Graph Theory

MODULE 5
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO GRAPH THEORY
5.1 Directed graphs
Definition of directed graph
 A directed graph is a pair (V,E), where V is a non empty set and E is a set of ordered pairs of elements
taken from set V.
 For a directed graph (V,E), the elements of V are called vertices and the elements of E are called
directed edges. The set V is called the vertex set and the set E is called the directed edge set.
 The directed graph (V,E) is also denoted by D=(V,E) or just D. A geometric figure that depicts graph is
called a digraph.

Figure 5.1
 The figure 5.1 shows the directed graph for which the vertex set is V={A,B,C,D} and the edge set is
E={AB,CA,CD} or E={(A,B),(C,A),(C,D)}.
 It has to be noted that in a directed graph, the directed edges need not be straight line segment it can be
curved lines (arcs) also as shown in figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2
 Vertices of directed graphs are denoted by upper or lower case letters like A,b,C,… u,v.. or v1,v2….

Initial and Terminal vertex

 If AB is a directed edge of a digraph D, in this A is called initial vertex and B is called the terminal
vertex.
Loop
 It should be noted that for a directed edge, the initial vertex and terminal vertex need not be different.
 A directed edge beginning and ending at the same vertex ‘A’ is denoted by AA or (A,A) and is called a
directed loop.
Example:

Figure 5.3
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 Graph Theory
Parallel Directed Edges and Multiple Directed Edges
 A digraph can have more than one directed edge having the same initial vertex and the same terminal
vertex.

Figure 5.4
 Two different edges having the same initial vertex and the same terminal vertex are called parallel
directed edges. Two parallel directed edges are shown in figure 5.4(a).
 Two or more directed edges having the same initial vertex and the same terminal vertex are called
multiple directed edges. Three multiple edges are shown in figure 5.4(b).

Isolated vertex, Source and Sink

 A vertex of a digraph which is neither an initial vertex nor the terminal vertex of any directed edge is
called an isolated vertex of the digraph.

Figure 5.5
 In the above graph, the vertex v4 is isolated vertex.
 A non isolated vertex, which is not a terminal vertex for any directed edge is called Source. In the above
graph, the vertex v1 and v3 are sources.
 A non isolated vertex, which is not an initial vertex for any directed edge is called Sink. In the above
graph, the vertex v2 is called sink.
 The vertices v5 and v6 do not belong to any of these categories.

In-degree and Out-degree

 If v is a vertex of a digraph D, the number of edges for which v is initial vertex is called the out-going
degree or out-degree of v. The out-degree of v is denoted by d+(v) or od(v).
 The number of edges for which v is the terminal vertex is called the incoming degree or the in- degree
of V. The in-degree of v is denoted by d-(v) or id(v).

Out-degrees: In-degrees:
d+(v1) = 2 d-(v1) = 1
d+(v2) = 1 d-(v2) = 3
d+(v3) = 1 d-(v3) = 2
d+(v4) = 0 d-(v4) = 0
Figure 5.6 d+(v5) = 2 d-(v5) = 1
d+(v6) = 2 d-(v6) = 1

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 Graph Theory
 In the above graph, there is a directed loop at the vertex v3 and this contributes a count 1 to each d+(v3)
and d-(v3).
 We observe that the above digraph has 6 vertices and 8 edges, and the sums of the out degrees and in
degree of its vertices are:

Theorems
1. In every digraph D, the sum of out-degrees of all vertices is equal to the sum of the in-degrees of all
vertices, each sum being equal to the number of edges in D.
Proof:
 Suppose D has n vertices v1,v2,v3,v4…vn and m edges.
 Let r1 be the number of edges going out of v1, and r2 be the number of edges going out v2 and so on.
 Then ,
d+(v1) = r1, d+(v2) = r2, …., d+(vn) = rn
 Since every edge terminates at some vertex and since there are m edges, we should have,
r1 + r2 + ..+rn = m
 Accordingly,
d+(v1) + d+(v2) + …. + d+(vn) = r1 + r2 + ..+rn = m
 Similarly, if s1 is the number of edges coming into v1, s2 is the number of edges coming into v2, and so
on, we get,
d-(v1) + d-(v2) + …..+ d-(vn) = s1+s2+…. +sn=m.
 Thus,

2. Let D be a digraph with an odd number of vertices. If each vertex of D has an odd out-degree, prove D
has an odd number of vertices with odd in-degrees.
Proof: Let v1,v2,v3….vn be the n vertices of D, where n is odd.
Let m be the number of edges in D. Then, we have,
d+(v1)+d+(v2)+…….+d+(vn)=m  (1)
d-(v1)+d-(v2)+……..+d-(vn)=m (2)
If each vertex has odd out-degree, then the LHS of (1) is a sum of n odd numbers. Since n is odd, this sum
must also be odd. Thus, m is odd.
Let k be the number of vertices with odd in-degree. The n-k number of vertices has even in-degrees.
Let us take v1,v2,v3.. vk to be the vertices with odd in-degrees and vk+1, vk+2,…vn to be the vertices with
even in-degrees.
Then the above expression can be rewritten as:

Now, the second sum on the LHS of this expression is even. Also, m is odd. Therefore, the first sum must
be odd.
That is,
d-(v1)+d-(v2)+……..+d-(vk)=odd
But each of d-(v1),d-(v2),……..,d-(vk) is odd. Therefore, the number of terms in LHS must be odd. That is k
is odd. This proves the required result.

