Sy lla bu s ...

University of Mum bai

Art ific ial Int elli gen ce ( Co de •• CS C5 03)

Sem est er 5
• Computer Science and Engineering (Dat
a Scie nce )• Computer Scie~ce and En~i!'l~er
Intelligence and Mac hine Leaming) • Artificial ing (Artificial
Intelligence and Data Science • Art1f1c1al Intell
and Machine Learning • Data Engineering igence
\.

Cour se Cod e
CSC503
Cour se Nam e
Artificial Intelligence
Credit --
~

03
Pre -req uisi te : C Pro gra mm ing
Cour se Obje ctive s : The cour se aims
l. To gain persp ectiv e of AI and its found ation
s.
2.. To study diffe rent agen t archi tectu res and prope
rties of the
envir onme nt.
3. To unde rstan d the basic princ iples of AI towa
rds prob lem solvi ng, infer ence, perce ption , know
and learn ing. ledge representation,
4. To inves tigat e prob abili stic reaso ning unde r
unce rtain and incom plete infor matio n.
5. To explo re the curre nt scop e, poten tial, limit
ation s, and impli catio ns of intell igent syste ms.
Cour se Outc ome s

.~-
Afte r successfnl comp letio n of the cour se
students will be able to
Ident ify the chara cteri stics of the envir onme
nt and diffe rentia te betw een vario us agen t archi
2. Appl y the most suita ble searc h strate gy to desig tectu res.
n probl em solvi ng agent s.
3. Repr esent a natur al langu age descr iptio n of statem
ents in logic and apply the infer ence rules to desig
Base d agen ts. n Know ledge
4. Appl y a prob abili stic mode l for reaso ning unde
r uncertainty.
5. Com prehe nd vario us learn ing techn iques .
6. Desc ribe the vario us build ing block s of an expe rt syste m for
a given real word probl em.
Det aile d Syl lab us
Mod ule Deta iled Cont ent
Hours
1 Intr odu ction to Arti ficia l Inte llige nce
3
1.1 Artif icial Intel ligen ce (Al), AI Persp ectiv es :
Actin g and Think ing huma nly, Actin g and
Thin king ration ally.

1.2 Histo ry of Al, Appl icatio m, of Al, The prese nl

state of Al, Ethic s in AI. (Ref er Chap ter 1)
2 Inte llige nt Age nts
4
2.1 Intro ducti on of agenlli, SLrucLUre of Intelligent
Agent, Characteristics of Intelligent Agents.
2.2 Type s of Agent1, : Simp le Reflex, Model Bai;e
d, Goal Based, Utilit y Base d Agents.
2.3 Envi ronm ent Type!. : Determint!.tic, SLochastic,
Stalic, Dynamic, Observable,
Semi -obse rvabl e, Singl e Agent, Multi Agent.
(Refe r Chap ter 2)
 3 Solving Problems by Searching 12

3.1 Definition, State space representation, Problem as a state space search, Problem formulation,
Well-defined problems.

3.2 Solving Problems by Searching, Performance evaluation of search strategies, Time

Complexity, Space Complexity, Completeness, Optimality.

3.3 Uninformed Search : Depth First Search, Breadth First Search, Depth Limited Search,
Iterative Deepening Search, Uniform Cost Search, Bidirectional Search

3.4 Informed Search : Heuristic Function, Admissible Heuristic, Informed Search Technique,
Greedy Best First Search, A* Search, Local Search : Hill Climbing Search, Simulated
Annealing Search, Optimization : Genetic Algorithm.

3.5 Game Playing, Adversarial Search Techniques, Mini-max Search, Alpha-Beta Pruning.
(Refer Chapter 3)

4 Knowledge and Reasoning 10

4.1 Definition and importance of Knowledge, Issues in Knowledge Representation, Knowledge

Representation Systems, Properties of Knowledge Representation Systems.

4.2 Propositional Logic (PL) : Syntax, Semantics, Formal logic-connectives, truth tables,
tautology, validity, well-formed-formula, Introduction to logic programming (PROLOG).

4.3 Predicate Logic : FOPL, Syntax, Semantics, Quantification, Inference rules in FOPL.

4.4 Forward Chaining, Backward Chaining and Resolution in FOPL. (Refer Chapter 4)

5 Reasoning Under Uncertainty 5

5.1 Handling Uncertain Knowledge, Random Variables, Prior and Posterior Probability,
Inference using Full Joint Distribution.

5.2 Bayes' Rule and its use, Bayesian Belief Networks, Reasoning in Belief Networks.
(Refer Chapter 5)

6 Planning and Learning 5

6.1 The planning problem, Partial order planning, total order planning.

6.2 Learning in AI, Learning Agent, Concepts of Supervised, Unsupervised, Semi-Supervised

Learning, Reinforcement Learning, Ensemble Learning.

6.3 Expert Systems, Components of Expert System : Knowledge base, Inference engine, user
interface, working memory, Development of Expert Systems. (Refer Chapter 6)

Total 39

q, Assessment
Internal Assessment
Assessment consists of two class tests of 20 marks euch. The first-clnss test is to be conducted when approx. 40% syllabus is completed
and second class test when additional 40% syllabus is completed. Duration of each test shall be one hour.
End Semester Theory Examination
I. Question paper will consist of 6 questions, each carrying 20 marks.
2· .
The students need to solve a total of 4 quesuons.
3. Question No. I will be compulsory and based on the entire syllabus.
4. Remaining question (Q.2 to Q.6) will be selected from all the modules.
~
 I Artif icial Intel ligen ce Lab (CSL 502)
I
Lab Code Lab Name
Credit
CSL502 Artificia l Intelligen ce Lab
~
~ Prerequisite : C Programming Languag e
Lab Objectiv es
l To design suitable Agent Architect ure for a given real world AI problem.
---
2 To implemen t knowledg e representa tion and reasoning in AI language.
3 To design a Problem- Solving Agent.
4 To incorpora te reasoning under uncertain ty for an AI agent.
Lab Outcom es
At the end of the course, students will be able to -
l Identify suitable Agent Architect ure for a given real world AI problem.
2 Implemen t simple programs using Prolog.
3 Implemen t various search technique s for a Problem- Solving Agent.
4 Represent natural language descriptio n as statement s in Logic and apply inference rules
to it.
5 Construct a Bayesian Belief Network for a given problem and draw probabilis tic
inference s from it.
Suggeste d Experiments : Students are required to complete at least 10 experimen ts.
I
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1 Provide the PEAS descriptio n and TASK Environm ent for a given AI problem.
2 Identify suitable Agent Architect ure for the problem.

