𝒙 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙) and 𝑫𝒙 (𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙) using the result above. The first few steps are
already written.
TO DO:
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝑫𝒙 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙) = 𝑫𝒙 ( ) (HINT: Use quotient rule for differentiation)
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝟏
TO DO: 𝑫𝒙 (𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙) = 𝑫𝒙 ( )
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
= 𝑫𝒙 [(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙)−𝟏 ]
Following the same procedure, it can also be shown that
𝑫𝒙 (𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙) = − 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 and 𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙

11
MUST REMEMBER!!! Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝑫𝒙 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙
𝑫𝒙 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙) = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝑫𝒙 (𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙) = − 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝑫𝒙 (𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙) = −𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙
It is a fact that the previously discussed trigonometric functions are differentiable over their
respective domains.
To aid in remembering things, we can think of the trigonometric functions as pairs, such that
the derivative of the “co-function” is always negative. In particular, we can pair sine with cosine,
tangent with cotangent, and secant with cosecant. This pairing will be very useful as we go through
the succeeding sections.
If the argument of a trigonometric function is a differentiable function of the variable 𝒙, then

we can use Chain Rule to obtain its corresponding derivative.
MUST REMEMBER!!! CHAIN RULE: Derivatives of trigonometric functions
Let 𝒖 be a differentiable function of 𝒙.
𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒖) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒖 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖 𝑫𝒙 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒖) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒖 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖 𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒖) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒖 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒖 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖
𝑫𝒙 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒖) = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒖 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖 𝑫𝒙 (𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒖) = − 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒖 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖 𝑫𝒙 (𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒖) = −𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒖 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒖 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖
ILLUSTRATION:
1. Determine 𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙).
Solution:
𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) by Product Rule
= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 (−𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙
ILLUSTRATION:
2. Evaluate 𝑫𝒙 (𝟓 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟑𝒙 − 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐𝒙).

Solution:
𝑫𝒙 (𝟓 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟑𝒙 − 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐𝒙) = 𝟓 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟑𝒙) − 𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐𝒙) by Sum/Difference Rule
= 𝟓𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝟑𝒙 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝟑𝒙) − 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐𝒙 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝟐𝒙) by Chain Rule
= 𝟓𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝟑𝒙 ⋅ (𝟑) − 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐𝒙 ⋅ (𝟐)
= 𝟏𝟓𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐𝒙
12
TRY THIS!
Evaluate the following.
1. 𝑫𝒙 (𝒙𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙)
𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙
2. 𝑫𝒙 ( )
𝒙𝟑
3. 𝑫𝒙 (𝟐𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + √𝒙𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙)
4. 𝑫𝒙 (𝟒 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝟑𝒙)
𝟑 𝟑
5. 𝑫𝒙 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 √𝒙 − √𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙)
6. 𝑫𝒙 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒙)
7. 𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟑 (𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐𝒙))
8. 𝑫𝒙 (𝐜𝐨𝐬√𝐬𝐞𝐜(𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝝅𝒙))
For more exercises, you can refer to:
Ron Larson & Bruce H. Edwards. (2016). Calculus, 10th Edition. Philippines: Cengage
Learning Asia Pte. Ltd., pp. 125,136
For an online tutorial, follow these links:
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-derivative-rules/ab-diff-sin-
cos/v/derivatives-of-sinx-and-cosx
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-derivative-rules/ab-diff-trig-
func/v/derivatives-of-tanx-and-cotx
We now consider integrals yielding trigonometric functions. From the previous section, the
following results are immediate.
MUST REMEMBER!!! Integrals Yielding Trigonometric Functions
Let 𝒖 be a differentiable function of 𝒙.
∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒖 + 𝑪 ∫ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒖 + 𝑪 ∫ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒖 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒖 + 𝑪

∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = −𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒖 + 𝑪 ∫ 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = −𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒖 + 𝑪 ∫ 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒖 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = −𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒖 + 𝑪
13
ILLUSTRATION:
1. Evaluate
∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 .
Solution:
Note that 𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙. Hence, we can let 𝒖 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙, so that 𝒅𝒖 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
and the given integral can now be rewritten as
∫ 𝒖 𝒅𝒖.
Then,
𝒖𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙
∫ 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = +𝑪 ⇒ ∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = +𝑪
𝟐 𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙
To verify that the answer is correct, we show that 𝑫𝒙 ( + 𝑪) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 .
𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙 𝟏
𝑫𝒙 ( + 𝑪) = (𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙)) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝟐 𝟐
TO DO:
.
1. Rework the Illustration 1 using an alternate substitute 𝒖 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙. Compare your answer to
the answer above. Explain why the two answers are both antiderivatives of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙.
Are the two answers equal?
2. Employ the technique similar to Illustration 1 to evaluate
∫ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
.
There would be instances that solving integrals involving trigonometric functions would
require us to use identities. We recall here some known trigonometric identities that may be helpful in
the succeeding discussions.
RECALL: Some Trigonometric Identities
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟏 𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝒙 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟏 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙
ILLUSTRATION:
2. Evaluate
∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 .
By inspecting the list of integrals that we discussed previously, we will see that there is no
result whose integrand is 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝒙. However, there is a result that involves is 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙. Hence,
we can use the identity 𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝒙 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 to be able to solve the given problem.
∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = ∫(𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟏)𝒅𝒙
= ∫ 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 − ∫ 𝒅𝒙
= −𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 − 𝒙 + 𝑪
To verify that the answer is correct, we show that 𝑫𝒙 (−𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 − 𝒙 + 𝑪) = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝒙 .
𝑫𝒙 (−𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 − 𝒙 + 𝑪) = −(−𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙) − 𝟏 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝒙
14
TO DO:
Employ the technique similar to Illustration 2 to evaluate
∫ 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙.
TRY THIS!
1. ∫ 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝒙𝟐 ) 𝒅𝒙
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 (√𝒙)
2. ∫ 𝒅𝒙
√𝒙
∫ 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙) 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙

3.
4. ∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
5. ∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟒 𝒙 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
6. ∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟑 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
7. ∫ 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟑 𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟑 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
8. ∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟒 𝟓𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟓𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Learning Asia Pte. Ltd., p. 334
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-antiderivatives-ftc/ab-common-
indefinite-int/v/basic-trig-and-exponential-antiderivatives
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/IntegralsWithTrig.aspx
1.2.3 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Now, we formulate derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions. Then, we look into integrals
that yields inverse trigonometric function later. We first recall the six basic inverse trigonometric
functions and their respective domain.
Function Domain
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 [−𝟏, 𝟏]
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 [−𝟏, 𝟏]
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐀𝐫𝐜tan 𝒙 ℝ
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 ℝ
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 (−∞, −𝟏] ∪ [𝟏, +∞)
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 (−∞, −𝟏] ∪ [𝟏, +∞)
15
We note that other references may use the notation 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 for 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙, and similar notation
for other inverse trigonometric functions. For more details about inverse trigonometric functions, we
refer the student to
Louis Leithold.(1997). The Calculus 7 of a Single Variable, 7th sub-edition. Harper

Collins Publishers. pp. 491-503
The given inverse trigonometric functions are continuous over their respective domains
except for the endpoints of the interval if they exist. Hence, derivatives of the said class of
transcendental functions exist at some points. We first formulate the derivative of the inverse sine
function using the derivative of the sine function and implicit differentiation. Recall that 𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙.
TO DO: Formulate the derivative of 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙.
Let 𝒚 = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙. Hence, 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚. Getting the derivative of both sides of the equation
implicitly, we have,
Using the same technique, we can show the following results.