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 Graph Theory
Problems:
1. For the following digraph determine the out-degrees and in-degrees of all the vertices.

Figure 5.9
d+(v1) = 2 d-(v1) = 0
d+(v2) = 0 d-(v2) = 3
d+(v3) = 1 d-(v3) = 0
d+(v4) = 0 d-(v4) = 0
d+(v5) = 1 d-(v5) = 1
d+(v6) = 1 d-(v6) = 1

2. For the following digraphs determine the out-degree and the in-degree of all the vertices.

Figure 5.10
Sol:
(i) The graph in figure 5.10 (i) has the following in-degrees and out-degrees:
d+(A) = 0 d-(A) = 3
d+(B) = 1 d-(B) = 2
+
d (C) = 4 d-(C) = 0
(i) The graph in figure 5.10 (ii) has the following in-degrees and out-degrees:
d+(v1) = 3 d-(v1) = 0
d+(v2) = 1 d-(v2) = 2
+
d (v3) = 2 d-(v3) = 3
d+(v4) = 1 d-(v4) = 2

5.2 Graphs
 A graph is a pair (V,E), where V is a non empty set and E is a non empty set of unordered pairs of
elements taken from the set V.
 For a graph (V,E), the elements of V are called vertices and the elements of E are called undirected
edges.
 The undirected graph or graph (V,E) is denoted by G=(V,E) or just G.

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Figure 5.11
 The figure 5.11 shows the undirected graph for which the vertex set is V={A,B,C,D} and the edge set is
E={AB,AC,CD}or E={{A,B},{A,C},{C,D}}.

Null and Trivial graphs

 A graph /digraph containing no edges is called a null graph.
 A null graph with only one vertex is called a trivial graph.
 Figure 5.12 depicts a null graph with three vertices.

Figure 5.12

Finite and Infinite graphs/digraphs

 A graph/digraph with only a finite number of vertices as well as finite number of edges is called a finite
graph /digraph; otherwise it is called infinite graph/digraph.

Order and size of graph

 The number of vertices in graph is called order.
 The number of edges in a graph is called its size.
 In other words, for a graph G=(V,E), the cardinality of the set V, namely |V| is called the order of G and
the cardinality of set E, namely |E| is called the size of G.
 A graph of n order and m size is called (n,m) graph.

End vertices, loop, and multiple edges

 If vi and vj denote two vertices of a graph and if ek denotes an edge joining vi and vj, then vi and vj are
called the end vertices of edge ek.
 This symbolically written as ek={vi,vj} =vivj

Figure 5.13
 For example, in the graph shown in figure 5.13, suppose we denote the edges AB,BC,AC,AD and DC by
e1, e2 , e3 ,e4 and e5 respectively. Then e1 joins A and B; that is, e1={A,B}=AB so that A and B are the
end vertices of e1. Similarly, e2 joins B and C; that is, e2={B,C}=BC so that B and C are the end vertices
of e2.

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 Graph Theory

Figure 5.14
 The graph shown in figure 5.14 contains 4 vertices v1, v2, v3 and v4 and 6 edges e1,e2 ,e3,e4 ,e5 and e6.
 Even though the edges e3 and e2 seem to intersect in the figure, their point of intersection is not a vertex
of graph.
 An edge such as e4={v3, v3}is called a loop.
 We also observe that both of the edges e5={v1, v4} and e6={v1, v4} have same end vertices v1 and v4.
These edges are called parallel edges.
 If in a graph there are two or more edges with the same end vertices, then such edges are called multiple
edges.

Simple graph, Multigraph, General graph

 A graph which does not contain loops and multiple edges is called a simple graph.
 A graph which does not contain a loop is called a loop-free graph.
 A graph which contains multiple edges but no loops is called a multigraph.
 A graph which contains multiple edges or loops or both is called a general graph.
 Figure 5.11 represents a simple graph.
 Figure 5.14 represents a general graph.
 Figure 5.15 represents a multigraph.

Figure 5.15

Incidence
 When a vertex v of graph G is an end vertex of an edge e of graph G, we say that the edge e is incident
on the vertex v.
 Since every edge has two end vertices, every edge is incident on two vertices, one at each end.
 The two end vertices are coincident if the edge is a loop.

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 The two non-parallel edges are said to be adjacent edges if they are incident on a common vertex.
 Two vertices are said to be adjacent vertices (neighbors) if there is an edge joining them.
In the graph shown in figure 5.16, A and B are adjacent vertices and e1 and e2 are adjacent edges. But A
and C are not adjacent vertices and e1 and e3 are not adjacent edges.

Figure 5.16

Complete graph
 A simple graph of order >=2 in which an edge between every pair of vertices is called a complete graph
(or full graph).
or
 A complete graph is a simple graph of order >=2 in which every pair of distinct vertices are adjacent.
 The complete graph with 2,3,4,5 vertices are shown below:

Figure 5.17
 A complete graph with n>=2 vertices is denoted by Kn.
 Graph with 5 vertices, namely K5 is of great importance. This graph is called Kuratowski’s first graph.