3 Write simple programs using PROLOG as an AI programming Language.

4 Implemen t any one of the Uninform ed search techniques.
5 Implemen t any one of the Informed search techniques e.g. A-Star algorithm for 8 puzzle
problem.
6 Implemen t adversarial search using min-max algorithm.
7 Implemen t any one of the Local Search techniques e.g. Hill Climbing, Simulated Annealing
, Genetic algorithm.
8 Prove the goal sentence from the following set of statements in FOPL by applying forward,
backward and resolution inference
algorithms.
9 Create a Bayesian Network for the given Problem Statement and draw inferences from
it. (You can use any Belief and
Decii.ion Networks Tool for modeling Bayesian Networks).
10 Implemen t a Planning Agent.
11 Dei.ign a prototype of an expert system.
12 Cat.e study of any e.xibling bUCCCS6ful AI system. -
Term work -
I. Term work should con&ii.l of JO e.xpcrimenl.8.
2. Journal mu&l include at leaM 2 ru.bignments.
3. The final cert.i~catwn and acceptance of term work ensures that satisfactory performan
ce of laboratory work and minimum
passing markb in term work.
4. Total 25 Marks (Experiments : 15 Marks, Att.end ance Theory & Practical : 05 Marks,
Assignments : 05 Marks)
Oral & Practic al exam
Based on the entire syUabui..

-
oCJCl
 Syllabus ...
University of Mumbai
Artificial Intelligence {Code : ELDLO7013)

Semester 7 : Electronics Engineering

Teaching Scheme Credil,; Assigned

Course Code Course
Name Practical
Theory and Oral Tutorial TW/Practical
Theory Tutorial Total
and Oral

Artificial
ELDW7013
Intelligence
03 - - 03 - - 03

Examination Scheme

Theory Marks

Subject Code Subject Name Internal assessment

1-----.--~------l Term Practical
End Exam
Avg. of Work and Oral Total
Test 1 and Sem. duration
Test 1 Test 2 Exam Hours
Test2

Artificial
ELDW7013 Intelligence 20 20 20 80 03 100

~ Course Objectives
I. To gain perspective of AI and its foundations.
2. To study different agent architectures and properties of the environment.
3. To understand the basic principles of Al towards problem solving, inference, perception, knowledge- representation. .ind
learning.
4. To investigate probabilistic reasoning under uncertain and incomplete information.
5. To explore the current scope, potential, limitations, and implications of intelligent systems.

Q" Course Outcomes

Aft.er successful completion of the course students will be able to
l. Identify the characteristics of the environment and differentiate hctwel~n vm ious ngl,nl ,ul·hitemuc-s
2- Apply the most suitable search strategy to design prnhle111 solv111g agl·nts.
3. Represent a natural language description of state111e11ls in logic and u11ply llw mforl~lll'l' wk·s to design Knowledge
Based agents.
4. Apply a probabilistic model for reasoning under u11certai11ty.
5. Comprehend various learning techniques.
6. Describe the various building blocks of an expert system for a given real word problem.
Note : The action verbs according to Bloom's taxonomy are highlighted in bold.
 Module Unit Contents Hrs.
No. No.

Introduction to Artlficlal Intelllgence

1.1 Artifidal lntclligl'l\l'l' (Al), Al Pl•rspcclivl's Acl111g and Th111~mg hum,1nly. Acting and
l 5
Thinldng rnlil1t1111ly.
-- -
1.2 Histot) of Al. Applications of Al, Thl' prcSl'nt slate or Al. Ethics III AI. (Refer Chapter 1)
-
Intelligent Agents

2.1 Introduction of agents, Structure of Intelligent Agent. Characteristics of Intell igcnt Agents.

2 2.2 Types of Agents : Simple Reflex, Model Based. Goal Based. Utility Based Agents. 6

2.3 Environment Types : Deterministic, Stochastic, Static, Dynamic. Observable. Semi-observable.

Single Agent, Multi Agent. (Refer Chapter 2)

Solving Problems by Searching

3.1 Definition, State space representation, Problem as a state space search, Problem formulation.
Well-defined problems.

3.2 Solving Problems by Searching, Performance evaluation of search strategies. Time Complexit).
Space Complexity, Completeness, Optimality.
I

I
3.3 Uninformed Search : Depth First Search, Breadth First Search, Depth Limited Search. Itemti,e
Deepening Search, Uniform Cost Search, Bidirectional Search. 8
3
3.4 Informed Search : Heuristic Function, Admissible Heuristic, Informed Search Technique,
Greedy Best First Search, A* Search, Local Search Hill Climbing Search. Simulated
Annealing Search, Optimization : Genetic Algorithm.

3.5 Game Playing, Adversarial Search Techniques, Mini-max Search, Alpha-Beta Pruning.

(Refer Chapter 3)
I

Knowledge and Reasoning

I
4.J Definition and importance of Knowledge, Issues in Knowledge Representation. Knowled~
Representation Systems, Properties of Knowledge Representation Systems.

4.2 Propo1>itio11al Logic (PL) : Syntax, Semantics, Formal logic-connectives, truth taMes, taut1.,lo~ .
validity, weJJ. /ormed lormula. s
~ -
4
4.3 Prcdical1• Logic l•OPL, Syntax, St."munt ics, Quantifil·mion. lnference rules in FOPL.
Ju1roduc: 11011 to Jog rt p1 op1 ,11111111ng (PROL OCi).
- -

4.4 l•o,ward C ha111i11g, Hackw111tl Cha111111g .ind Rl·solution in FOPL.

---~ (Refer Chapter 4)
-
~

__J
 Reason ing Under Uncerta inty

Inference
5.1 Handling Uncertain Knowled ge, Random Variables , Ptior and Posterior Probability,
5
using Full Joint Distribut ion.
5
S.Z Bayes' Rule and its use, Bayesian Belief Networks , Reasonin g in Belief Networks .
(Refer Chapter 5)

Plannin g and Learnin g

6.1 The planning problem, Partial order planning, total order planning.
6
ed 7
6.Z Leaming in AI, Learning Agent, Concepts of Supervise d, Unsuperv ised, Semi -Supervis
Leaming , Reinforc ement Learning , Ensembl e Learning .

user
6.3 Expert Systems, Compon ents of Expert System : Knowled ge base, Inference engine,
Expert Systems. (Refer Chapter 6)
interface, working memory, Developm ent of

Total 39

Internal Assessment (IA)

marks of both the test will be
Two teSts must be conducte d which should cover at least 80% of syllabus. The average
considered as final IA marks.
End Semester Examination
1. Question paper will consist of 6 questions , each of 20 Marks.
2. Total 4 questions need to be solved.
of 2 to 5 Marks will be asked.
3. Question No. l will be compuls ory and based on entire syllabus wherein sub questions
4. Remaining questions will be selected from all the modules.
□□□
 [ Index )

I Module 1 f

• Chapter 1 : Introduction to Artificial Intelligence .......................................... 1-1 to 1-13

I Module 2 I
• Chapter 2 : Intelligent Agents ......................................................................2-1 to 2-11

I Module 3 I
• Chapter 3 : Solving Problems by Searching ................................................ 3-1 to 3-54

'I Module 41
• Chapter 4 : Knowledge and Reasoning .......................................................4-1 to 4-48

f Modules I
• Chapter 5 : Reasoning Under Uncertainty .................................................. 5-1 to 5-22

~ I Module 6 I
_. Chapter 6: Planning and Learning ............................................................. 6-1 to 6-31

♦ Lab Manual ................................................... ........... L-1 to L-8

♦ Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ's)

✓ Download MCQs from our Tech-Neo Android App

□□□
--
 Module 1
CHAPTER
Introduction to
1 Artificial Intelligence

Syllabus

1.1 Artificial Intelligence (Al}, Al Perspectives: Acting and Thinking humanly, Acting and Thinking rationally.
1.2 History of Al, Applications of Al, The present state of Al, Ethics in Al.