MUST REMEMBER!!! Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) = 𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙) = 𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙) =
√𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒙√𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙) = − 𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙) = − 𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙) = −
√𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒙√𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
As you will observe, we can still use the pairing of the “co-functions” that we made earlier to
easily remember that the derivative of one is the negative of the other. For example, the derivative of
𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 is the negative of the derivative of 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙, i.e.,
𝟏
𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙) = −𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) = − .
√𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
Now, applying the Chain Rule to the previous results, we have the following corollary.
MUST REMEMBER!!! CHAIN RULE: Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions
Let 𝒖 be a differentiable function of 𝒙. Then,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒖) = ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖 𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒖) = ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖 𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒖) = ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖
√𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒖𝟐 𝒖√𝒖𝟐 − 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒖) = − ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖 𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒖) = − ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖 𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒖) = ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖
√𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒖𝟐 𝒖√𝒖𝟐 − 𝟏
16
ILLUSTRATION:
𝒅𝒚
1. Solve for if 𝒚 = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏)
𝒅𝒙
Solution:
𝒅𝒚 𝟏
𝒚 = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏) ⇒ =− ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 )
𝒅𝒙 𝟐
√𝟏 − (𝒙 − 𝟏) 𝟐
𝟏
=− ⋅ 𝟐𝒙
√𝟏 − (𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏)
𝟐𝒙
=−
√𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟒
ILLUSTRATION:
𝒅𝒚
2. Solve for if 𝒚 = [𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙)]𝟑
𝒅𝒙
Solution:
𝒅𝒚
𝒚 = [𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙)]𝟑 ⇒ = 𝟑[𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙)]𝟐 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙) )
𝒅𝒙
𝟏
= 𝟑[𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙)]𝟐 ⋅ ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙)
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 √𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟏
𝟏
= 𝟑[𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙)]𝟐 ⋅ ⋅ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 √𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟏
TRY THIS!
𝒅𝒚
Solve for if
𝒅𝒙
𝟏
1. 𝒚 = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( )
𝒙
2. 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙𝟐
3. 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟑𝒙)
4. 𝒚 = √𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟒𝒙𝟑
5. 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) + 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙)
6. 𝒚 = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒙)
7. 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙𝟐 )
𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝅𝒙
8. 𝒚 =
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝅𝒙
17
Collins Publishers. p. 505
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-derivatives-advanced/ab-diff-
inverse-trig/v/derivative-inverse-sine
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/DiffInvTrigFcns.aspx
We now proceed with integrals yielding inverse trigonometric functions. Using our list of
derivatives, we can obtain the following results.
MUST REMEMBER!!! Integrals Yielding Inverse Trigonometric Function

Let 𝒖 be a differentiable function of 𝒙, and 𝒂 be a constant. Then ,
𝟏 𝒖
∫ 𝒅𝒖 = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 +𝑪
√𝒂𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 𝒂
𝟏 𝟏 𝒖
∫ 𝒅𝒖 = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 + 𝑪
𝒂𝟐 + 𝒖𝟐 𝒂 𝒂
𝟏 𝟏 𝒖
∫ 𝒅𝒖 = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 + 𝑪
𝒖√𝒖𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝒂
The given facts can be verified by getting the derivative of the integrand and showing that it is
equal to the right hand side of the equation. Moreover, it can be shown that
𝟏 𝒖
∫ 𝒅𝒖 = −𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐬 + 𝑪.
√𝒂𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 𝒂
The same is true for the other integrals on the list. However, as a matter of convention, we will use the
former result.
You might also observe that integrals yielding inverse trigonometric functions involve
polynomials in the form of sum or difference of two squares. So, whenever you see a sum of two
squares or a difference two squares as a radicand, more often than not, that integral will yield inverse
trigonometric function.
ILLUSTRATION:
1. Evaluate
𝟑
∫ 𝒅𝒙.
𝒙 √𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟓
Solution:
We first identify 𝒖 and 𝒂 to be able to transform the problem to one of the forms in
the list of integrals given above.

Let 𝒂 = 𝟓 and 𝒖 = 𝒙, so that 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒅𝒙 and
𝟑 𝒅𝒖
∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟑 ∫
𝒙 √𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟓 𝒖 √𝒖𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐
𝟏 𝒖
=𝟑⋅ 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 + 𝑪
𝒂 𝒂
𝟑 𝒙
= 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 + 𝑪
𝟓 𝟓
18
TO DO:
Verify that the answer in Ilustration 1 is correct by showing that
𝟑 𝒙 𝟑
𝑫𝒙 ( 𝑨𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒆𝒄 + 𝑪) =
𝟓 𝟓 𝟐
𝒙√𝒙 − 𝟐𝟓
ILLUSTRATION:
2. Evaluate
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
∫ 𝒅𝒙.
𝟔 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒙
Solution:
We first identify 𝒖 and 𝒂 to be able to transform the problem to one of the forms in
the list of integrals given above.
Let 𝒂 = √𝟔 and 𝒖 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙, so that 𝒅𝒖 = −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 ⇒ −𝒅𝒖 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 , and
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒖
∫ 𝟐
𝒅𝒙 = − ∫ 𝟐
𝟔 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒂 + 𝒖𝟐
𝟏 𝒖
=− 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 + 𝑪
𝒂 𝒂
𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
=− 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 ( )+𝑪
√𝟔 √𝟔
Some problems would require us to complete the square of some polynomial first so that its
form would become a sum or difference of two squares. This scenario is demonstrated below.
ILLUSTRATION:
3. Evaluate
𝟐
∫ 𝒅𝒙.
√𝟒𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐
Solution:
Observe that the expression inside the radical, 𝟒𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 , is not a sum or difference
of two squares. However, we can do some manipulations to transform the given
polynomial to our desired form.
Recall first that to complete the square of a polynomial 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙, we add the
𝒃 𝟐 𝒃 𝟐 𝒃 𝟐
constant ( ) since 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + ( ) = (𝒙 + ) . Hence, to manipulate the expression 𝟒𝒙 −
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒙𝟐 , we add 𝟒 − 𝟒, which is equal to 𝟎. In this way, we are not changing the given problem.
Now,
𝟒𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟒 − 𝟒 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟒 − (𝟒 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 ) = 𝟒 − (𝒙 − 𝟐)𝟐
Thus,
𝟐 𝟐
∫ 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒅𝒙.
√𝟒𝒙 − 𝒙 𝟐 √𝟒 − (𝒙 − 𝟐)𝟐
Next, we identify 𝒖 and 𝒂 to be able to transform the problem to one of the forms
in the list of integrals given above.
Let 𝒂 = 𝟐 and 𝒖 = 𝒙 − 𝟐, so that 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒅𝒙 , and
𝟐 𝟐 𝒅𝒖
∫ 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐 ∫
√𝟒𝒙 − 𝒙 𝟐 √𝟒 − (𝒙 − 𝟐)𝟐 √𝒂 − 𝒖𝟐
𝟐
𝒖 𝒙−𝟐
= 𝟐 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 + 𝑪 = 𝟐 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( )+𝑪
𝒂 𝟐
19
TO DO:
Verify that the answer in Illustration 3 is correct by showing that
𝒙−𝟐 𝟐
𝑫𝒙 (𝟐 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) + 𝑪) =
𝟐 √𝟒𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐
TRY THIS!!!
𝒅𝒙
1. ∫
𝒙√𝟗𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔
𝒙𝟐
∫ 𝒅𝒙
2. √𝟓 − 𝟒𝒙𝟔
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
∫ 𝒅𝒙
3. √𝟒 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙
𝟐
∫ 𝒅𝒙
4. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟐𝟓
𝒅𝒙 (Assume that 𝑫𝒙 (𝒆𝒙 ) = 𝒆𝒙 .)

∫
5. √𝒆𝟐𝒙 − 𝟗
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙
∫ 𝒅𝒙
6. √𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟐
𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝟓𝒙
7. ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝟑 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝟓𝒙
𝒅𝒙
∫
8. √𝟓𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐

For an online tutorial, follow this link:
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/SubstitutionRuleIndefinite.aspx
___________
1.2.4 Evaluate ,
Logarithmic Functions and
We now consider logarithmic functions. For a review of definition and properties of logarithmic
functions, particularly the natural logarithmic function, refer to
Louis Leithold.(1997). The Calculus 7 of a Single Variable, 7 th sub-edition. Harper

Collins Publishers. pp. 439-447, 472- 473.
20
The natural logarithmic function defined by 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 is continuous over (𝟎, +∞). Moreover,
lim+ 𝐥𝐧 𝑥 = −∞ and lim 𝐥𝐧 𝑥 = +∞ .
𝑥→0 𝑥→+∞
Using an alternative definition for 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 in terms of definite integral and the First Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus (FTC 1), we will now formulate the derivative of 𝐥𝐧 𝒙. But first, we recall FTC 1.
RECALL!!! First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Let 𝒇 be a continuous real-valued function defined on a closed interval [𝒂, 𝒃]. Let 𝑭 be the
function defined, for all 𝒙 in [𝒂, 𝒃], by
𝒙
𝑭(𝒙) = ∫ 𝒇(𝒕)𝒅𝒕 .
𝒂
Then, 𝑭 is uniformly continuous on [𝒂, 𝒃], differentiable on the open interval (𝒂, 𝒃), and
𝑭′(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙)
for all 𝒙 in (𝒂, 𝒃).
We now formulate 𝑫𝒙 (𝐥𝐧 𝒙) .
The natural logarithmic function defined by 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 can defined alternatively as