Bipartite graph
 A simple graph G is such that its vertex set V is the union of two of its mutually disjoint non empty
subsets V1 and V2 which are such that each edge in G joins a vertex in V1 and a vertex in V2. Then G is
called bipartite graph.
 If E is the edge set of this graph, the graph is denoted by G=(V1,V2;E).
 The sets V1 and V2 are called Bipartites (or Partitions) of the vertex set V.
Example: Consider the following graph

Figure 5.18
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 Graph Theory
 In this graph G, the vertex set is V={A,B,C,P,Q,R,S} and the edge set is E={AP,AQ,AR,BR,CQ,CS}.
 Note that the set V is the union of 2 of its subsets V1={A,B,C} and V2={P,Q,R,S} which are such that
i) V1 and V2 are disjoint.
ii) Every edge in G joins a vertex in V1 and a vertex in V2.
iii) G contains no edge that joins two vertices both of which are in V1 or V2. This graph is a bipartite graph
with V1={A,B,C} and V2={P,Q,R,S} as bipartites.

Complete bipartite graph

 A bipartite graph G=(V1,V2;E) is called a complete bipartite graph if there is an edge between every
vertex in V1 and every vertex in V2.
 The bipartite graph shown in following figure 5.18 is not a complete bipartite graph, because the graph
doesn’t contain an edge joining A and S.
 A complete bipartite graph G=(V1,V2;E), in which the bipartites V1,V2 contains r and s vertices
respectively, with r<=s is denoted by Kr,s.
 In this graph, each of r vertices in V1 is joined to each of s vertices in V2. Thus, Kr,s.is of order r+s
and size rs, it is therefore a (r+s,rs) graph.

Figure 5.19
i) In figure 5.19(a), the bipartites are V1={A} V2={P,Q,R}
The vertex A is joined to each of the vertices P,Q,R by an edge.

ii) In figure 5.19(b), the bipartites are V1={A}, V2={M,N,P,Q,R}

The vertex A is joined to each of the vertices M,N,P,Q,R by an edge.

iii) In figure 5.19(c), the bipartites are V1={A,B} V2={P,Q,R}

The vertices A and B are joined to each of the vertices P,Q and R by an edge.

iv) In figure 5.19(d), the bipartites are V1={A,B,C} V2={P,Q,R}

The vertices A, B and C are joined to each of the vertices P,Q and R by an edge.

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Problems
1. Let P, Q, R, S, T represents 5 cricket teams. Suppose that the teams P, Q, R have played one game
with each other and the teams P,S, T have played one game with other. Represent this situation in
a graph.
Hence determine i) the teams that have not played with each other, and ii) the number of games
played by each team.
Sol:
 Let the team are represented by vertices and an edge represents the playing.
 The graph can be represented as shown in figure 5.21,

Figure 5.21
 We observe that there is no edge between Q and S, between Q and T, between R and S and R and T have
not played with each other.
 From the graph, we note that 2 edges are incident on each of vertices Q, R, S, T and 4 edges are incident
on P. Thus, the team Q, R, S, T have played 2 games and the team P has played 4 games.

2. Which of the following is a complete graph?

Figure 5.22
Sol:
 The first graph is not complete. It is not simple on the one hand and there is no edge between A and C on
other hand.
 The second graph is a complete graph. It is a simple graph and there is an edge b/w every pair of
vertices.

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 Graph Theory
2
3. If G=G(V,E) is a simple graph, prove that 2|E|≤|V| - |V|.
Sol:
 Each edge of a graph is determined by a pair of vertices.
 In a simple graph there occur no multiple edges.
 As such in a simple graph, the number of edges cannot exceed the number of pairs of vertices.
 The number of pairs of vertices that can be chosen from n vertices is,
n! 1
nC 2 = = n(n − 1)
n − 2 ! 2! 2
1
 Thus, for a simple graph with n(≥2)vertices, the number of edges cannot exceed n(n − 1).
2

 Accordingly, if a simple graph G=G(V,E) has n vertices and m edges, then

1
m ≤ 2 (n2-n),

i.e. 2|E|= |V|2 - |V|.

𝟏
4. S.T a complete graph with n vertices, namely Kn, has 𝟐 𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏) edges.
Sol:
 In a complete graph, there exists exactly one edge between every pair of vertices.
 As such, the number of edges in a complete graph is equal to the number of pairs of vertices.
 If the number of vertices is n, then the number of pairs of vertices is
n! 1
nC 2 = = n(n − 1)
n − 2 ! 2! 2
1
 Thus, the number of edges in a complete graph with n vertices is 2 n(n − 1).

5. S.T a simple graph of order n=4 and size m=7 and a complete graph of order n=4 and size m=5 do
not exists.
Sol:
1 1
 For a simple m ≤ 2 n(n − 1) and for a complete graph m = 2 n(n − 1).

 For n=4, we have,

1 1
n n−1 = 4×3 = 6
2 2
 Since m=7≥6 exceeds this number, a simple graph of order n=4 and size m=7 does not exists.
 Similarly, since m=5≠6, is not equal to 6, a complete graph of order n=4 and size m=5 doesn’t exists.