1.1 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence .............................................................................. .................................................. 1-2

1.2 Al Perspectives .......................... ..................................................................................................................................... 1-3
GQ. Define information, knowledge and intelligence. What is the comparison between artificial
and human intelligence. ................................................................................................................................... ............... 1-3
GQ. Explain Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence. How does conventional computing differ from
the intelligence computing? ......................................................................................................................... ................... 1-3
1.3 Acting humanly .................................................... .......................... ................................................................................. 1-4
1.4 Thinking Rationally .............................................................................................................. •........................................... 1-5
1.5 History of Al .............................................................................. ...................................................................................... 1-6
GQ. Write a short note on: History of Artificial Intelligence? ............................................................................................... 1-6
1.6 Sub Areas and Applications of Al ......................... ••••.. •••••••••••••••••••••••· •·····························••••••••••·••·••·•··•· ··•·•· •·•••••·•••••••••• 1-8
GQ. Explain different applications of Artificial Intelligence in various areas ? ........................... .......................... ................... 1-8

1.7 Current trends in Al ............................................................ ··························· ································································ 1-1O

1 12
1.8 Objectives and Ethics in Al .......................... ...................... ··························································································· -
GQ. What are different objectives of Al ? ............... •·· ••········ ······ ······ ··············· ···· ············· ························ ······ ·· ······ ··············· 1-1 2
11
• Chapter Ends ......................................... •••················································· ································································· - 3
 ·~
Artificial lntelH ence MU - Al & OS / Electronics Introduction to Artificial lntelli

Syllabus Topic : Artlflclal lntelllgence

»I 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

'Then' arc tlm.-c- kinds of intc.:-lligc.:-m:c.:-: one kind undcrslnnd things for itsc~f, the o~er ~pprcciates Whatoth
rnn undc.:-n;tand, the- third undt·rstands 1withcr for itself nor through others. TlllS firS t kmd ts excellent, the seco:;
good. and tht' thini kind nsdcss ·.
Nicolo Mach·
tavelli
St," hat docs tht' WtWd 'intelligence' mean '? Let us define 'intelligence'•
1. According to the first definition
Somt.'1.,nc-· s intdligenc.:-e is his ability to understand and learn things.
2. From the second definition
lntdligence is the ability to think and understand instead of doing things by instinct or automatically. These
definitions lead us to define what 'Thinking' is :
'Thinking is the activity of using your brain to consider a problem or to create an idea'.
So. in order to think. someone or something has to have a brain or, in other words, an organ that enables one
or something to learn and understand things, to solve problems and to make decisions.
So. now we can define intelligence as 'the ability to learn and understand, to solve problems and to make
decisions·. Now the question arises whether computers can be intelligent, or whether machines can think and
m:ike decisions.
Here. we enter into the Domain of Artificial Intelligence. Artificial Intelligence (AI)' is intelligence
demonstrated by machines, as opposed to natural intelligence displayed by animals including humans.
It is defined as 'the field of study of intelligent agents'; any system that perceives its environment and takes
actions that maximise its chance of achieving its goals.
AI is also described as machines that perform functions that humans associate with human mind. such as
'learning· and ·problem solving'.
~ AJ. applications include

l. Ad\'anced web .search engines (e.g. Google)

Recommendation systems (used by You Tube, Amazon and Netflix)
3. Understanding human speech (such as Siri and Alexa),
4. Self-drhing car::. (e.g. Tesla)
5. Automnted decision - making and competing at the highest level in strategic game systems (such as chess).
A!> machines bernmc increasingly capable, tasks considered to require 'intelligence' are removed frorn ~~
definition of Al. This phenomenon ts known as •Al effect'. For example, optical character recognition ,s
excluded from things considered 10 be Al 11 is a routine technology.
The field was founded on the assumplion thut human intelligence "can be so precisely described thal tl
machine can be made to simulate ii"
This rruses philosophical argumenls about d1e mind and the ethics of creating artificial beings endowed witli
human-like intelligence.

rc1 venture
(MS-126) ~ Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH
 t 111, "
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th 11 \• ,th ti~ rnNm nu pn1r11111I 111d pow ,, Al 111 ,y
Scienc e frrclion ,md fntnrc,h,gy h,n c ,1 1'-l' s11l'P<'~tcd
becom e an rxi~lcnli.11 rn,k fl' hum,11Ht,
(l) Huma nkind ha., gn en tfsdf thl' ,cwnt1 flc
homo '-11111t-u, 111111 1hr \\ 1 h ( Ill I llllf ffitlll ii 1 , , , f( 111
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ol ,;rlf I h f,clcl til rtrllfJdul h1ttlll1 t• m c ,,1 Al
arc <;11 m1pl,rl,mt !(, 11 111 n er, tia, In l'"- nnd 0111 sc n<;c
to ~ludy 11 1 lo 1 ir11 m(,r ii ,n111 111,r , I,
attem pt, 11, nndcrst,HHi inkllig«'nt l'lltitlt•s I h\1',, Pn1 1c,1,n11
111,o cnnlc 111cd ,,,1111111cll1r, 111 1rt1t1, 1d ,nt 11,y n•c:
(2) But unhk1 ·11 h 1h,,npl n ,md Jll-)1'h Ph,g) , \\h1t'h 1111•
them J\noth rr re 1 <111 to 111dy ,rtrt, 1 ii rnlr lltJr
,lrin , So lmilrf intdll gl'nt t.·ntitks •'" "dl ,,._ 1111tkr<;t11111l
rnd 11wlt1' 111 1hc1r own r1gli1
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and Imprc, ,1vc p, od11c1 t:vcn nl th, ,rl y t,,r, ,n 11
(3l Art1fil 1111 111t1.-lhgl nc1· h,,, prodm·1.•d mam s1gnit ,cont
11 ,._ clc 11 1h ,, u1111p11tcr with h11m,1n I , I
de, cl0f'~) l'n1 \ltlwn !!,h no one can pnxhc t tht• future Ill dc1,11L our of
cH·ry day lives ,111d 1111 lh< lutur
mrcl':~•cn<'t' (<'I hcttrr ) \a.ould have a huge 11npact on our
CJ\ 1\1, :1t1,,T'I.
s. How 1s 11 posst hk lor ,1 .,low, 11ny huw1 f brain}
(4) Art1firrnl mtclhg .cncc addre sses one of the ultuna tc punlc
v.hclh cr b10log ical or electr onic, to perce ive, under stand
, predi ct, and manip ulate.- , 1 world for lar er and
g somet hing with 1hosc prope11,co;'/ TI1c'le .ire hard
more compl icated than itself? How do we go about makin
or an antigr avHy Jcv,cc , the rcsc:,1rchcr tn art1fic1al
quc,.ti on,, l'lut unlike the search for faster -than- light travel
mlclh gcncc has sohd evide nce that the quest is possib le.
It was forma lly initiat ed m 1956, when the name w
5 Arufic ial intcllt gence is one of the newes t discip lines.
for about five years. Along with mode rn gcneuc, 1t
coined , althou gh at that point work had been under way
by scient ists in other discip lines. A studen t m
1s regula r!) cited as the "field l would most like to be in"
alread y been taken by Galile o, Newto n. Einstem.
physic s might reason ably feel that all the good ideas have
one can contri bute new ideas. Artifi cial intdli gence ,
and the rc~t, and that it Lakes many years of study before
on the other hand, still has openi ngs for a full-ti me.
y but is still consta ntly and active ly growr ng and
6 Arttfic1aJ intelli gence (Al) is a field that has a long histor
singly preva lent in our every day lives. It ha,; uses m
chang ing Artifi cial intcrn gence (Al) techno logy is increa
rc:-.cmch
2 l\'arJcty ol indu~trie!> from gamin g, journa
lism/m edia, to financ e, as well as in the state- of-the -art
fidds from rohoti cs, medic al diagnosis, and quant um scienc e.
Syllab us Topic : Al Perspectives

~ 1.2.