𝒙
𝟏
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 = ∫ 𝒅𝒕 .
𝟏 𝒕
Then, by FTC 1,
𝒙
𝟏 𝟏
𝑫𝒙 (𝐥𝐧 𝒙) = 𝑫𝒙 (∫ 𝒅𝒕) =
𝟏 𝒕 𝒙
MUST REMEMBER!!!
𝟏
𝑫𝒙 (𝐥𝐧 𝒙) =
𝒙
and if 𝒖 is a differentiable function of 𝒙, then
𝟏
𝑫𝒙 (𝐥𝐧 𝒖) = ⋅𝑫 𝒖
𝒖 𝒙
ILLUSTRATION:
1. Solve for 𝒇′ (𝒙) if 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧(𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙).
Solution:
𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧(𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙) ⇒ 𝒇′ (𝒙) = ⋅ 𝑫 (𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙)
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝒙
𝟏 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙)

= ⋅ (𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙) = = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙
21
ILLUSTRATION:
2. Solve for 𝒇′ (𝒙) if 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧(√𝒙 ⋅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙).
Solution:
𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧(√𝒙 ⋅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) ⇒ 𝒇′ (𝒙) = ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (√𝒙 ⋅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙)
√𝒙 ⋅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝟏 𝟏
= ⋅ (√𝒙 ⋅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ )
√𝒙 ⋅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟐√𝒙
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
= +
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟐𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
= 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 +
𝟐𝒙
TO DO:
3. Solve for 𝒇′ (𝒙) if 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝒂 𝒙, where 𝒂 > 𝟎, 𝒂 ≠ 𝟏.
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 𝟏
Solution: Note that 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝒂 𝒙 = and that is a constant.
𝐥𝐧 𝒂 𝐥𝐧 𝒂
MUST REMEMBER!!! Derivative of Logarithmic Function
If 𝒖 is a differentiable function of 𝒙, then

𝟏 𝟏
𝑫𝒙 (𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒖) = ⋅ ⋅𝑫 𝒖
𝐥𝐧 𝒂 𝒖 𝒙
Note that the given result above is for a general logarithmic function. Hence, the said result
will also hold for the natural logarithmic function. Can you show that
𝟏
𝑫𝒙 (𝐥𝐧 𝒖) = ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖
𝒖
by using the result above? Thus, all you need to remember when it comes to derivative of logarithmic
function is the said result.
ILLUSTRATION:
4. Evaluate 𝑫𝒙 [𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝒙)] .
Solution:
𝟏 𝟏
𝑫𝒙 [𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟒𝒙)] = ⋅ ⋅ 𝑫 (𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟒𝒙)
𝐥𝐧 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝒙
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ 𝑫 (𝟒𝒙)
𝐥𝐧 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝒙
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅𝟒
𝐥𝐧 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝟒𝒙
22
TRY THIS!
𝒅𝒚
Solve for if
𝒅𝒙
1. 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙)
2. 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 (𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙)
3. 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 (𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙)
4. 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 (𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙)
5. 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟑𝒙)
6. 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 √𝒙)

𝟐
𝟐𝒙−𝟏
7. 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟔 (𝐥𝐧 ( ))
𝒙𝟐 +𝟐
8. 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒌𝒙, where 𝒌 is a constant

Collins Publishers. pp.449, 457, 476

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-bc/bc-derivatives-advanced/bc-diff-
log/v/derivative-of-lnx
log/v/log-functions-differentiation
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/DiffExpLogFcns.aspx
The following result directly follows from the previous discussions.
MUST REMEMBER!!!
𝒅𝒖
∫ = 𝐥𝐧|𝒖| + 𝑪.
𝟏
Observe that ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧|𝒙| + 𝑪 instead of 𝐥𝐧 𝒙. Why is that so? Review the respective
𝒙
𝟏
domains of and 𝐥𝐧 𝒙. Moreover, you can solve for 𝑫𝒙 (𝐥𝐧|𝒙|) by using the definition of |𝒙| as a
𝒙
conditional function.
23
ILLUSTRATION:
1. Evaluate
𝒙
∫ 𝒅𝒙.
𝒙𝟐 +𝟒
Solution:
At first look, we might think that this integral will yield inverse trigonometric
function because of the presence of sum of two squares in the denominator. However,
upon careful inspection, we will realize that the integral is solvable by simple substitution
𝟏
and will yield logarithmic function. We let 𝒖 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 so that 𝒅𝒖 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙 and 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝒖.
𝟐
Hence,
𝒙 𝟏 𝒅𝒖
∫ 𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = ∫
𝒙 +𝟒 𝟐 𝒖
𝟏
= 𝐥𝐧 |𝒖| + 𝑪
𝟐
𝟏
= 𝐥𝐧 |𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒| + 𝑪
𝟐
𝟏
= 𝐥𝐧 (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒) + 𝑪
𝟐 (Why?)
ILLUSTRATION
2. Evaluate
∫ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙.
Solution:
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
Recall that 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 = . Then, we let 𝒖 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 so that 𝒅𝒖 = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 and
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = −𝒅𝒖. Hence,
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒖
∫ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = − ∫
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒖
= − 𝐥𝐧 |𝒖| + 𝑪
= − 𝐥𝐧 |𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙| + 𝑪
= 𝐥𝐧 |(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙)−𝟏 | + 𝑪
= 𝐥𝐧 |𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙| + 𝑪
TO DO: Using similar procedure, show that
∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧 |𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙| + 𝑪.
Integrals of other trigonometric functions are given below.
MUST REMEMBER!!! Integrals of the “Other” Trigonometric Functions
∫ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝐥𝐧 |𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒖| + 𝑪 ∫ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝐥𝐧 |𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒖 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒖| + 𝑪
∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝐥𝐧 |𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒖| + 𝑪 ∫ 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝐥𝐧 |𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒖 − 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒖| + 𝑪
24
TRY THIS!!!
𝒅𝒙
1. ∫ where 𝒂 and 𝒃 are constants
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃
𝒙+𝟒
∫ 𝒅𝒙
2. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔
𝐥𝐧 𝒙
∫ 𝒅𝒙
3. 𝒙
𝒅𝒙
∫
4. 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
∫ 𝒅𝒙
5. 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝐭𝐚𝐧 √𝒙
6. ∫ 𝒅𝒙
√𝒙
∫ 𝒙𝟐 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟓𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙
7.
∫ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝝅𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝅𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

8.

Collins Publishers. p. 457, 476
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/ComputingIndefiniteIntegrals.aspx
___________
1.2.5 Exponential Functions
Evaluate ,
We now focus our attention and functions. For a quick review of concepts and
to exponential
properties regarding exponential function, particularly the natural exponential function, refer to

Collins Publishers. pp. 458-462.
The natural exponential function defined by 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 is continuous at every real number.
Also, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒆𝒙 = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒆𝒙 = +∞. In general, for a constant 𝒃, if 𝒃 > 𝟏, then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒃𝒙 = 𝟎 and
𝒙→−∞ 𝒙→+∞ 𝒙→−∞
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒃𝒙 = +∞. However, if 𝟎 < 𝒃 < 𝟏, then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒃𝒙 = +∞ and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒃𝒙 = 𝟎.
𝒙→+∞ 𝒙→−∞ 𝒙→+∞
Next, we formulate the derivative of 𝒆𝒙 . Recall that by definition, 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒙 ⇔ 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒚. Use

implicit differentiation to solve for 𝑫𝒙 (𝒆𝒙 ). The first few lines are already given.
25
TO DO:
𝒅𝒚
Determine if 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒙 .
𝒅𝒙
.
Solution:
𝒚 = 𝒆𝒙 ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒚
By using implicit differentiation,
MUST REMEMBER!!! Derivative of Natural Exponential Function
𝑫𝒙 (𝒆𝒖 ) = 𝒆𝒖 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖 .
In a similar manner, and using the fact that 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 ⇔ 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙, we can also show the next
result for a general exponential function.
MUST REMEMBER!!! Derivative of Exponential Function
𝑫𝒙 (𝒂𝒖 ) = 𝒂𝒖 ⋅ 𝐥𝐧 𝒂 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖 .
Note that if we let 𝒂 = 𝒆 in the preceding statement, we have the result for the natural
exponential function since 𝐥𝐧 𝒆 = 𝟏. Thus, all you need to remember is the one given above.
ILLUSTRATION:
𝟐
1. Evaluate 𝑫𝒙 (𝟏𝟎𝒙 −𝟑𝒙 ).
Solution:
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑫𝒙 (𝟏𝟎𝒙 −𝟑𝒙 ) = 𝟏𝟎𝒙 −𝟑𝒙 ⋅ 𝐥𝐧 𝟏𝟎 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙) = 𝟏𝟎𝒙 −𝟑𝒙 ⋅ 𝐥𝐧 𝟏𝟎 ⋅ (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑)
2. Evaluate 𝑫𝒙 (𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝟑𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ).