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 Graph Theory
6. (a). How many vertices and how many edges are there in the complete bipartite graphs K4,7 and
K7,11?
(b). If the graph Kr,12 has 72 edges what is r?
Sol: From the complete bipartite graph, we know that a complete bipartite graph Kr,s has r+s vertices and r*s
edges. Accordingly,
a) The graph K4,7 has 4+7=11 vertices and 4×7=28 edges.
If the graph is K7,11, it has 7+11=18 vertices and 7×11=77 edges.
b) If the graph Kr,12 has 72 edges, we have,
r×12=72
r=72/12=6
r=6
Vertex degree and Handshaking property
 Let G=(V,E) be a graph and v be a vertex of G. Then, the number of edges of G that are incident on v
with loops counted twice is called the degree of the vertex v and is denoted by deg(v) or d(v).
 The degree of all vertices of a graph arranged in ascending order is called the degree sequence of the
graph.
 The minimum of degrees of vertices of a graph is called the degree of the graph.

Figure 5.23
 The degrees of the vertices of graph shown in figure 5.23 is shown below:
d(v1)=3, d(v2)=4, d(v3)=4, d(v4)=3
 The degree sequence is 3, 3, 4, 4 and the degree of the graph is 3.

Handshaking property
 Consider the following graph,

Figure 5.29
 In the above graph, there are 7 edges and the degree of each vertex is:
deg(v1)=3, deg(v2)=4, deg(v3)=4 and deg(v4)=3
 Therefore, deg(v1)+deg(v2)+deg(v3)+deg(v4) = 3+4+4+3=14=2*7.
This observation illustrates the following property.

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 Graph Theory
Property: The sum of the degrees of all the vertices in a graph is an even number; and this number is equal to
twice the number of edges in the graph.
i.e., for a graph G=(V,E)

This property is obvious from the fact that while counting the degree of vertices each edge is counted twice.
This property is called the handshaking property.

Theorem: In every graph, the number of vertices of odd degree is even.

Proof:
 Consider a graph with ‘n’ vertices.
 Suppose ‘k’ of these vertices are of odd-degree so that the remaining ‘n-k’ vertices are of even degree.
 Let us denote the vertices with odd-degree by v1,v2,v3… vk and the vertices with even-degree by vk+1,..
vn.
 Then the sum of the degree of the vertices is

 From the handshaking property we know that, the sum of the degrees of all vertices is equal to twice the
number of edges in the graph.
 Therefore, the sum of the degrees is even.
 Further, the second sum on the RHS of equation 1 is the sum of the degrees of the vertices with even
degrees. Therefore this sum is also even.
 Therefore, the first sum in RHS must also be even i.e.
deg(v1)+deg(v2)...+deg(vk)=even (2)
 But each of deg(v1), deg(v2)… deg(vk) is odd. Therefore the number of terms in the LHS of equation 2
must be even, that is k is even.

Regular Graphs
 A graph in which all the vertices are of the same degree ‘k’ is called a regular graph of degree k or k-
regular graph.
 The graphs shown in figure 5.25 and 5.26 are 2-regular and 4-regular graphs.

Figure 5.25 Figure 5.26

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 The graph shown in figure 5.27 is a 3-regular graph. This particular cubic graph contains 10 vertices and
15 edges.

Figure 5.27
 The graph shown in figure 5.28 is 3 –regular graph or a cubic graph with 8=23. This particular graph is
called three-dimensional hypercube and is denoted by Q3.

Figure 5.28

Note:
 In general, for any positive integer k, a loop-free k-regular graph with 2k vertices is called the k-
dimensional hypercube (or k-cube) and is denoted by Qk.
 k-dimensional hypercube contains k2k-1 edges.

Isolated vertex, Pendant vertex

 A vertex in a graph which is not an end vertex of any edge of the graph is called an isolated vertex.
 A vertex is an isolated vertex if and only if its degree is zero.
 A vertex of degree 1 is called a pendant vertex.
 An edge incident on a pendant vertex is called a pendant edge.

Figure 5.24
 In the above graph the vertices v4 and v6 are called the isolated vertices.
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 Graph Theory
 The vertices v5 and v7 are called the pendant vertices.
 The edges e5 and e4 are called the pendant edges.
 A null graph contains no edges. Therefore in a null graph every vertex is an isolated vertex.

Problems
1. For the graph shown in figure 5.30, indicate the degree of each vertex and verify the handshaking
property.

Figure 5.30
Sol: By examining the graph, we find that the degrees of its vertices are as given below:
deg(a)=3, deg(b)=2, deg(c)=4,
deg(d)=2, deg(e)=0, deg(f)=2,
deg(g) =2, deg(h)=1
Total degree= the sum of the degrees of all vertices =16
The number of edges in the graph is 8.
The sum of the degrees of vertices is 16 which is equal to twice the number of edges in the graph
which is equal to 2×8=16.
Hence this graph satisfies the handshaking property.

2. Can there be a graph consisting of vertices A,B,C,D with deg(A)=2 deg(B)=3 deg(C)=2 and
deg(D)=2?
Sol:
The sum of the degree of vertices is 9, which is not an even number. Hence there does not exists
a graph of given degrees.

3. Can there be a graph with 12 vertices such that 2 of the vertices have degree 3 each and the
remaining 10 vertices have degree 4 each?
Sol:
10 vertices with degree 4= 10×4 =40
2 vertices with 3 degree = 2×3 = 6
The sum of the degrees of the vertices is= (2×3)+( 10×4 )=46
Therefore, the sum of the degrees is 46, which is an even number and hence the handshaking property is
satisfied and this graph exists.