~ -0 ~r:-n~;,;11~;,,-k~owl~g..e~~d l,~:i,;:,~; ~l~a~,: 1~1; ;0~1;a~1;on ~e:w~:n~~1~c~a~a~~ hu::,~;,~t:ll~g:,::--: I

conve111101wl compu tmg differ from the intelligence :

I '

: GQ, Explain lntelhgence and Attlfki al lntelhg enrn How does

1
computing?
---- ---- ---- - ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ·
(1) Inform ation
of 111fom1 ,11u11 th 11 1-, 1wt consid 1:rcJ us a data.
• All demi un: Jtrlo,m 11011 Jiowc . , 1ht.rl 1 0111e p 111
,sed d.tt 1, wtul.'h makes decisi on makin g
Sudi dli;rfo~uii;hed Jnfcu mutl,, n c rn I ,uw;1d hd ns i phKc
11 ... ot cl,1ta, corre ctions on data, ecc. in
easier. p, uu:srn ip JII\ oh " u 11 h~J'•, gut11,n of d 11 1 1ah 11IIIU0
&uch II woy tlmt JI g1 111:.rnlc'> the new, ,1f lilt:'>
1l 15 <lat,1 w11hi11 a contc xl can be consid ered
as
• lnform aium u&uull)' lmi. sQmc 01< a11111g uml purpo ,e th
inlormu1ro11.

(M5-126)
~ Tech-Neo Publications.. A SACHIN SHAH Venture
Artificial lntelli ence MU - Al & OS / Electronics Introduction to Artificial lntelli
(2) Knowled ge

Knowled ge is a justified true belief. Knowled ge is a store of informat ion proven useful for a capacity
to act,
(3) Intellige nce

• Unlike belief and knowledg e, intelligen ce is not informati on: it is a process, or an innate capacity
to
use informat ion m order to respond to ever-chan ging requirem ents.
• It is a capacity to acquire, adapt, modify, extend and use informat ion in order to solve problerns
.
Therefore . intelligen ce is the ability to cope with unpredict able circumsta nces.
11:i" (A) Human intellige nce

• Human intelligen ce is the intellectual capacity of humans, which is character ized by perception
,
conscious ness, self-awar eness, and volition.
• Intelligen ce enables humans to remembe r descriptio n of things and use those descriptio ns in future
behaviours. It is a cognitive process.
• It gives humans the cognitive abilities to learn, from concepts, understan d, and reason, including
the
capacities to recognize patterns, comprehe nd ideas, plan, solve problems , and use language
to
communi cate. Intelligen ce enables humans to experienc e and think.
6" (B) Artificial intellige nce

• Artificial intelligen ce (or AI) is both the intelligen ce of machines and the branch of computer science
which aims to create it, through "the study and design of intelligen t agents" or "rational agents",
whereas; an intelligen ce agent is a system that perceives its environm ent and takes actions
which
m.aximiz.e its chances of success.
• Achievem ents in artificial intelligence include constrain ed and well-defi ned problems such as games,
crosswor d-solving and optical character recognition and a few more general problems such
as
autonom ous cars. General intelligen ce or strong AI has not yet been achieved and is a long-term goal
of AI research.
Syllabus Topic : Acting and Thinking Humanly

~ 1.3 ACTDIG HUMAN LY

The ftr1>t propmal for success in building a program and acts humanly was the Turing Test. To be
considered
,nteJligen t a program must be able to act sufficiently like a human to fool an interrogator. A human
interrogates
the program and another human vfa a terminal simultaneously. If after a reasonabl e period, the
interrogator
c&nnot tell which 1~ which, the program passes. To pai;s this test requires:
J. Natural fatnguage pr<JCe~sing 2. Knowledge representation
3. Automate d rea.vming 4. Machine learning
This te~t av<>id~ physical contact and concentrate~ on "higher level" mental faculties. A total
Turing test
would re.quire the program to alM> do:
• Compute r vision
• Robotic5

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Artificial Intelligence (MU - Al & DS I Electronics) (Introduction to Artificial Intelligence) ... Page No. (1-5)
Thinking Humanly

This requires "getting inside" of the hwnan mind lo see how it works and then comparing our computer
a human
programs to this. This is what cognitive science attempts to do. Another way to do this is to observe
problem solving and argue that one's programs go about problem solving in a similar way.
Example
The
GPS (General Problem Solver) was an early computer program that attempted to model human thinking.
were more
developers were not so much interested in whether or not GPS solved problems correctly. They
around the
interested in showing that it solved problems like people, going through the same steps and talcing
same amount of time to perform those steps.
Syllabus Topic: Thinking and Acting Rationally

~ 1.4 THINKING ,RATlf)NALLY

• Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to codify "thinking". His syllogisms provided patterns of argument
structure that always gave correct conclusions, giving correct premises.
• Example: All computers use energy. Using energy always generates heat. Therefore, all computers generate
the
heat This initiate the field of logic. Formal logic was developed in the late nineteenth century. This was
could,
first step toward enabling computer programs to reason logically. By 1965, programs existed that
if
given enough time and memory, talce a description of the problem in logical notation and find the solution,
one existed. The logicist tradition in AI hopes to build on such programs to create intelligence.
• There are two main obstacles to this approach: First, it is difficult to make informal knowledge precise
is
enough to use the logicist approach particularly when there is uncertainty in the knowledge. Second, there
a big difference between being able to solve a problem in principle and doing so in practice.
Acting Rationally: The rational agent approach
• Acting rationally means acting so as to achieve one's goals, given one's beliefs. An agent is just something
that perceives and acts.
• In the logical approach to AI, the emphasis is on correct inferences. This is often part of being a rational
this is
agent because one way to act rationally is to reason logically and then act on ones conclusions. But
not all of rationality because agents often find themselves in situations where there is no provably correct
thing to do, yet they must do something. There are also ways to act rationally that do not seem to involve
inference, e.g., reflex actions.
The study of AI as rational agent design has two advantages :
1. It is more general than the logical approach because correct inference is only a useful mechanism for
achieving rationality, not a necessary one.
thought
2. It is more amenable to scientific development than approaches based on human behaviour or human
because a standard of rationality can be defined independent of humans.
Achieving perfect rationality in complex environments is not possible because the computational demands
are too high. However, we will study perfect rationality as a starting place.