Solution: by Product Rule

𝑫𝒙 (𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝟑𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ) = 𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝟑𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ) + 𝟑𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 )
= 𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝟑𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝐥𝐧 𝟏𝟎 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝐥𝐧 𝒙) + 𝟑𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙)
𝟏
= 𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝟑𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝐥𝐧 𝟏𝟎 ⋅ + 𝟑𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝒙
26
TRY THIS! Evaluate the following.
𝟐
1. 𝑫𝒙 (𝒆𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 )
2. 𝑫𝒙 (𝟏𝟎𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟏𝟎 𝒙 )
𝟒𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
3. 𝑫𝒙 ( )
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝒙𝟑
𝟏
4. 𝑫𝒙 ( 𝟓𝒙 ⋅ 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐𝒙)
5. 𝑫𝒙 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝒆𝟓𝒙 ))
6. 𝑫𝒙 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 (𝟐𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 ))
7. 𝑫𝒙 (√𝟏 − 𝒆𝟒𝒙 )
𝒙
8. 𝑫𝒙 (𝒙𝒆 )
Learning Asia Pte. Ltd., pp. 352, 362

Collins Publishers. pp. 467, 476
exp/v/derivative-of-ex
exp/v/exponential-functions-differentiation
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/DiffExpLogFcns.aspx
From the earlier discussions, it is easy to see the following facts.
MUST REMEMBER!!! Integrals of Exponential Functions

∫ 𝒆𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒆𝒖 + 𝑪
and
𝒂𝒖
∫ 𝒂𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = + 𝑪.
𝐥𝐧 𝒂
27
Similar to our previous remark, you can just remember the second integral only since the first
can be obtained from the second by letting 𝒂 = 𝒆.
ILLUSTRATION:
1. Evaluate
∫ 𝟒𝟐𝒙−𝟏 𝒅𝒙.
Solution:
𝟏
We can let 𝒖 = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏 so that 𝒅𝒖 = 𝟐𝒅𝒙 and = 𝒅𝒖 . Hence,
𝟐
𝟏
∫ 𝟒𝟐𝒙−𝟏 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝟒𝒖 𝒅𝒖
𝟐
𝟏 𝟒𝒖
= ⋅ +𝑪
𝟐 𝐥𝐧 𝟒
𝟒𝟐𝒙−𝟏
= +𝑪
𝟐 𝐥𝐧 𝟒
TO DO:
Verify that the answer is correct by showing
𝟒𝟐𝒙−𝟏
𝑫𝒙 ( + 𝑪) = 𝟒𝟐𝒙−𝟏 .
𝟐 𝐥𝐧 𝟒
ILLUSTRATION:
2. Evaluate
𝟐𝒙
∫ 𝒅𝒙.
𝟐𝒙−𝟏
Solution:
𝟏
We can let 𝒖 = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏 so that 𝒅𝒖 = 𝟐𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝒅𝒙 and 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝒖 . Hence,
𝐥𝐧 𝟐
𝟐𝒙 𝟏 𝟏
∫ 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒅𝒖
𝟐𝒙 −𝟏 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝒖
𝟏
= ⋅ 𝐥𝐧 |𝒖| + 𝑪
𝐥𝐧 𝟐
𝐥𝐧 |𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏|
= +𝑪
𝐥𝐧 𝟐
TO DO:
Verify that the answer is correct by showing
𝐥𝐧 |𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏| 𝟐𝒙
𝑫𝒙 ( + 𝑪) = 𝒙 .
𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝟐 −𝟏
28
TRY THIS!!!
𝟑
1. ∫ 𝒙𝟐 𝒆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟐√𝒙
2. ∫ 𝒅𝒙
√𝒙
𝒆𝟐𝒙
3. ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟒𝒙
𝟑𝒙 𝒅𝒙
∫
4. √𝟑𝒙 − 𝟑
∫ 𝒆𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
5.
∫ 𝒆𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒆𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
6.
𝒙
∫ 𝟑𝒙 𝒆𝟑 𝒅𝒙
7.
𝒙)
∫ 𝒆(𝒙+𝒆 𝒅𝒙
8.
Learning Asia Pte. Ltd., pp. 354, 363

http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/ComputingIndefiniteIntegrals.aspx
___________
Evaluate , and
1.3 Logarithmic Differentiation
Differentiate the following function:
𝒙 ⋅ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 ⋅ √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) =
𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙
How many times did you use Quotient Rule? How about Product Rule? By using only basic
theorems on differentiation to solve the given problem, it is undeniable that the process is quite
tedious. In addition, the probability of committing errors in computation is also high since it involves
multiple processes.
In this section, we will introduce an alternative way of solving problems of the same nature as
the one given earlier. This method, called logarithmic differentiation, makes it easier to deal with
differentiating “super products,” “super quotients,” and composite functions in the form of function
raised to another function like 𝒇(𝒙) = (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙)𝒙 .
29
Since, logarithmic differentiation employs implicit differentiation, we first recall here the said
process.
MUST REMEMBER!!! How to do implicit differentiation
Suppose 𝒚 is a function of 𝒙 but is defined explicitly an equation in terms of 𝒙 and 𝒚. To solve

𝒅𝒚
for or 𝒚′:
𝒅𝒙
1. take the derivative with respect to 𝒙 term-by-term of both sides of the equation.
𝒅𝒚
2. For terms with factors of 𝒚, differentiate the term with respect to 𝒙 and affix or 𝒚′:
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚
3. Solve for or 𝒚′:in the equation.
𝒅𝒙
ILLUSTRATION: Suppose 𝒚 is a differentiable function of 𝒙 and that it is implicitly defined by the equation
𝒙𝟔 − 𝟐𝒙 = 𝟑𝒚𝟔 + 𝒚𝟓 − 𝒚𝟐 .
𝒅𝒚
To solve for ,
𝒅𝒙
𝑫𝒙 (𝒙𝟔 − 𝟐𝒙) = 𝑫𝒙 (𝟑𝒚𝟔 + 𝒚𝟓 − 𝒚𝟐 )
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
⇒ 𝟔𝒙𝟓 − 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖𝒚𝟓 + 𝟓𝒚𝟒 − 𝟐𝒚
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚
⇒ 𝟔𝒙𝟓 − 𝟐 = (𝟏𝟖𝒚𝟓 + 𝟓𝒚𝟒 − 𝟐𝒚)
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚 𝟔𝒙𝟓 − 𝟐
⇒ =
𝒅𝒙 𝟏𝟖𝒚𝟓 + 𝟓𝒚𝟒 − 𝟐𝒚
We now ready to learn the steps in logarithmic differentiation.
MUST REMEMBER! How to do logarithmic differentiation?
Given 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙).
1. Consider |𝒚| = |𝒇(𝒙)|. Get the natural logarithms of both sides of the equation, i.e.
𝟏
𝐥𝐧|𝒚| = 𝐥𝐧|𝒇(𝒙)|. Note that 𝑫𝒙 (𝐥𝐧|𝒙|) = .
𝒙
2. Use properties of logarithms to express 𝐥𝐧|𝒇(𝒙)| as sums instead of products, as

difference instead of quotients and products instead of exponentiations.
3. Get the derivatives of both sides of 𝐥𝐧|𝒚| = 𝐥𝐧|𝒇(𝒙)| implicitly. Hence,