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 Graph Theory
4. Determine the order |V| of graph G=(V,E) in the following cases:
i) G is a cubic graph with 9 edges.
ii) G is regular with 15 edges.
iii) G has 10 edges with 2 vertices of degree 4 and all other vertices of degree 3.
Sol:
i) Suppose the order of graph G is n.
Since the graph G is a cubic graph, all vertices of the graph has same degree 3, and therefore
3+3+3+……+3 =2×9

n-times
3n =2×9
3n =18
n = 18/3=6
thus the order of the graph G is 6.
ii) Suppose the order of graph G is n.
Since G is regular, all vertices of the graph have same degree say k.
Then the sum of degrees can be written as,
k+k+k+……+k =2×15

n-times
kn=2×15
k=30/n
Since k has to be some positive integer, it follows that n must be a divisor of 30.
Thus the possible orders of G 1,2,3,5,6,10,15 and 30.
iii) Suppose the order of graph G is n.
2 vertices of G are of degree 4, and all the other vertices are of degree 3.
The sum of the degree can be represented as,
(2×4)+(n-2) ×3=10×2
8+3n-6=20
3n=18
n=6.

5. Let G be a graph of order 9 such that each vertex has degree 5 or 6. Prove that at least 5 vertices
have degree 6 or at least 6 vertices have degree 5.
Sol: Let p be the number of vertices of G which have degree 5.
Then the number of vertices of G which have degree 6 is 9-p=q(say)
The sum of degrees of all vertices can be written as:
5×p+6×q = 5p+6q
=5p+6(9-p)
=5p+54-6p
=54-p
Since this sum has to be an even number, p cannot be odd.
Thus p=0,2,4,6 or 8.

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 Graph Theory
Consequently, the following possible cases arises,
p=0 q=9
p=2 q=7
p=4 q=5
p=6 q=3
p=8 q=1
We observe that in all of the above cases either q≥5 or p≥6.
This means that at least 5 vertices have degree 6 or 6 vertices have degree 5.

6. Show that there is no graph with 28 edges and 12 vertices in the following cases:
(i) The degree of a vertex is either 3 or 4.
(ii) The degree of a vertex is either 3 or 6.
Sol:
Suppose there is a graph with 28 edges and 12 vertices, of which k vertices are of degree
3 each. Then:
(i) If all of the remaining (12-k) vertices have degree 4,
then by the handshaking property we should have,
3k+4(12-k)=2×28
=56
k = -8, which is not possible (because k has to be positive).

(ii) If all of the remaining (12-k) vertices have degree 6,

then by the handshaking property we should have,
3k+6(12-k)=2×28
=56
k=16/3, which is not possible (because k has to be positive integer).

7. Prove that a k-dimensional hypercube Qk has k2k-1 edges. Determine the number of edges in Q8.
Sol:
In the hypercube Qk, the number of vertices is 2k and each vertex is of degree k. Therefore, the sum of
degrees of vertices is k× 2k.
By handshaking property, we should have k× 2k = 2|E|, where |E| is the size of Qk.
1
Thus, |E|= (k×2k) = k2k-1.
2

This means that Qk has k2k-1 edges.

It follows that the number of edges in Q8 is 8×27.

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 Graph Theory
8. (a) What is the dimensions of the hypercube with 524288 edges?
(b) How many vertices are there in a hypercube with 4980736 edges?
Sol:
For the k-dimensional hypercube Qk, the number of vertices is 2k and the number of edges is k2k-1.

(a) If Qk has 524288 edges, we have k2k-1=524288,

We find that, 524288=219=24×215=16×215.
Accordingly, k2k-1=524288 holds if k=16. Thus, the dimension of the hypercube with 524288 edges is
k=16.
(b) We find that, 4980736=19×218, which indicates that Qk has 4980736 edges when k=19. The number
of vertices in this hypercube is 2k=219=524288.

9. Is there a simple graph with 1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7 as the degrees of its vertices?

Sol:
Assume that there is such a graph. Since the degrees of vertices are 8 in number, the graph should have 8
vertices; say P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, arranged in the order of degrees as given.
Then, since there are 8 vertices and the vertex W is of degree 7, W should have an edge to all other
vertices. In particular, W must have an edge to both of the vertices P and Q which are of degree 1. Then
P, Q are not joined to any other vertex and in particular to the vertex V which is of degree 6. Since the
graph is simple, there cannot be an edge joining V to itself. Therefore, V can be joined only to five
vertices W, R, S, T, U. Then V cannot have the degree 6. This is a contradiction.
Hence there is no simple graph for which the degrees of the vertices are as given.

10. Is there a simple graph with 0,2,2,3,4 as the degrees of its vertices?
Sol:
Assume that there is such a graph. Since the degrees of vertices are 5 in number, the graph should have 5
vertices; say P, Q, R, S, T, arranged in the order of degrees as given.
Since the graph is simple, there cannot be an edge joining T to itself. Therefore, T should have an edge
to all other four vertices P, Q, R, S. Then P cannot have the degree 0. This is a contradiction.
Hence there is no simple graph for which the degrees of the vertices are as given.