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Artificial lntelli ence MU - Al & OS / Electronics Introduction to Artificial lntelli e No. 1-6

Syllabus Topic : History of Al ~

~ 1.5 HISTORY OF Al

,--------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ------- -------

! GQ. Wnte a short note on : History of Artificial Intelligence ? __________ _______ _
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -there are the my tbs of Mechanical--men in
Artificial Intelligence is much older than you would imagine. Even
Ancient Greek. and Egyptian Myths.
Follo,, mg are some milestones in the history of AI which defines the journey from the AI generation to till
date development.

E~of Turing Birth of Al: First Chatboat: Flrst First Al Expert

Art:mcial Dartmouth ELIZA lntellgence winer Ststem
Machine
Robot:
l"IE!UrtlnS Confenmc£!
WABOT-1

I ... I I •• I • t

Sec:ondAJ lBM Deep blue Al in Home: IBM s Watson : Google now Chalbot Eugene Amazon
: first computer Roomba Wins a quiz Goostman:Wins Echo
to beat a world show a"Turing test
chess champion

(1A4)Fig. 1.5.1 History of AI

• Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

o Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren McCulloch and Walter
pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.
o Year 1949 : Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the connection strength
between neurons. His rule is now ca1led Hebbian learning.
0 Year 1950 : The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered Machine learning in
1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" in which he proposed a test.
Toe test can check the machine's ability to exhibit intelJigent behavior equivalent to human intelligence,
caJled a Turing test.

• Toe birth of Artificial Intelligence (] 952 1956)

0 year 1955 : An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial inte11igence program
"Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52 Mathematics theorems,
and find new and more elegant proofs for some theorems.

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Artificial Intelligence (MU • Al & DS / Electronics) (Introduction :o ArfflClal lme!Iigerce .Page '.o. (1-7)
an Comput er scientis t John
0 Year 1956 : The word "Artificial InteJljgence" first adopted by Americ
academ.ic field
McCarthy al the Dartmo uth Confere nce. For the first time. AI coined as an
COBOL were invente d And
0 At that time rugb-level comput er languag es such as FORTRA."i. LISP. or
the enthusiasm for AI was very high at that time.
• The golden years-Early enthusi asm (1956-1 974)
mathem atical
0 Year 1966 : The research ers emphas ized develop ing algorithms which can solve
named as ELIZA.
problems. Joseph Weizen baum created the first Chatbots in 1966. which was
was named as
0 Year 1972 : The first intellig ent humano id robot was built in Japan which
WABOT-1.
Toe first AI winter (1974-1 980)
• . AI winter refers to the time
0 The duration betwee n years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration
governm ent for AI
period where comput er scientis t dealt with a severe shonag e of funding from
researches.
ed.
0 During AI winters, an interest of publicit y on artificial intellige nce was decreas

• A boom of AI (1980-1 987)

systems '4ere
o Year 1980 : After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert Sysremff. Expert
programmed that emulate the decision -making ability of a human expert.
al Intellig ence
o In the Year 1980, the first nationa l confere nce of the Americ an Association of Artifici
was held at Stanfor d Univers ity.
• The second AI winter (1987-1 993)
.
o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Wmter duration
to high cost bm not efficien t
o Again Investors and governm ent stopped in funding for AI research as due
result The expert system such as XCON was very cost effective.
• The emergence of intellig ent agents (1993-2 011)
champi on, Gary Kasparo v. and
o Year 1997 : In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess
became the first comput er to beat a world chess champion.
, a vacuum cleaner.
o Year 2002 : for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba
ies like Faceboo k. Twitter . and
o Year 2006: AI came in the Busines s world till the year 2006. Compan
Netflix also started using AI.
• Deep learning, big data and artificia l general intellige nce (2011-present)
show. where it had to solYe the
o Year 2011 : In the year 2011, IBMs Watson won jeopard y, a quiz
and narura1 langusg e and
complex question s as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could underst
can solve tricky questio ns quickly .
. which "as able to prO\ide
o Year 2012 : Google has launche d an Android app feature "Google now
information to the user as a predicti on.
tion in the infamou s Turing
o Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbo t "Eugen e Goostman" won a competi
test."
debater s and
0 Year 2018: The "Projec t Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with cwo master
also perform ed extreme ly well.
t and which had taken
0 Google has demons trated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual assistan
she was talking "ith the
hairdres ser appoint ment on call, and lady on other side didn't notice that
machine.

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l"t\tldnl lntnlllu,,,w,, ~~U Al" nn 11 hiultonlrn~ (lntroduollon to Arllflolrd lntolllgonco ... fJfJ O No,1 •
18
• N\,w Al hns ,t,,vd,,,wd In n tt'nu 11 knhh• 1t-v11I '1'1111 1111w1•pl of Deop lrn1111111g, t,,g data, :mcl data science ar,
n,,w tn'n,\mg hk.,• n hnnm Nmvndnys 1•11111p1111h•s lilrn Clooglo, 11,wehook, 1.B~, u~~l Amazon_ arc workj/
w,t. \\ \\ ,m,t ,•,,·n1tng
' 111H,11mg d,•VH't'N 'I•Ill' l111111t• o ,. AI Iii u.·111 f I1lft•J • ,v ' IN 111/if)lflll/', w1d will cc>me Withg
, fl1r••1HX
hlf.h ,nt\'I IW,'n,·,-.
Syllnbue Topic: Appllcotlona of Al

»I 1.6 SUB AREAS AND APPLICATIONS OF Al

~ :~~ :l;~~~,!~l~r;,; ~,,~,u:~u~,:~~~~ i,;l~(;l~C;;~1;1;1;;r;; ~: :--________________ -~: ~:

l~l~h~

\rtifid.,l \ntdhg,·,w,, ts rcvoh1lionizi11g the

indnstm·s with its npplknlions and helping solve __. ._. . l'\f.lf.l'"'·a uu11;, of Al
l'1)mpk\. {'t\lhkms. Htallhrnr• • Educ,,tJon

( 1} AI In Robotics
• 1 flna11c.
• Robotics is additionnl field where nrlificial Gaming

mtcl\igcncc applicnlions ore commonly ·t1 RobotJa

us1.•d. Rohots powered by Al use real-lime ~ Agrk"1ture

updates lo sense obstacles in ils pt\lh and
pre-plan its journey instantly.
(1Aa)Fig. 1.6.1 : Scope of AI Applications
• It can be used for -
o Carrying goods in hospitals, factories, and warehouses
o Cleaning offices and large equipment
o Inventory management
(2) AI In Agrlculture

• Artificial Jntcl11gcnce is used lo identify defects and nutrient dcficicndcs in the soil. This is done using
computer v1swn, robotics, and machine learning, Al can analyze where weeds arc growing.
• Al bots can help to harvest crops al a higher volume and faster pace than human laborers.
(3) AI In Gaming

• A1101hc1 sector whc1c A1til1ciul l11t.cJligcnce applications have found prominence is the gaming sector.
• Jt c,ui ali;o ht: uM.:d lo pn.·dicl h111111111 hchuvior using which gnme design and testing can be improved.
(4) AI In Automobile•