𝟏 𝒅𝒚
⋅ = 𝑫𝒙 (𝐥𝐧|𝒇(𝒙)|).
𝒚 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚
4. Solve for by cross-multiplying 𝒚 and expressing 𝒚 in terms of 𝒙.
𝒅𝒙
30
ILLUSTRATION:
𝒅𝒚
1. Use logarithmic differentiation to solve for if
𝒅𝒙
𝒙 ⋅ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 ⋅ √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏
𝒚=
𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙
Solution:
𝒙 ⋅ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 ⋅ √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 𝒙 ⋅ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 ⋅ √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 𝒙 ⋅ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 ⋅ √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏
𝒚= ⇒ |𝒚| = | | ⇒ 𝐥𝐧 |𝒚| = 𝐥𝐧 | |
𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙
⇒ 𝐥𝐧 |𝒚| = 𝐥𝐧 |𝒙 ⋅ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 ⋅ √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏| − 𝐥𝐧|𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙|
𝟏
⇒ 𝐥𝐧 |𝒚| = 𝐥𝐧|𝒙| + 𝐥𝐧|𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙| + 𝐥𝐧 |(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏)𝟐 | − 𝐥𝐧|𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙|
𝟏
⇒ 𝐥𝐧 |𝒚| = 𝐥𝐧|𝒙| + 𝐥𝐧|𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙| + 𝐥𝐧|𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏| − 𝐥𝐧|𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙|
𝟐
𝟏 𝒅𝒚 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ ⋅ = + ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙) + ⋅ 𝟐 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏) − ⋅ 𝑫 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙)
𝒚 𝒅𝒙 𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝟐 𝒙 +𝟏 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝒙
𝟏 𝒅𝒚 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ ⋅ = + ⋅ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝟐
⋅ 𝟐𝒙 − ⋅
𝒚 𝒅𝒙 𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝟐(𝒙 + 𝟏) 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝒚 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ = 𝒚 ( + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝟐 − ⋅ )
𝒅𝒙 𝒙 𝒙 + 𝟏 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝒚 𝒙 ⋅ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 ⋅ √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ = ( + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝟐 − ⋅ )
𝒅𝒙 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝒙 𝒙 + 𝟏 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
Compare your first solution to the same problem with the one above. Which one is less
complicated?
ILLUSTRATION:
𝒅𝒚
2. Use logarithmic differentiation to solve for if
𝒅𝒙
𝒚 = 𝒙𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 .
Solution:
𝒚 = 𝒙𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⇒ |𝒚| = |𝒙𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 | ⇒ 𝐥𝐧 |𝒚| = 𝐥𝐧|𝒙𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 |
___________
⇒ 𝐥𝐧 |𝒚| = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝐥𝐧|𝒙|
𝟏 𝒅𝒚
⇒ ⋅ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝐥𝐧 |𝒙|) + 𝐥𝐧 |𝒙| ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙)
𝒚 𝒅𝒙
by Product Rule
𝟏 𝒅𝒚 𝟏
⇒ ⋅ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ + 𝐥𝐧 |𝒙| ⋅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

𝒚 𝒅𝒙 𝒙
𝒅𝒚 𝟏
⇒ = 𝒚 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ + 𝐥𝐧 |𝒙| ⋅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙)
𝒅𝒙 𝒙
𝒅𝒚 𝟏
⇒ = 𝒙𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ + 𝐥𝐧 |𝒙| ⋅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙)
𝒅𝒙 𝒙
Note that in the previous illustration, the only way to do it is by using logarithmic differentiation
since we cannot use Power Rule for 𝒚 = 𝒙𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 . Can you explain why it is not valid to do that?
31
TRY THIS!
𝒅𝒚
Use logarithmic differentiation to solve for if
𝒅𝒙
𝒙 ⋅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
1. 𝒚=
𝐥𝐧 𝒙
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒙
2. 𝒚=
√𝒙 ⋅ 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝟏
3. 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 ⋅ (𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙)𝒙
4. 𝒚 = 𝒙𝒙
5. 𝒚 = (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙)𝒙

1.4 Some Applications on Optimization, Related Rates and Laws of Natural Growth and Decay
In this section, we consider some applications of derivatives of transcendental functions to

real- world problems. In particular, we look into problems involving optimization, related rates and
laws of natural growth and decay.
We first recall from our basic calculus the steps in solving optimization problems.
RECALL: How to solve maximization/minimization problems?
Given 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙). To solve for value/s of 𝒙 that maximizes or minimizes 𝒚:
1. Determine the critical points of 𝒇 (i.e. value/s of 𝒙 such that 𝒇’(𝒙) = 𝟎.
2. Use second-derivative test on the critical points.

If 𝒂 is a critical point of 𝒇 and 𝒇’’(𝒂) < 𝟎, then 𝒇 has a maximum at 𝒂.
If 𝒂 is a critical point of 𝒇 and 𝒇’’(𝒂) > 𝟎, then 𝒇 has a minimum at 𝒂.
The expression 𝒇’’(𝒂) is called the second-derivative of 𝒇 at 𝒂. Given 𝒇(𝒙), to solve for 𝒇′′ (𝒙),
solve for the derivative 𝒇′(𝒙) of 𝒇and then solve for the derivative of 𝒇′(𝒙) to obtain 𝒇′′ (𝒙), i.e., 𝒇′′ (𝒙) =
(𝒇′ (𝒙))′.
To illustrate, consider the function defined by 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 . Then its fist derivative is 𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙.
′
Now, to find 𝒇′′(𝒙), we get the derivative of 𝒇′(𝒙), i.e., 𝒇"(𝒙) = (𝒇′ (𝒙)) = 𝑫𝒙 (𝟐𝒙) = 𝟐.
32
ILLUSTRATION:
𝒗𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽 𝝅
If 𝑹 feet is the range of a projectile, then 𝑹(𝜽) = , 𝟎 ≤ 𝜽 ≤ , where 𝒗 𝒇𝒕/𝒔𝒆𝒄 is the
𝒈 𝟐
initial velocity, 𝒈 𝒇𝒕/𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 is the acceleration due to gravity and 𝜽 is the radian measure of
the angle of projectile. Find the value of 𝜽 that makes the range a maximum.
Solution:
Since we want to maximize 𝑹, we first solve for the critical points of 𝑹.
𝒗𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽 𝒗𝟐
𝑹(𝜽) = ⇒ 𝑹′ (𝜽) = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽
𝒈 𝒈
Equating 𝑹’ to zero to solve for critical points, we have
𝒗𝟐
𝑹′ (𝜽) = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽 = 𝟎
𝒈
𝟐𝒗𝟐
⇒ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽 = 𝟎 by dividing both sides by
𝒈
𝝅
⇒ 𝟐𝜽 = since 𝟎 ≤ 𝟐𝜽 ≤ 𝝅
𝟐
𝝅
⇒ 𝜽=
𝟒
By the second derivative test,
𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝑹′ (𝜽) = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽 ⇒ 𝑹′′ (𝜽) = (−𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽)
𝒈 𝒈
𝝅 𝒗𝟐 𝝅 𝟒𝒗𝟐
⇒ 𝑹′′ ( ) = (−𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 ( )) = − <𝟎 since 𝒗𝟐 , 𝒈 > 𝟎
𝟒 𝒈 𝟒 𝒈
𝝅
Hence, the maximum value of 𝑹 occurs when 𝜽 = .
𝟒
We now consider related rates problem which includes those involving rates of two or more
quantities that are related by a single quantity, usually time. Example of such problems are: solving
the rate of change of an agle with respect to time, solving the rate of change of the radius or area of
water ripple with respect to time. We now recall the steps in solving this type of problem.
RECALL: How to solve related rates problems?
1. Write an equation to relate the variables that depend on time 𝒕.
2. Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝒕 implicitly.
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙
3. Solve for the required rate of change, e.g., or , etc.
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
4. Substitute the given particular values for the variables and rates. This is the ONLY time
that you will substitute values.
33
ILLUSTRATION:
A space shuttle climbs vertically and a radar-tracking dish 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒎 from the launch
pad follows the shuttle. How fast is the radar dish revolving 𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄 after blast-off if the
velocity at that time is 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄 and the shuttle is 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒎 above the ground?
Solution:
Note that the distance from the ground of the space shuttle and the angle it makes with
the radar changes over time, and so we represent them by variables 𝒙 and 𝜽, respectively.
Hence, we can illustrate the problem as follows:
𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝒙
Then, we want to solve for when 𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 and = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. Using trigonometry, we can
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
relate the variables 𝒙 an 𝜽 by
𝒙
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 =
𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝜽 𝟏 𝒅𝒙
⇒ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽 ⋅ = ⋅
𝒅𝒕 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝜽 𝟏 𝒅𝒙
⇒ = 𝟐
⋅
𝒅𝒕 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙
Now, we can substitute the given values for 𝒙 and . However, we also need a value for
𝒅𝒕
𝟐 𝒙 𝟐 𝟐
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽. Since 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = and 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽 = 𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽, then
𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝒙𝟐 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝒙𝟐
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏 + = .
𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎+𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟖𝟗 𝒅𝒙
Thus, when 𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎, we have 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽 = = and when = 𝟏𝟎𝟎, we have
𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟒 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝜽 𝟏 𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝟖
= ⋅ = ⋅ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 =
𝒅𝒕 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽 𝒅𝒕 𝟖𝟎𝟎 ⋅ 𝟖𝟗 𝟖𝟗
𝟔𝟒
𝟖
Thus, the radar dish revolving at a rate of 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄 if the velocity at that time is
𝟖𝟗
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄 and the shuttle is 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒎 above the ground.
TO DO:
Provide an alternative solution to the preceding problem by implicitly differentiating