11. Is there a simple graph with 2,3,3,4,5,6 as the degrees of its vertices?
Sol:
Assume that there is such a graph. Since the degrees of vertices are 6 in number, the graph should have 6
vertices; say P, Q, R, S, T, U, arranged in the order of degrees as given.
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 Graph Theory
Then, since there are 6 vertices and the vertex U is of degree 6, U should have an edge to all other
vertices including an edge joining U to itself. Since the graph is simple, there cannot be an edge joining
U to itself. This is a contradiction.
Hence there is no simple graph for which the degrees of the vertices are as given.

12. Is there a simple graph with 1,1,2,3 as the degrees of its vertices?
Sol:
Assume that there is such a graph. Since the degrees of vertices are 4 in number, the graph should have 4
vertices; say P, Q, R, S, arranged in the order of degrees as given.
Then, since there are 4 vertices and the vertex S is of degree 4, S should have an edge to all other
vertices. In particular, S must have an edge to both of the vertices P and Q which are of degree 1. Then
P, Q are not joined to any other vertex and in particular to the vertex R which is of degree 2. Since the
graph is simple, there cannot be an edge joining R to itself. Therefore, R can be joined only to S. Then R
cannot have the degree 2. This is a contradiction.
Hence there is no simple graph for which the degrees of the vertices are as given.

Theorem:
Show that in a complete graph of n vertices the degree of every vertex is (n-1) and the total number of
𝟏
edges is 𝟐 𝐧(𝐧 − 𝟏).

Sol:
 We know that, a complete graph is a simple graph, in which every vertex is joined with every other
vertex through exactly one edge.
 Therefore, if there are ‘n’ vertices , each vertex is joined to (n-1) vertices through exactly one edge.
Thus, there occur (n-1) edges at every vertex.
 This means that the degree of every vertex is n-1.
 The sum of the degrees of vertices is n(n-1).
 By handshaking property, this sum must be equal to 2m, where m is the number of edges.
 Thus, n(n-1)=2m
1
m=2 n(n − 1).
1
 Therefore, the complete graph has2 n(n − 1) edges.

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 Graph Theory
5.3 Isomorphism
 Consider two graphs G=(V,E) and G'=(V',E') suppose there exists a function f:VV' such that,
i) f is a one to one correspondence
ii) for all vertices A,B of G,{A,B} is an edge of G if and only if {f(A),f(B)} is an edge of G'.
 Then ‘f’ is called an isomorphism between G and G'.
 We say that, G and G' are isomorphic graphs.
or
 Two graphs G and G' are said to be isomorphic if there is a one-to-one correspondence between their
vertices and their edges such that the adjacency of vertices is preserved.
 Such graphs will have the same structure, they differ only in the way their vertices and edges are labeled
or only in the way they are represented geometrically.
 When a vertex A of G corresponds to the vertex A'= f(A) of G' under a one-to-one correspondence
f:GG', we write A↔A'.
 Similarly, we write {A,B}↔{A',B'} to mean that the edges AB of G and the edges A'B' of G'
corresponds to each other under f.

Example1: Consider the two graphs shown in figure 5.31:

Figure 5.31
 We observe that the above graphs have 4 vertices and 6 edges.
 Consider the following one-to-one correspondence between vertices of these two graphs.
A↔P
B↔Q
C↔R
D↔S
 The edges in the two graphs correspond with each other as shown below:
{A,B}↔{P,Q}
{A,C}↔{P,R}
{A,D}↔{P,S}
{B,C}↔{Q,R}
{B,D}↔{Q,S}

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 Graph Theory
{C,D}↔{R,S}
 This represents one-to-one correspondence between the edges of the two graphs under which the
adjacent vertices in first graph corresponds to adjacent vertices of second graph.
 Therefore the two graphs are isomorphic.

Example2: Consider the two graphs shown in figure 5.32:

Figure 5.32
 We observe that both of these two graphs have the same number of vertices, but different number of
edges.
 Therefore, although there can exist one-to-one correspondence between vertices, there cannot be one-to-
one correspondence between edges.
 Therefore the two graphs are not isomorphic.

NOTE:
 From the definition of isomorphism of graphs, it follows that if two graphs are isomorphic then they
must have :
1. The same number of vertices
2. The same number of edges.
3. An equal number of vertices with a given degree.
 In particular two graphs of same order and same size need not be isomorphic. i.e., for example,

Figure 5.33
 We note that the two graphs have the same order and size, but the two graphs are not isomorphic.

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 Graph Theory
Problems:
1. Prove that the two graphs shown below are isomorphic:

Figure 5.34
Sol:
 We observe that the above graphs have 4 vertices and 4 edges.
(Rename the vertices of the first graph as u1, u2, u3 and u4).
 Consider the following one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of the graphs.
u1↔v1
u2↔v4
u3↔v3
u4↔v2
 The above one-to-one correspondence gives the correspondence between the edges.
{u1,u2}↔{v1,v4}
{u1,u3}↔{v1,v3}
{u2,u4}↔{v4,v2}
{u3,u4}↔{v3,v2}
 This represents one-to-one correspondence between the edges of the two graphs under which the
adjacent vertices in first graph corresponds to adjacent vertices of second graph.
 Therefore the two graphs are isomorphic.

2. Verify that the two graphs shown below are isomorphic.

Figure 5.35
Sol:
 We observe that the above graphs have 8 vertices and 12 edges.