• Aittf1cial l11h ll11•1·11cl' is w,t·d lo huild 111:Jf driving vcl11dus. Al can he used along with the vehicle's
carw ,a, wclw, l'ioud sc·, v,u ~. OJ'S, 1111(1 co11lrnl 'li/~nuls lo 11purnl1.· the vuhicle
• A J c:i11 ,mpiovc· tlH' iu v1 l11clt I xpc , H 11c1· 1111d prnvidt· udditional systems like cnwrgency braking,
1>l111tl spol 1110111tc,11111 1 , a11d d11v11 111;1,11,I 111t·c·11111•,
(5) Al In 5ocl11I media

• Jn~lugrum ; 011 l11s1111•i;1111, Al < ousulc ,., you, l1kl·1, 1111d lht· m:cm1111s you follow lo determine what
posts you arc ,how11 011 yo111 < xpl1111 1111>

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Faccbook : Artificial lntclligcncc is also used along with a tool called DccpTcxt. With this
tooJ,
•
Facchook can understand conversations heller. Jt can be used to translate posts from different languages
automatically.
• TwiUcr : Al is used by Twitter for fraud detection, removing propaganda, and hateful content.
Twitter
also uses Al to recommend tweets that users might enjoy, based on what type of tweet,; they engage
with.
(6) AI In Marketin g

• Artificial intelligence applications are popular in the marketing domain as well.

o Using Al, marketers can deliver highly targeted and personalized ads with the help of behavioral
analysis, pattern recognition, etc. It also helps with retargeting audiences at the right time to ensure
better results and reduced feelings of distrust and annoyance.
Al can help with content marketing in a way that matches the brand's style and voice. It can be used
to
•
handle routine tasks like performance, campaign reports, and much more.
• Chatbots powered by AI, Natural Language Processing, Natural Language Generation, and Natural
Language Understanding can analyze the user's language and respond in the ways humans do.
• Al can provide users with real-time personalization based on their behaviour and can be used to edit and
optimize marketing campaigns to fit a local market's needs.
Compute r Vision : Face recognition programs in use by banks, government, etc. Handwrit
ing
•
recognition, electronics and manufacturing inspection, photo interpretation, baggage inspection, reverse
engineering to automatically construct a 3D geometric model.
This
• Expert Systems : Another very important cognitive ability of human being is Decision making.
abHity of human is based on experience and knowledge which makes one intelligent expert. Expert
systems are required in industries and especially in an organization where analytics plays an important
roJe, there it acts as a mediator to handle multiple activities to make system efficient such as Flight
tracking system, medical system etc.
Diagnost ic Systems : MYCIN system for diagnosing bacterial infections of the blood and suggestin
g
•
treatment. Pathfinder medical diagnosis system, which suggests tests and makes diagnoses.
• Financial Decision Making : Credit card companies, mortgage companies, banks employ AI
systems
to detect fraud and expedite financial transactions. By considering the usage patterns, Al can
help
reduce the possibility of credit card frauds taking place. Many customers prefer to buy a product or
service based on customer reviews. AI can help identify and handle fake reviews.
• CJassification SyRtcmH : Put information into one of a fixed sel of categories using several sources of
information. E.g., financial decision making systems. NASA developed a system for classifying very
faint areas in astronomical images into either stars or galaxies with very high accuracy by learning from
human experts' classifical ions.
(7) Scheduli ng and Planning
Automatic scheduling for manufaclUring.
(8) Artlflclal Neural Network s
• System that simulate inteJligence by attempting to reproduce the types of physical connections that
occur in animal brains.
- - - - - - ---::::;;.- - - - - - - - - - -
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8 o.
• Examples : Pallcrn recognition, character recognition, clustering, classification etc.
(9) F u zzy Logi c

• The system which relics on degree of trulh and change in states along with rate of inputs and out
where output depends on fecding of the input, its state, and rate of change of this state. Put,
• Also we can say, probability is importanl in case of state of how input is given on this basis a Pattie
. automo b"l
output is attached to given input. Examples: Consumer Electrorucs, 1 es etc.
u1ar
Syllabus Topic: The Present State of Al

~ 1 . 7 CURRENT TRENDS IN Al
- --- --- --- --- --- --- - J
While the COVID - 19 pandemic impacted many aspects of how we do business, it did not diminish thd
impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) on our everyday lives. AI remains a key trend when it comes to technology
and innovations that will fundamentally change how we live, work, and play in the near future.
Al is the force behind many modem technological comforts that are now part of our day -to - day lives. With
continuous research, technology has made massive developments in major fields such as health-care, retail,
automotive, manufacturin g and finance. AI is one essential component that transforms the digital age with high
precision and accuracy. So, here there is an overview of what we can expect in the years to come.
I
I.Robotic Process Automation (RPA) 2. Conversational AI
3. The role of AI in healthcare 4. Increase in demand for ethical AI
5. AI for cyber security and knowledge breach
6. The Intersection of the Internet of Things with AI (AIOT)
7 Natural Language Processing (NLP) 8. Reinforcement Learning
9 Quantum AI
l 0 . AI-Powered Business and Forecasting and Analysis
11. Edge computing 12. Rise of a hybrid work force

(1) Robotic Process Automation (RPA)

• ·r o streamJine business processes and reduce coslS, they are turning to an evolving technology practice
called as robotic process automation (RPA)
• HPA is aimed at the automation of business processes, governed by business logic, and organised
inputs.
• HPA ,-;,,Jution rany,e from producing an automated email response to deploying thousands of bots. Each
is programmed in an ER i' i;yst.cm to automate rule-based tasks.
(2) eonversatlon al A l

• ( CJIIVCtbatiorwl A f inc,cascs the cuhtomcr experience's reach, rnsponsiveness and personalisation.

'J O better undc1 st.and what the human says and needs, AI uses natural language processing (NLD) and
•
machine lca.rnrng t.o provide a more natural, near human - level interaction.

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(3) The role of AI in healthc are

points.
• Big data has been extensively used to identify COVID patients and critical hot
y besides, researchers
• AI is already helping the health-care sector to a great degree with high accurac
re organisations.
have developed thermal camera s and mobile applications to collect data for healthca
healthcare facilities in
• By leveraging data analysis and predicting various outcomes, AI can support
several unique ways.
ive steps to avoid the
• AI instruments offer insights into human health and also recommend prevent
spread of diseases.
, thereby advancing
, AI solutions also help doctors remotel y track the health of their patients
teleconsultation and remote care.
(4) Increas e in deman d for ethical AI

• This demand is at the top of the list of emergin g developments in technology.

expect businesses to
• Looking at how trends are rapidly changing, values-based customers and workers
implement AI responsibly.
data ethics in the next few
• Companies will actively choose to do business with partners committed to
years.
(5) AI for cyber security and knowle dge breach
be at greater risk
• In the coming years, knowle dge will grow and will be accessible, and digital data will
imes in the future with
of being compromised and exposed to hacking . AI will help deter cybercr
improved cyber security measures.
led framework.
• Fake digital activity that match criminal trends will be detected by the AI-enab
(6) The Interse ction of the Interne t of Things with AI (AIOT)
ogies have individual
• There is hardly any bounda ry between AI and IOT. Although both technol
up.
characteristics, when used together, better and more unique possibilities open
intelligent.
• The ability of AI to gain insights from data quickly makes IOT solutions more
(7) Natural Language Processing (NLP)
and Google Home.
• NLP is one of the widely used applications of Al. N LP is used in Amazon, Alexa
NLP as now humans can
• The need for writing or communicating with a screen has been eliminated by
communicate with robots that understand their language.
ion, auto-video caption
• NLP is used for sentiment analysis, machine translation, process descript
generation and chatbot s is expected to increase.
(8) Reinforcement Learnin g
is based on its experience
• Reinforced Learnin g (RL) is a specific application of deep learning. Its work
to enhance the efficien cy and effectiveness of data.
ing advertisement content,
• Some cases of use of RL are robotics in planning business strategies, optimis
automating industries, controlling aircraft, and making motion control robots.