𝒙
𝜽 = 𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 ( )
𝟖𝟎𝟎
with respect to 𝒕, instead of considering
𝒙
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = .
𝟖𝟎𝟎
Next, we look into applications of exponential and logarithmic functions, specifically

exponential growth or decay. An exponential growth or decay is a phenomenon undergone by
certain organisms and radioactive elements. It happens when a rate of growth (or decay) is
34
proportional to the present population of an organism or the present quantity of a radioactive element.
We now derive the model for exponential growth and decay.
Suppose an organism (or an element) grows (or decays) in such a way that rate of growth is
proportional to the present quantity (or population). Let 𝒚 be the quantity (or population) at time 𝒕.
𝒅𝒚
Also, is the rate of growth (or decay). Hence,
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
= 𝒌𝒚 ⇒ = 𝒌𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒚
𝒅𝒚
⇒∫ = ∫ 𝒌𝒅𝒕
𝒚
⇒ 𝐥𝐧 |𝒚| = 𝒌𝒕 + 𝑪
⇒ 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒌𝒕+𝑪
⇒ 𝒚 = 𝑩𝒆𝒌𝒕 , where 𝑩 = 𝒆𝑪 is a constant
We call the given function as the Exponential Model of Growth and Decay. Moreover, 𝑩
is called the initial population or the quantity (or population) at 𝒕 = 𝟎.
The following example will be on interpreting models. It will be assumed that this model was
derived using the same procedure above.
ILLUSTRATION:
A lake is stocked with 𝟏𝟎𝟎 fish and the fish population 𝑷 begins to increase according to
the model
𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑷(𝒕) =
𝟏 + 𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕
where 𝒕 is measured in months.
a. Does the population have a limit as 𝒕 increases without bound?
𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟗

𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = = 𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 since 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟎
𝒕→+∞ 𝟏 + 𝟏𝟗𝒆 −𝒕 𝒕→+∞ 𝟏𝟗 𝟏+𝟎 𝒕→+∞ 𝒆𝒕
𝟏+ 𝒕
𝒆
Thus, the population have a limit over time, and that is 𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎.
b. After how many months is the population increasing most rapidly?
𝒅𝑷
We are asked to solve for 𝒕 when is maximum. Hence we need to solve for
𝒅𝒕
critical points of 𝑷′, i.e., values of 𝒕 such that 𝑷′′ (𝒕) = 𝟎. Note that
𝑷(𝒕) = 𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎(𝟏 + 𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕 )−𝟏 ⇒ 𝑷′ (𝒕) = 𝟏𝟗𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒆−𝒕 (𝟏 + 𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕 )−𝟐
⇒ 𝑷′′ (𝒕) = (𝟏𝟗𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒆−𝒕 )[−𝟐(𝟏 + 𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕 )−𝟑 (−𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕 )] + (𝟏 + 𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕 )−𝟐 (−𝟏𝟗𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒆−𝒕 )
= (𝟏𝟗𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒆−𝒕 )(𝟏 + 𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕 )−𝟐 [𝟑𝟖𝒆−𝒕 (𝟏 + 𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕 )−𝟏 − 𝟏]
(𝟏𝟗𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒆−𝒕 )(𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕 − 𝟏)

=
(𝟏 + 𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕 )𝟑
35
ILLUSTRATION: (cont’n.)
Equating 𝑷′′ (𝒕) to zero, we have
(𝟏𝟗𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒆−𝒕 )(𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕 − 𝟏)

=𝟎
(𝟏 + 𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕 )𝟑
⇒ 𝟏𝟗𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒆−𝒕 = 𝟎, 𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕 − 𝟏 = 𝟎
Observe that the first equation has no solution since 𝒆−𝒕 will never be zero for any
𝒕. Thus, we will consider only the last one.
𝟏𝟗
𝟏𝟗𝒆−𝒕 − 𝟏 = 𝟎 ⇒ = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝒆𝒕 = 𝟏𝟗 ⇒ 𝒕 = 𝐥𝐧 𝟏𝟗
𝒆𝒕
Use the second derivative test to verify that 𝑷′ (𝒕) is maximum when 𝒕 = 𝐥𝐧 𝟏𝟗.
TRY THIS!!! Solve the following problems.
1. An individual’s blood pressure, 𝑷, at time 𝒕 is given by 𝑷(𝒕) = 𝟗𝟎 + 𝟐𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕. Find the
values of the maximum and minimum pressure. When do these values occur?
2. When a telephone wire is hung between two poles, the wire forms a U-shaped curve
called a catenary. Suppose the catenary between two poles that are 80 feet apart is
𝒙 𝒙
modeled by the function = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟒𝟎 (𝒆𝟔𝟎 + 𝒆−𝟔𝟎 ) , −𝟑𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟑𝟎. Show that the lowest
point on the wire is midway between the two poles. How much does the wire sag between
the two poles?
3. The demand function for a product is modeled by 𝒑(𝒙) = 𝟓𝟎𝒆−𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒙 where 𝒑 is the
price per unit in dollars and 𝒙 is the number of units. What price will yield a maximum
revenue? (Hint: Revenue= (Price) x (No. of Units))
4. On a college campus of 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 students, the spread of flu virus through the student is
𝟓 𝟎𝟎𝟎
modeled by = , where 𝑷 is the number of students infected after 𝒕 days. Will
𝟏+𝟒 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝒆−𝟎.𝟖𝒕
all students on the campus be infected with the flu? After how many days is the virus
spreading the fastest?
5. A photographer is taking a picture of a painting hung in an art gallery. The height of the
painting is 𝟒 𝒇𝒕. The camera lens is 𝟏 𝒇𝒕 below the lower edge of the painting. How far
should the camera be from the painting to maximize the angle subtended by the camera
lens?
6. A woman standing on top of a vertical cliff is 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒕 above a sea. As she watches, the
angle of depression 𝜽 of a motorboat (moving directly away from the foot of the cliff) is
decreasing at a rate of 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄. How fast is the motorboat departing from the cliff
𝝅
when 𝜽 = ?
𝟔
7. An airplane flies at an altitude of 𝟓 𝒎𝒊 towards a point directly over an observer. The

speed of the plane is 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒑𝒉. Assume that the height of the observer is negligible. Find
the rate at which the angle of elevation made from the line of sight of the observer with
the plane is changing, when the distance from the observer to the point on the ground
directly below the airplane is 𝟓 𝒎𝒊.
8. A patrol car is parked 𝟓𝟎 𝒇𝒕 from a warehouse. The revolving light on top of the car turns
at a rate of 𝟑𝟎 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆. Let 𝜽 be the angle formed by the light beam
and line segment drawn perpendicular from the light to the wall of the warehouse How
𝝅
fast is the light beam moving along the wall when 𝜽 = ?
𝟒
36

