BE Physics topic detail explanation

OPTICS
• Huygens' Principle: Fundamental principle for wave propagation. • Superposition of Waves: Basic
principle for understanding interference and diffraction. • Explanation of constructive and destructive
interference. • Applications in thin film interference, such as soap bubbles and oil films. • Young’s
double slit experiment. • Newton’s rings, • Michelson Interferometer • Anti-reflection coating. •
Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction– diffraction due to ‘n’ slits- plane transmission grating. • Rayleigh
criterion for limit of resolution - resolving power of grating

1. Huygens' Principle: Fundamental principle for wave propagation.

Huygens' Principle states that every point on a wavefront can be considered as a source of secondary
spherical wavelets. These wavelets propagate outwards in all directions with the speed of the wave. The
new position of the wavefront at a later time is the envelope of these secondary wavelets.

• How it works: Imagine a wavefront as a line (in 2D) or a surface (in 3D) of points that are all in
the same phase of oscillation. According to Huygens, each of these points emits its own little
spherical wave. The overall wavefront at a slightly later time is then found by drawing a common
tangent (in 2D) or a common tangent surface (in 3D) to all these secondary wavelets.

• Significance: This principle is fundamental because it allows us to predict how a wave

2. Superposition of Waves: Basic principle for understanding interference and diffraction.

The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves overlap at a point, the resultant
displacement at that point is the vector sum of the displacements due to the individual waves.

• Mathematical representation: If two waves at a point have displacements y1 and y2, the
resultant displacement y is given by: y=y1+y2 For multiple waves, this extends to: y=i∑yi

• Importance: This principle is crucial for understanding phenomena like interference (where
waves combine to produce regions of increased or decreased amplitude) and diffraction (where
waves bend around obstacles or through openings).

3. Explanation of constructive and destructive interference.

Interference occurs when two or more waves overlap. The nature of the resulting wave depends on the
phase difference between the overlapping waves.
 • Constructive Interference: This occurs when the crest of one wave overlaps with the crest of
another wave (or a trough with a trough). The waves are in phase, and their amplitudes add up,
resulting in a wave with a larger amplitude.

o Condition for constructive interference: The path difference between the waves is an
integer multiple of the wavelength (λ): Δx=mλ,where m=0,±1,±2,...

o Alternatively, the phase difference (Δϕ) is an integer multiple of 2π:

• Destructive Interference: This occurs when the crest of one wave overlaps with the trough of
another wave. The waves are out of phase, and their amplitudes tend to cancel out, resulting in
a wave with a smaller amplitude (or even zero amplitude if the amplitudes of the original waves
are equal).

o Condition for destructive interference: The path difference between the waves is a half-
integer multiple of the wavelength: Δx=(m+21)λ,where m=0,±1,±2,...

o Alternatively, the phase difference (Δϕ) is an odd multiple of π:

4. Applications in thin film interference, such as soap bubbles and oil films.

Thin film interference occurs when light waves reflect off the top and bottom surfaces of a thin film (like
a soap bubble or an oil slick). These reflected waves interfere with each other, and the interference
pattern (constructive or destructive) depends on the thickness of the film, the refractive indices of the
film and the surrounding media, and the angle of incidence of the light.

• Soap Bubbles: The iridescent colors seen in soap bubbles are due to thin film interference.
Different wavelengths of white light interfere constructively or destructively depending on the
local thickness of the soap film, resulting in the observation of different colors at different parts
of the bubble.

• Oil Films on Water: Similarly, the colorful patterns observed when oil spills on water are a result
of thin film interference. Light reflects from the oil-air interface and the oil-water interface, and
these reflected waves interfere. The colors you see depend on the thickness of the oil film at
that point.

• Conditions for interference in thin films: The conditions for constructive and destructive
interference in thin films depend on the path difference introduced due to the thickness of the
film (t) and any phase change upon reflection. When light reflects from a medium with a higher
refractive index, it undergoes a 180∘ (π radian) phase change.