(9) Quantum AI
begin using quantum
• To measur e the Qubits for use in supercomputers, advanced companies will
quicker pace than classic
supremacy. Because of quantum bits, quantum computers solve problems at a
computers do.

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. 0, , ,,

• Also they assist in the interpretation of data and then forecaS t several uruque trends. ~
. .
Quantum computers will help multiple orgarusa on 1
· u· s ·dentify inaccessible issues and also
• · • Preqict
·11 also be used in fields like healthcare, fililance
mearungful solut10ns. Future computers w1
chemistry. ~
(10) AI-Powered Business and Forecasting and Analysis
• AI solutions help in redefining business processing with real-time alerts.
• Content-intelligent technologies, along with AI-supportive practices, will assiS t digital Workers lo
develop outstanding abilities.
• Such skills can help them cope with the automation of natural language, judgment, context formation,
reasoning and data-related insights.
(11) Edge computing
• Edge computing provides gadgets with servers and data storage to access their devices and allows thelli
to put data into them. It is defined as data processing in real-time and is more powerful than 'cloud
computing services'.
• There is another instance of edge computing that uses nodes. It is a mini-server located in the vicinity of
a local telecommunications provider.
• Nodes help to build a bridge between the local service provider. It costs less, saves time and provides
customers with fast service.
(12) Rise of a hybrid work force
• Post the COVID-19 pandemic, companies will change on to RPA bandwagon, which means thm
cognitive AI and RPA will be widely applied to cope with high volume, repetitive activities.
• If usages grow, the office will move to a hybrid workforce environment.
• The human workforce will work with various digital assistants. The emergence of a hybrid workforce
will imply more collaborative experiences with AI.
Syllabus Topic : Ethics in Al

~ 1.8 OBJECTIVES AND ETHICS IN Al S\\o'<.\- f\.ot~

r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ·- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1

~~ _V:h_:it_a~e_d~:':°~ ~b{e_:tl_v:s ~~~ ~ ________________________________ _________ ;

Below are the eight aims and objectives of artificial intelligence :
IGi' Objective #1 : Artificial intelligence solves problems
When it comes to artificial intelligence, there is a strong urge to create AI programs that look. act, and fed
like real humans. However, many scientists now understand that the real goal is not to make a human-like
robot. Instead, they would rather create a robot that works to make our lives easier, no matter what it looks or
sounds like. Moving forward, it is likely .that we will see _some serious work being put into the ability for Al
t? learn and understand, and less on forcrng them to act bke real humans. That will probably just come witb
ume.
iw Objective #2 : Artificial intelligence completes multiple tasks

Completing multiple tasks is another aims and objectives of artificial intelli th 1arges1
· h b alci · 'bl gence. One of e
difficu Ities to overcome as een m ng 1t poss1 e for an AI program or a " robot,, to do more than one tasl-'. ·

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Artificial Intelligence (MU - Al & OS / Electronics) (Introduction to Artificial Intelligence). Page No. (1-13)
point .-\
It is very easy to program a system to complete a certain task. For instance. it can bring an ttem from

to point B.
either bring 1l to point
However, if you want the program to understa nd that it must pick up the item and then
~cory. In
A or throw it in the trash based on arbitrary rules that a human would know that' s a different
simpler terms, it might be a while before your housema id is a robot.

« Objective #3 : Artificia l intellige nce shapes t he future of every compan y

to streamlin e their
AI is quickly becomin g a crucial tool for all compani es. They are using this technolo gy
l tasks as possible !;
processes. It's no secret that the goal is to continue this trend for as many low-leYe
,i cy in other J.rea.s.
ultimately saves the compani es money in the long run, and it allows them to up producti

« Objective #4 : Artificia l intellige nce prepare s for a boom in big data

es eYen random.
Big data has already taken the world by storm. Big data is the large-scale. and sometim
to do much more for
collection of data about people's lives, habits, conversa tions and more. AI "ill be able
and content are going
the analysis of this data than humans ever did, so data-driv en research, advertisements.
to explode.
AI
~ Objective #5 : Artificia l intellige nce creates synergy between humans and
so that they can work
One of the key goals in AI is to develop a strong synergy between AI and humans.
together to enhance the capabilit ies of both.

~ Objective #6 : Artificia l intellige nce is good at problem-solving

you a faccual ans,, er.
So far, AI is unable to employ adv anced problem-solving abilities. That is. it can tell
but cannot analyze a specific situation and make a decision based on the very specifk
context <'t chit
situation.

I@" Objective #7 : Artificia l intellige nce helps with planning

..'Hlf'lish
One of the most human traits in existenc e is the ability to plan and make goals and subsequently J.'"'\.',
them. And one of the goals for AI is to have AI be able to do these things.

~ Objective #8 : Artificia l intellige nce perform s more complex tasks

c.isk.s..-\lre;1J~ the
The key goal is this: to develop AI program s that can complete more :md more ('\.' mpk\.
.:-k1p .mJ ultim.11:d~.
abilities are shocking , although not yet widespread. Howe, er. o, er time these will de,
scientists hope, be able to do basically the same things humans can do.

0 00
 Inte ligence (MU-AI (3-51)
(Solving Problems by Searching)...Page No.
&DS/Electronics)
Atioia
Problem
S 3.26. 1
cic-ta-toe 2. Here, the maximizer has to play first followed by
and B
used to solve tic-tac-toe i
the minimizer. Thus maximizer assigns -6
AI technique is
GQ How
problem2 which is passed back to A. This is replaced by 3,
move.
value passed by Cas A has the maximizer
Now A will not be examining D and its children.
Since value of K is zero and D is having
minimizer move making its value 0 or less than 0
only. Thus the tree with the root K will be pruned,
which would save a lot of time in searching.

A 3.26.2 Limitacions of Game Trees

M

43 +5 47 +3 +2
1. As mentioned above, game trees are rarely used in
real-time scenarios (when the computer isn't given
Fig. 3.26.2 :A game tree expanded by two levels and very much time to think).
their associated static evaluation function value
8 IfA moves to C, then the minimizer will move to 2. The method requires a lot of processing by the
K (static evaluation function value = 0) which is computer, and that takes time.
the minimum of 3, + 5, 7 and 0. So the value of 0 3 For the above reason (and others) they work best
is backed up at C. On similar lines, the value that in turn-based games.
is backed up at D is 2. The tree now with the
4. They require complete knowledge of how to
backed up values is given in Fig. 3.26.3. move.