Collins Publishers. pp. 506- 507
Ron Larson & Bruce H. Edwards. (2003). Calculus: An applied approach, 6 th Edition.
Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company, pp, 586-587
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/RelatedRates.aspx
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/MoreOptimization.aspx
1.5 Indeterminate Forms and the “L’Hopital’s” Rule
You may recall that in your basic calculus course, we encountered limit that takes the form of
𝟎 ∞
either or . For example,
𝟎 ∞
𝒙−𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐 .
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙 − 𝟏
Note that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒙 − 𝟏) = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏) = 𝟎. Hence, the given limit problem above is not solvable
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙→𝟏
𝒙−𝟏 𝟎
by directly substituting 𝒙 = 𝟏. In this case, we say that has the indeterminate form at 𝟏. More
𝒙𝟐 −𝟏 𝟎
𝒇(𝒙) 𝟎 ∞
generally, we say that has indeterminate form (resp. ) at 𝒂 if 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎 (resp. ∞) and
𝒈(𝒙) 𝟎 ∞ 𝒙→𝒂
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎 (resp. ∞).
𝒙→𝒂
To deal with indeterminate forms, we usually resort to factoring, like the problem above, or
rationalizing the numerator. In the case of limits at infinity, we usually multiplying both the numerator
𝟏
and denominator by 𝒌 , where 𝒌 is the largest degree appearing in the terms of the expression.
𝒙
In this section, we will introduce an alternative method in solving limits of functions that have
indeterminate forms by using derivatives, called L’Hopital’s Rule. Though the rule was named after
the mathematician Guillaume de L'Hopital, it was believed that Johann Bernoulli discovered the
said rule. For more information on this note, we refer the student to the following link:
http://www.stewartcalculus.com/data/ESSENTIAL%20CALCULUS%20Early%20Tra
nscendentals/upfiles/projects/ecet_wp_0307_stu.pdf
MUST REMEMBER!!! L’Hopital’s Rule

Let 𝒇 and 𝒈 be functions on an open interval 𝑰, except possibly at the number 𝒂 ∈ 𝑰. Suppose
that for all 𝒙 ≠ 𝒂 in 𝑰, 𝒈’(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎. If Suppose that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎 (resp. ∞) and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
(resp. ∞). Then, if
𝒇′ (𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝑳 then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝑳.
𝒙→𝒂 𝒈′ (𝒙) 𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙)
The given rule is also applicable for one-sided limits and when x →   . We also want to
𝟎 ∞
emphasize that the given rule is applicable only to the indeterminate forms or .
𝟎 ∞
37
ILLUSTRATION:
1. Evaluate
𝒙−𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 .
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
Solution:
𝒙−𝟏 𝟎
As noted earlier, 𝟐 has the indeterminate form at 𝟏. Applying L’Hopital’s Rule,
𝒙 −𝟏 𝟎
we have
𝒙−𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = .
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙 − 𝟏 𝟎 𝒙→𝟏 𝟐𝒙 𝟐
Hence,
𝒙−𝟏 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐 = .
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙 − 𝟏 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎
Observe that we write ( ) to indicate that the expression has indeterminate form . Similarly, if
𝟎 𝟎
∞ ∞ 𝟎
the expression takes the form , then we write ( ). Moreover, we didn’t put equal sign before ( )
∞ ∞ 𝟎
𝟎
because is not actually the limit of the given function.
𝟎
ILLUSTRATION:
2. Evaluate
𝒙−𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 .
𝒙→+∞ 𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
Solution:
𝒙−𝟏
Note that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒙 − 𝟏) = +∞ and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 ) = −∞. Thus, has the
𝒙→+∞ 𝒙→+∞ 𝒙𝟐 −𝟏
∞
indeterminate form at +∞. Applying L’Hopital’s Rule, we have
∞
𝒙 − 𝟏 +∞ 𝟏 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐
( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝟎.
𝒙→+∞ 𝟏 − 𝒙 +∞ 𝒙→+∞ −𝟐𝒙 −∞
Hence,
𝒙−𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝟎.
𝒙→+∞ 𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
There would be instances that applying L’Hopital’s Rule once will not solve the problem right
away. However, L’Hopital’s Rule can be applied repeatedly until we solve the given problem. We
illustrate below an example of the said case.
ILLUSTRATION:
3. Evaluate
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 .
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙𝟑
Solution:
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙−𝒙
Note that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝒙) = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎. Thus, 𝟑 has the indeterminate
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙
𝟎
form at 𝟎. Applying L’Hopital’s Rule, we have
𝟎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝒙 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟑
( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙−𝟏
However, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − 𝟏) = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟑𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. Thus, has the
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙𝟐
𝟎
indeterminate form at 𝟎.
𝟎
38
Applying L’Hopital’s Rule again, we have
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝒙 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − 𝟏 𝟎 −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙𝟑 𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝟔𝒙
−𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
But note that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟔𝒙 = 𝟎. Thus, has the indeterminate
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝟔𝒙
𝟎
form at 𝟎. Applying L’Hopital’s Rule again, we have
𝟎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝒙 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − 𝟏 𝟎 −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟎

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟑
( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐
( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙 𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝟔𝒙 𝟎
−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝟏
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =−
𝒙→𝟎 𝟔 𝟔
Thus,
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝒙 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟑
=− .
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝟔
TRY THIS!!!
𝒙𝟐
1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→+∞ 𝒆𝒙
𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦+
2. 𝒙→𝟎 𝐥𝐧 𝒙
𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→+∞ 𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐
𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
4. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟒 𝒙
5. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→+∞ 𝟒𝒙
𝐥𝐧 𝒙
6. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
𝒆𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − 𝒙
7. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝐥𝐧 𝒙
8. 𝐥𝐢𝐦+
𝒙→𝟎 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙

39
___________
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/LHospitalsRule.aspx
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-derivatives-analyze-
functions/ab-lhopitals-rule/v/introduction-to-l-hopital-s-rule
𝟎 ∞
Next, we consider indeterminate forms other than and as follows:
𝟎 ∞
𝟎 ⋅ ∞, ∞ − ∞, 𝟎𝟎 , ∞𝟎 , 𝟏∞
We discuss here the approach that we will use whenever we are faced with these forms.
MUST REMEMBER!!! What to do in case of 𝟎 ⋅ ∞ ?
𝟎 ∞ 𝟏 𝟏
Convert 𝟎 ⋅ ∞ to a form or by expressing ∞ as , or 𝟎 as , respectively. Then, use
𝟎 ∞ 𝟎 ∞
L’Hopital’s Rule on the converted form.
ILLUSTRATION:
1. Evaluate
𝟏 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝐥𝐧 𝒙) ⋅ ( ) .
𝒙→+∞ 𝟐
Solution:
𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙
Note that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 = +∞ and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝟎. Thus, (𝐥𝐧 𝒙) ⋅ ( ) has the
𝒙→+∞ 𝒙→+∞ 𝟐 𝟐
∞
indeterminate form ∞ ⋅ 𝟎 at +∞. Converting the said expression to be of the form , we
∞
have
𝟏 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ∞ 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ∞
𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝐥𝐧 𝒙) ⋅ ( ) (∞ ⋅ 𝟎) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ⋅ ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 −𝒙 ⋅ ( )
𝒙→+∞ 𝟐 𝒙→+∞ 𝟏 ∞ 𝒙→+∞ 𝟏 ∞
𝟏 𝒙 ( )
𝟐
( )
𝟐
Applying L’Hopital’s Rule, we have
𝟏 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ∞ 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ∞
𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝐥𝐧 𝒙) ⋅ ( ) (∞ ⋅ 𝟎) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 −𝒙 ( )
𝒙→+∞ 𝟐 𝒙→+∞ 𝟏 ∞ 𝒙→+∞ 𝟏 ∞
𝟏 𝒙 ( )
𝟐
( )
𝟐
𝟏
𝒙 𝟎
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )=𝟎
𝒙→+∞ 𝟏 −𝒙 𝟏 ∞
− ( ) 𝐥𝐧
𝟐 𝟐
Hence,
𝟏 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝐥𝐧 𝒙) ⋅ ( ) = 𝟎.
𝒙→+∞ 𝟐
TO DO:
𝟎 ∞
Try solving the same problem by converting it to the form instead of .
𝟎 ∞
MUST REMEMBER!!! What to do in case of ∞ − ∞ ?
𝟎 ∞
Express the given as a single quotient. Then, use L’Hopital’s Rule if or is obtained.
𝟎 ∞
40
ILLUSTRATION:
2. Evaluate
𝟏 𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( − ).
𝒙→𝟏+ 𝒙 − 𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
Solution:
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
Note that 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ = +∞ and 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ = +∞. Thus, − has the
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙−𝟏 𝒙→𝟏 𝒙𝟐 −𝟏 𝒙+𝟏 𝒙𝟐 −𝟏
indeterminate form ∞ − ∞ at 𝟏. Combining the two quotient into one, we have
𝟏 𝟐 𝒙+𝟏−𝟐 𝒙−𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( − ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( 𝟐 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( 𝟐 )
𝒙→𝟏+ 𝒙 − 𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 𝒙→𝟏 𝒙 −𝟏 𝒙→𝟏 𝒙 −𝟏
𝒙−𝟏
However, 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ (𝒙 − 𝟏) = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ (𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏) = 𝟎. Thus, has the
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙→𝟏 𝒙𝟐 −𝟏
𝟎
indeterminate form at 𝟏. Applying L’Hopital’s Rule, we have
𝟎
𝟏 𝟐 𝒙−𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( − ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( 𝟐 ) ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ =
𝒙→𝟏+ 𝒙 − 𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 𝒙→𝟏 𝒙 −𝟏 𝟎 𝒙→𝟏 𝟐𝒙 𝟐
Hence,
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( − 𝟐 )= .
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙−𝟏 𝒙 −𝟏 𝟐
MUST REMEMBER!!! What to do in case of 𝟎𝟎 , ∞𝟎 , 𝟏∞ ?
In solving 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙),