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 Graph Theory
 Consider the following one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of the graphs.
A↔A'
B↔B'
C↔C'
D↔D'
P↔P'
Q↔Q'
R↔R'
S↔S'
 From the above correspondence, the following are the edge correspondence.
{A,B}↔{A',B'} {B,C}↔{B',C'} {C,D}↔{C',D'} {A,P}↔{A',P'} {B,Q}↔{B',Q'}
{C,R}↔{C',R'} {D,S}↔{D',S'} {P,Q}↔{P',Q'} {P,S}↔{P',S'} {Q,R}↔{Q',R'}
{Q,S}↔{R',S'}
 This represents one-to-one correspondence between the edges of the two graphs under which the
adjacent vertices in first graph corresponds to adjacent vertices of second graph.
 Therefore the two graphs are isomorphic.

3. Show that the following two graphs are isomorphic.

Figure 5.36
Sol:
 We observe that the above graphs have 6 vertices and 9 edges.
 Consider the following one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of the graphs.
u1↔v1
u2↔v5
u3↔v4
u4↔v3
u5↔v2
u6↔v6
 From the above correspondence, the following are the edge correspondence.

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 Graph Theory
{u1,u4}↔{v1,v3} {u1,u5}↔{v1,v2} {u1,u6}↔{v1,v6}
{u2,u4}↔{v5,v3} {u2,u5}↔{v5,v2} { u2,u6}↔{v5,v6}
{u3,u4}↔{v4,v3} {u3,u5}↔{v4,v2} {u3,u6}↔{v4,v6}
 This represents one-to-one correspondence between the edges of the two graphs under which the
adjacent vertices in first graph corresponds to adjacent vertices of second graph.
 Therefore the two graphs are isomorphic.

4. Show that the following graphs are isomorphic.

(i)

Figure 5.37(i)
Sol:
 We observe that the above graphs have 10 vertices and 15 edges.
 Consider the following one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of the graphs.
v1↔ u1
v2↔ u2
v3↔ u3
v4↔ u4
v5↔ u5
v6 ↔ u6
v7↔ u7
v8↔ u8
v9↔ u9
v10↔ u10
 We observe that the above one-to-one correspondence yields one-to-one correspondences between edges
in the two graphs as shown below:
{v1,v2}↔{u1,u2}
{v1,v5}↔{u1,u5}
{v1,v6}↔{u1,u6}
{v2,v3}↔{u2,u3}
{v2,v7}↔{u2,u7}
{v3,v4}↔{u3,u4}
{v3,v8}↔{u3,u8}
{v4,v5}↔{u4,u5}
{v4,v9}↔{u4,u9}
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 Graph Theory
{v5,v10}↔{u5,u10}
{v6,v8}↔{u6,u8}
{v6,v9}↔{u6,u9}
{v7,v9}↔{u7,u9}
{v7,v10}↔{u7,u10}
{v8,v10}↔{u8,u10}
 Therefore, the two graphs are isomorphic.
(ii)

Figure 5.37(ii)
Sol:
 We observe that the above graphs have 10 vertices and 15 edges.
 Consider the following one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of the graphs.
u1↔ v1
u2↔ v2
u3↔ v3
u4↔ v4
u5↔ v5
u6↔ v6
u7↔ v7
u8↔ v8
u9↔ v9
u10↔ v10
 We observe that the above one-to-one correspondence yields one-to-one correspondences between edges
in the two graphs as shown below:
{u1,u2}↔{v1,v2}
{u1,u5}↔{v1,v5}
{u1,u6}↔{v1,v6}
{u2,u3}↔{v2,v3}
{u2,u7}↔{v2,v7}
{u3,u4}↔{v3,v4}
{u3,u8}↔{v3,v8}
{u4,u5}↔{v4,v5}

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 Graph Theory
{u4,u9}↔{v4,v9}
{u5,u10}↔{v5,v10}
{u6,u8}↔{v6,v8}
{u6,u9}↔{v6,v9}
{u7,u9}↔{v7,v9}
{u7,u10}↔{v7,v10}
{u8,u10}↔{v8,v10}
 Therefore, the two graphs are isomorphic.

5. Show that the graphs are not isomorphic.

Figure 5.38
Sol:
 We observe that the first graph has 4 vertices and 6 edges whereas the second graph has 4 vertices and 7
edges.
 Therefore the one-to-one correspondence between the edges is not possible.
 Hence the two graphs are not isomorphic.

6. Show that that the following graphs are not isomorphic.

Figure 5.39
Sol:
 We observe that the two graphs have 6 vertices and 9 edges.
 But the first graph has 2 vertices of degree 4, where as the second graph has 3 vertices of degree 4.

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 Graph Theory
 Therefore, there cannot be any one-to-one correspondence between the vertices and between the edges
of the two graphs which preserves adjacency.
 Hence the two graphs are not isomorphic.

7. Show that the following graphs are not isomorphic

Figure 5.40
Sol:
 We note that the first graph has a pair of vertices of degree 4 which are not adjacent whereas the second
graph has a pair of vertices of degree 4 which are adjacent.
 Therefore the two graphs are not isomorphic.

Isomorphic Digraphs
 The two digraphs D1 and D2 are said to be isomorphic if there is a one-to-one correspondence between
their vertices and between their edges such that adjacency of vertices along with directions is preserved.

Problems:
1. Show that the following graphs are isomorphic.