Maxmizer's Move 5. Games with uncertainty generally do not mix well

with game trees.
+2 6 They are ineffective at accurately ascertaining the
Minimizer's Move
best choices in scenarios with many possible
choices
M

2 3.27 MINMAX PROCEDURE

Fig. 3.26.3 : Maximizer's move for the tree
GQ. Explain Minmax procedure with suitable example.
Ine maximizer will now have to choose between OR Consider the 2-ply search as shown below :
B, C or D wih the values - 6, 0and 2. Being a ) If the first player is a maximizing player, what
tnaximizer, he will choose node D because by move should be chosen under the mini-max
Cnoosing so, he is sure of getting a value of 2 strategy. (i) What nodes should not be needed to be
which is much better than 0 and -6. examined using -B pruning technique?
a-B pruning UQ. Explain Min max and Alpha beta pruning algorithms
1. In .-ß pruning, a method is the lower bound on for adversarial search with example.
the value the maximizer can be assigned and the (MU- Q. 5(b), May 17, 10 Marks)
oner is B, which represents the upper bound on
the value the minimizer can be assigned.

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Artificial Intelligence (MU-AI& Ds No.
/Electronics) evaluation function value or thaat node (35)
maximum (figure). The same figure is
the minimizer has to
make the
first shows
mOve, tha
static evalheua
B because the
go to node
function value at that node is
hìm.
5. But a game-playing strategy never
advantageous
3 5 4 3
level but looks ahead, i.e., movesstops
a with o:
Fig. 3.27.1:Minmax strategy levels downwards to choose coouple
the
optimal
Sometimes, by expanding these
scanning them, one might be forced tonodes
Minimax strategy: Minimax strategy is a simple
the helpretrofactFg
look ahead strategy for two-person game-playing
rethinks. Let's examine this with
Here one player is called a maximizer and the
3.27.2. Let's assume that it is the
other is called a minimizer. Both the adversaries,
who will have to play first followed hy
maximizer
maximizer and minimizer fight it out to see to that
minimizer. The search strategy here tries for o
the opponent gets the minimum benefit while they Mand the leaf
get the maximum benefit. The plausible move two moves, the root being
node
generator generates the necessary states for being A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, L, M, and N
further evaluation and the static evaluation6. Before the maximizer moves to B, C or Dit
function "ranks" each of the positions. have to thìnk which move would be hig
Minmax Strategy Algorithm beneficial to him. In order to evaluate, the chilä
of the intermediate nodes B, C and D
1. The working of the algorithm is described with the generated and the static evaluation function va
aid of Fig. 3.27.2. Let A be the initial state of the generator has assigned values for all the le
game. The plausible move generator generates nodes.
three children for that move and the static
7. If A moves to B it is the minimizer who will hae
evaluation function generator assigns the values
given along with each of the states. to play next. The minimizer always tries to
the minimum benefit to the other and hence
2. It is assumed that the static evaluation function
will move to G (static evaluation funct
generator returns a value from 20 to + 20.
value 6). This value is backed up at N.
wherein a value of - 20 indicates a win for the
maximizer and a value of 20 a win for the 2
minimizer. A value of O indicates a tie or draw.
3.27.1 Properties of Min Max Algorithn
3
1. Mini-max algorithm is a recursive or backtrakg
It is also assumed that the maximizer makes the
first move. (It is not essential so. algorithm which is used in decision-mak1ne
Even a minimizer can game theory.
makethe first move.) The 2. It provides an optimal move the for pla
optimaly
maximizer, always tries
to go to a position where 3.
assuming that opponent is also playing Sear

the static evaluation Mini-max algorithm uses recursion to

function value is the through the game-tree.
4. Mini-max algorithm is mostly used tor gant
maximum positive value.
Fig. 3.27.2 : Initial state of the game playing in Al. Such as chess, checkerS,
go and various
The maximize bcing the player to make the first 5. This tow-players game. decision
4.
move: will move to node D because the stoti for the algorithm computes
current state.
the mini-max

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Artificial (Solving Problems by
thissal,gorithm two players play the game, one is values, considering
6. In MAX and other is called MIN. Now, we calculate the utility
called we reach the root of the
one layer at a time, till
Both the players fight it as the opponent player
gets the minimum benefit while they get the tree, i.e. the top-most point.
maximum benefit. can directly evaluate
Here we have 3 layers, so we
. The mini-max algorithm performs a depth-first min (9, 11, -8, 12}=-8
search algorithm for the exploration of the move for min is
complete game tree. DStep III: Thus, the best opening
proceeds all the way the third node.
8. The mini-max algorithm min max decision. It
down to the terminal node of the tree, then This move is called the
backtrack the tree as the recursion. that the
maximises the utility with the knowledge
IEy. 3.27.1:(MU - Dec. 15, Dec. 19, 10 Marks) minimise it.
opponent is also playing optimally to
Problems on min-max search on game tree as shown in
> Step IV:Thus,
the Fig. Ex, 3.27.1. 4},
Min. Min-max decision = min (max (9, 7), max {11,
max (-8, 9}, max (-2, 12}}
= min (9, 11, 8, 12} =-8
Max.
UEx. 3.27.2:(MU - May 18, 10 Marks)
given in the
Apply min-max search on game tree
Fig. Ex. 3.27.2.
Fig. Ex. 3.27.1 M Soln. :
Step I: Here the given move of the player is max;
Soln. : we calculate first maximum of all nodes
in the last
Step ():Since the given move of all the player is layer, to determine the utilities of the
terminal
of nodes.
max; we calculate first maximum nodes.
above the
We begin with left node of the layer We begin with the left node of the layer.
node.
terminal; to calculate the utility of the left Again move of the layer is maximum, we choose
Now, max (9, -7} = 9 the maximum of all the utilities. ...)
= 9
.. Utility of the left most node i) max (4,3, 1}=4
same layer is
The utility of the next node of the .. Utility of the left most-node is 4
..(i)
max (11, 4}= 11 Min.

(beginning from left)

Again the utility of the node
max (-8, -9} =-8 Max.
the same layer is
and the utility of the last node of
max ( 2, 12} = 12 5

Step II : Fig. Ex. 3.27.2

Min Step II : Again we evaluate maximum of the
middle node in the same layer,
i.e. max (5, 2} =5
-2 12
-8
-7 11

Fig. Ex. 3.27.1(a)

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Min Step IV: Here there are only 3
1ayers,
(3-54)
s0
immedíately reach to the root. At the root, i.e, We
topmost point, min has to choose the
Max
value, minirmum
5 2 2
So, we evaluate mín (4, 5,8}= 4
.. The best openíng move for mín ís the left m
Fig. Ex. 3.27.2(a)
node
Step III: Similarly, for the right -most of the Note that thís move ís called as mínmax decisioe
sarme layer, we evaluate rmax (8, 2) =8 as ít maxírmises the utility under the assumption
Min.
that the opponent is playíng optimally to minimise
ít.
Wax. :. Mínmax decision = mín {max (4, 3, 1).
max. {5, 2}, max. {8, 2}}
2 = min {4, 5, 8} = 4
Fíg. Ex. 3.27.2(b)

Chapter Ends..
DO0