For a thin film of refractive index n2 surrounded by a medium with refractive index n1:
 o Constructive interference (bright fringes): 2n2tcosθ2=(m+21)λ (if one reflection has a
phase change) 2n2tcosθ2=mλ (if both or neither reflections have a phase change)

o Destructive interference (dark fringes): 2n2tcosθ2=mλ (if one reflection has a phase
change) 2n2tcosθ2=(m+21)λ (if both or neither reflections have a phase change) where
θ2 is the angle of refraction in the film. For normal incidence (θ2≈0), cosθ2≈1.

5. Young’s double slit experiment.

Young's double-slit experiment demonstrated the wave nature of light and the principle of
superposition.

• Setup: Light from a single source is passed through two narrow, closely spaced slits. The light
waves emerging from these two slits act as two coherent sources. These waves then travel to a
screen where they overlap and interfere.

• Observation: On the screen, an interference pattern of alternating bright and dark fringes is
observed.

• Explanation:

o Bright fringes (constructive interference): Occur at points on the screen where the path
difference between the waves from the two slits is an integer multiple of the wavelength
(dsinθ=mλ).

o Dark fringes (destructive interference): Occur at points where the path difference is a
half-integer multiple of the wavelength (dsinθ=(m+21)λ).

Here, d is the separation between the slits, θ is the angle to a point on the screen relative to the central
axis, m is the order of the fringe (0,±1,±2,...), and λ is the wavelength of light. For small angles, sinθ≈y/L,
where y is the distance from the central bright fringe on the screen, and L is the distance from the slits to
the screen. This gives the positions of bright fringes as ym=dmλL and dark fringes as ym=d(m+21)λL. The
fringe width (β), the distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringes, is β=dλL.

6. Newton’s rings.

Newton's rings are an interference pattern created by the reflection of light between a spherical surface
(like a plano-convex lens with its convex side placed on a flat glass surface) and an adjacent flat surface.

• Formation: A thin air film of varying thickness is formed between the curved lens and the flat
plate. When monochromatic light is incident on this arrangement, some light is reflected from
the top surface of the air film and some from the bottom surface. These reflected waves
interfere.
 • Observation: Concentric circular fringes (rings) are observed. The center is usually dark (due to
zero thickness and a phase change upon reflection). The radii of these rings depend on the
radius of curvature of the lens (R), the wavelength of light (λ), and the order of the ring (m).

• Conditions:

o Dark rings: Occur when the path difference is an integer multiple of λ, considering the
phase change upon reflection. The radius of the mth dark ring (rm) is approximately
given by: rm2≈mλR

o Bright rings: Occur when the path difference is a half-integer multiple of λ. The radius of
the mth bright (m + \frac{1}{2})\lambda R$$

Newton's rings can be used to determine the radius of curvature of a lens or the wavelength of light.

7. Michelson Interferometer.

The Michelson interferometer is a precision instrument used to produce interference fringes by splitting
a beam of light into two paths and then recombining them.

• Components: It typically consists of a light source, a beam splitter (a partially silvered mirror),
two plane mirrors (one fixed and one movable), and a viewing screen or detector.

• Working: Light from the source is split at the beam splitter into two beams that travel along two
perpendicular paths to the two mirrors. After reflection from the mirrors, the beams recombine
at the beam splitter and interfere. The path length of one of the arms can be precisely adjusted
by moving one of the mirrors.

• Applications: The Michelson interferometer has numerous applications, including:

o Precise measurement of wavelengths of light.

o Determination of the refractive index of gases.

o High-resolution spectroscopy.

o Length and distance measurements.

o Detection of minute displacements.

o The famous Michelson-Morley experiment, which had significant implications for the
understanding of light and the concept of a luminiferous ether.

When one of the mirrors is moved by a distance Δd, the path difference changes by 2Δd, leading to a
shift in the interference pattern. If m fringes pass the field of view, then 2Δd=mλ.