𝒙→𝒂
1. Let 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙).
2. Get the natural logarithm of both sides of 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙), i.e., 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒇(𝒙).
3. Use property of logarithms so that the form 𝟎𝟎 can be converted to a form 𝟎 ⋅ ∞.
4. By now, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 is of the form 𝟎 ⋅ ∞. Use previous technique in solving
𝒙→𝒂
indeterminate form 𝟎 ⋅ ∞
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒚
5. Then, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆 𝒙→𝒂 .
𝒙→𝒂
ILLUSTRATION:
3. Evaluate
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 .
𝒙→𝟎+
Solution:
Note that 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒙 = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 = 𝟎. Thus, 𝒙𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 has the indeterminate form
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎
𝟎𝟎 at 𝟎+ . We let 𝒚 = 𝒙𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 . Hence, 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙. Thus,
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙)

𝒙→𝟎+ 𝒙→𝟎
However, 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 = −∞. Thus, 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 has the
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎
∞
indeterminate form 𝟎 ⋅ ∞ at 𝟎+ . Converting the said expression to be of the form , we
∞
have
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ∞
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙)(𝟎 ⋅ ∞) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( )
𝒙→𝟎+ 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 ∞
41
.
Applying L’Hopital’s Rule, we have
𝟏
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ∞ 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙)(𝟎 ⋅ ∞) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 ∞ 𝒙→𝟎 −𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙
𝟏 −𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+
𝒙→𝟎 𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
−𝒙 ( )( )
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
−𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙
However, 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ −𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒙𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 = 𝟎. Thus, has the
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝟎
indeterminate form at 𝟎+ . Applying L’Hopital’s Rule again, we have
𝟎
𝟏
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ∞ 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙)(𝟎 ⋅ ∞) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+
𝒙→𝟎+ 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 ∞ 𝒙→𝟎 −𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙
−𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙 𝟎 −𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝟎

= 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ = =𝟎
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 −𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝟎+𝟏
Hence,
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝟎.
𝒙→𝟎+
Therefore,
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐧 𝒚
𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒙𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒙→𝟎+ = 𝒆𝟎 = 𝟏.
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎
TRY THIS!!!
𝝅
1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 √𝒙 ( − 𝑨𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙)
𝒙→+∞ 𝟐
2. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⋅ 𝐥𝐧 𝒙)
𝒙→𝟎+
3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝒆𝒙
𝒙→−∞
𝟏 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( − )
4. 𝒙→𝟏 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙)

5. 𝒙→𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 𝒙
6. 𝒙→𝟎+
7. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟏/𝒙
𝒙→𝟎+
𝟏 𝒙
8. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + )
𝒙→+∞ 𝒙
42

http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/LHospitalsRule.aspx
We end this section with a remark that the following forms are NOT indeterminate forms,
though they may appear to be one, since these forms can be resolved using the techniques discussed
in this section, without the use of L’Hopital’s Rule.
∞ (+∞) + (+∞) (−∞) + (−∞) ±∞ ⋅ ±∞ 𝟎∞ ∞∞
𝟎
END OF UNIT 1 Student’s Guide
43

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MATH 27 LECTURE GUIDE

UNIT 1. DERIVATIVES OF AND INTEGRALS YIELDING TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

✓ evaluate limit of functions using limit theorems

1.1 Limit of a Function

The limit of a function is a fundamental concept in calculus. It describes the behavior of a

Notation: 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳

read as “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is 𝐿”

We state here its formal definition.

Definition. (Limit of a Function)

MUST REMEMBER!!! Limit theorems

1. If 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳𝟏 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳𝟐 , then 𝑳𝟏 = 𝑳𝟐 . (uniqueness)

TRY THIS! Compute the following limits.

1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟏)

Consider a real number 𝒂 and a function 𝒇.

Limit from the right

Notation: 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳

Limit from the left

Notation: 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳

1. Consider the function 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙 − 𝟐 with domain 𝑫𝒇 = [𝟐, +∞).

We focus on the behavior of the function as 𝒙 approaches 𝒂 = 𝟏.

So, 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+(𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏) = 𝟐.

However, we can still establish the behavior of

Theorem. Let 𝒏 be a positive integer.

Moreover, if 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒄 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎, then

Next, we look at the case when 𝒙 increases or decreases without bound.

MUST REMEMBER!!! Theorem on Limits at Infinity

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉(𝒙)

REMEMBER THIS!!! Definition of Derivative

The derivative of the function 𝒇, denoted by 𝒇′, is defined by

if this limit exists.

REMEMBER THIS!!! Basic Rules on Differentiation

1. If 𝒄 is a given constant, then 𝑫𝒙 [𝒄] = 𝟎.

2. Power Rule If 𝒏 is a given real number, then 𝑫𝒙 [𝒙𝒏 ] = 𝒏𝒙𝒏−𝟏 .

3. If 𝒄 is a given constant and 𝒇 is a given function, then 𝑫𝒙 [𝒄 ⋅ 𝒇(𝒙)] = 𝒄 ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙)].

If 𝒇 and 𝒈 are given functions, then 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙)] ± 𝑫𝒙 [𝒈(𝒙)].

In general, if 𝒇𝟏 , 𝒇𝟐 , … , 𝒇𝒏 are given functions, then

5. Product Rule If 𝒇 and 𝒈 are given functions, then

𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) ⋅ 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒇(𝒙) ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 [𝒈(𝒙)] + 𝒈(𝒙) ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙)].

Mnemonic: left de-right plus right de-left

6. Quotient Rule If 𝒇 and 𝒈 are given functions, then

𝒇(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙) ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙)] − 𝒇(𝒙) ⋅ 𝑫𝒙 [𝒈(𝒙)]

Mnemonic: low de-high minus high de-low all over low-squared

(𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐)(𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙) − (𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖)(𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟑 )

REMEMBER THIS! Chain Rule

1. The function 𝒉(𝒙) = (𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒)𝟓 is a composition 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝒈(𝒇(𝒙)),

Applying Chain Rule,

𝟐𝒙 − 𝟕 𝟑 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟕 𝟐 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟕 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟕 𝟐 (𝟑 − 𝒙)(𝟐) − (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟕)(−𝟏)

1. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙𝟓 − 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟒𝒙 − 𝟓

4. 𝒈(𝒙) = (√𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 )(𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙 + √𝟐)

Recall that if 𝑭′ (𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙), then

4. ∫[𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) ± 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙) ± ⋯ ± 𝒇𝒏 (𝒙)] 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 ± ∫ 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 ± ⋯ ± ∫ 𝒇𝒏 (𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 ≠ ∫ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 ∫ 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

In general, given a function and its derivative ’, then

The technique here is to let 𝒖 = 𝒇(𝒙) so that 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒇′(𝒙)𝒅𝒙.

By substitution, the left side can then be written as

REMINDER: For a thorough discussion of antidrivatives of algebraic functions, it is recommended

TRY THIS! Compute the following antiderivatives.

Recall the following facts for basic trigonometric functions:

Using the definition of a derivative, it can be shown that