8. Anti-reflection coating.
Anti-reflection coatings are thin layers of material applied to surfaces (like lenses, screens, etc.) to reduce
the amount of light reflected from them.

• Principle: The coating works based on thin film interference. The thickness and refractive index
of the coating are chosen such that the light reflected from the top surface of the coating
interferes destructively with the light reflected from the interface between the coating and the
underlying material.

• Conditions for minimum reflection (destructive interference): For a single layer anti-reflection
coating of refractive index n1 and thickness t on a material of refractive index n2 (where n1<n2),
the optimal thickness for destructive interference for a particular wavelength λ at normal
incidence is: 2n1t=(m+21)λ,where m=0,1,2,... Usually, the thinnest coating (m=0) is preferred, so
t=4n1λ. Also, for effective anti-reflection, the refractive index of the coating should ideally be the
geometric mean of the refractive indices of the surrounding medium (usually air, n≈1) and the

underlying material (n2): n1≈1⋅n2 =n2 .

• Result: By reducing reflection, anti-reflection coatings increase the transmission of light,

9. Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction– diffraction due to ‘n’ slits- plane transmission grating.

Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles or through apertures. The patterns observed are
due to the interference of the diffracted waves.

• Fresnel Diffraction: Occurs when the light source or the screen (or both) are at a finite distance
from the diffracting object. The wavefronts incident on the obstacle or aperture are typically
curved (spherical or cylindrical).

• Fraunhofer Diffraction: Occurs when both the light source and the screen are effectively at an
infinite distance from the diffracting object. This can be achieved experimentally by using lenses
to collimate the incident light (making it a plane wave) and to focus the diffracted light onto the
screen.

• Diffraction due to a single slit: A single slit of width a produces a diffraction pattern with a
central bright maximum and alternating dark and bright fringes of decreasing intensity. The dark
fringes occur at angles θ where: asinθ=mλ,where m=±1,±2,...

• Diffraction due to 'n' slits (Diffraction Grating): A diffraction grating consists of a large number
(N) of parallel, equally spaced slits (or rulings). When light passes through a grating, it is
diffracted by each slit, and the diffracted waves interfere.

o Principal Maxima (bright fringes): Occur at angles θ given by the grating equation:
dsinθ=mλ,where m=0,±1,±2,... Here, d is the grating spacing (the distance between the
 centers of adjacent slits). These maxima are much sharper and brighter than the fringes
in a double-slit experiment because of the large number of slits.

o Secondary Minima and Maxima: Between the principal maxima, there are (N−1) minima
and (N−2) secondary maxima.

• Plane Transmission Grating: This is a type of diffraction grating that transmits light through the
slits. The explanation above applies to transmission gratings. Reflection gratings work on a
similar principle, but the diffraction occurs from the reflected light off the rulings.

10. Rayleigh criterion for limit of resolution - resolving power of grating.

The ability of an optical instrument to distinguish between two closely spaced objects is called its
resolving power. The Rayleigh criterion provides a generally accepted limit to this resolution.

• Rayleigh Criterion: Two point sources are considered just resolvable when the center of the
diffraction pattern of one image falls directly over the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of
the other image.

• Limit of Resolution for a single slit or circular aperture: The angular separation (θmin) between
two just-resolvable point sources is given by:

o For a slit of width a: sinθmin≈θmin≈aλ

o For a circular aperture of diameter D: sinθmin≈θmin≈1.22Dλ (the factor 1.22 arises from
the circular aperture's diffraction pattern, the Airy disk).

• Resolving Power of a Grating (R): The resolving power of a diffraction grating is its ability to
separate two wavelengths that are close to each other. It is defined as R=Δλλ, where Δλ is the
smallest wavelength difference that can be resolved at a wavelength λ.

For a diffraction grating with N slits, the resolving power in the mth order is given by: R=Nm

This means that a grating with a larger number of slits or observed at a higher order can resolve smaller
differences in wavelength.