Figure 5.41
Sol:
 Consider the following one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of the given digraphs:
A↔Q
B↔P
C↔S
D↔R
 Under this correspondence, the directed edges of the graphs correspond with each other as shown below:
{A,B}↔{Q,P}
{B,C}↔{P,S}
{C,D}↔{S,R}
{D,A}↔{R,Q}

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 Graph Theory
 Evidently, under this correspondence, the adjacency of vertices including directions of the edges is
preserved.
 Hence the given digraphs are isomorphic.

2. Show that the following graphs are not isomorphic.

Figure 5.42
Sol:
 The two digraphs have the same number of vertices (i.e. 5) and the same number of directed edges (i.e.
7).
 We observe that the vertex A of the first digraph has 1 as its out-degree and 2 as its in-degree. There is
no such vertex in the second digraph.
 Therefore, there cannot be any one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of the two digraphs
which preserves the direction of edges.
 The two digraphs are therefore not isomorphic.

5.4 Subgraphs
Given two graphs G and G1.We say that G1 is a subgraph of G if the following conditions hold.
i) All the vertices and all the edges of G1 are in G.
ii) Each edge of G1 has the same end vertices in G as in G1.
Example:

Figure 5.43
 From the above graph we observe that all the vertices of G1 and all the edges of G1 are in the graph G.
 And every edge in G1 has the same end vertices in G as in G1.
 Therefore, G1 is a subgraph of G.

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 Graph Theory
5.4.1 Spanning Sub graph
 Given a graph G=(V,E), if there is a subgraph G1=(V1,E1) of G such that V1=V, then G1 is called a
spanning subgraph of G.
 In other words, a subgraph G1 of graph G is a spanning subgraph of G whenever G1 contains all
vertices of G.
 Thus, a graph and all its spanning subgraphs have the same vertex set.
Example:

Figure 5.44
From the above graphs, graph (b) is a spanning subgraph of graph (a) but graph (c) is not a spanning
subgraph of graph (a), because it does not contain all the vertices of (a).

5.4.2 Induced Sub graph

 Given a graph G=(V,E), suppose there is a sub graph G1=(V1,E1) of G such that every edge {A,B} of G
where A,B ЄV1 is an edge of G1 also. Then G1 is called an induced sub graph of G and is denoted by
<V1>.
Example:

Figure 5.45
 The graph (b) is an induced sub graph of graph (a), but the graph (c) is not an induced sub graph of
graph (a) because graph (a) has an edge from v3 to v5 which is not present in the graph(c).

5.4.3 Edge disjoint and vertex disjoint sub graphs

 Let G be a graph and G1 and G2 be two subgraphs of G then,
1. G1 and G2 are said to be edge disjoint if they do not have any edge in common.

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 Graph Theory
2. G1 and G2 are said to be vertex disjoint if they do not have any common edge and any common vertices.

Note: It has to be noted that edge disjoint sub graphs may have common vertices.

Example:
 For the graph shown in figure 5.46(a), the graphs shown in figure 5.46 (b) and 5.46 (c) are edge-disjoint
but not vertex-disjoint subgraphs.

Figure 5.46

Problems:
1. Consider the graph G shown in figure 5.47(a).
(a) Verify that the graph G1 shown in the figure 5.47(b) is an induced sub graph of G. Is this a
spanning sub graph of G.
(b) Draw the subgraph G2 induced by the set V2={v3,v4,v6,v8,v9}.

Figure 5.47
Sol:
(a)
 The vertex set of graph G1 namely V1={v1,v3,v4,v6,v7} is a sub set of vertex set V={v1,v2,….v9} of G.
 Also, all the edges of G1 are in G. Further each edge in G1 has the same end vertices in G as in G1.
Therefore, G1 is a subgraph of G.
 We further check that every edge {vi,vj} of G is an edge of G1. Therefore G1 is an induced graph.
 Since V1≠ V, G1 is not a spanning sub graph of G.

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 Graph Theory
(b) The subgraph G2 = < V2> is shown in figure 5.47(c).

Figure 5.47(c)

2. Consider the graph G in the following figure 5.48(a). Verify that the graph G1 and G2 shown in
figures 5.48(b) and (c) are induced sub graphs of G whereas the graph G3 shown in figure 5.48(d)
is not induced sub graph of G.

Figure 5.48
Sol:
 We note that the vertex sets of G1, G2 and G3 are all subsets of the vertex set of G.
 Further, all edges in each of G1, G2 and G3 have the same end vertices in G as in these. Therefore, all of
G1, G2 and G3 are subgraphs of G.
 We further check that every edge in G whose end vertices belong to G1 is an edge in G1. Therefore, G1 is
an induced subgraph of G. In fact, G1 is induced by the set {v1,v2,v4,v5}.
 Similarly, We check that every edge in G whose end vertices belong to G 2 is an edge in G2. Therefore,
G2 is an induced subgraph of G. In fact, G2 is induced by the set {v2,v3,v5,v6}.
 But the graph G3 is not an induced sub graph of graph G because graph G has an edge from v1 to v5
which is not present in the graph G3.

3. For the graph shown in figure 5.49, find two edge disjoint subgraphs and two vertex disjoint
subgraphs.

Figure 5.49

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 Graph Theory
Sol:
For the given graph, two edge-disjoint subgraphs are shown in figure 5.50(a) and two vertex-disjoint
subgraphs are shown in figure 5.50(b).

Figure 5.50

5.5 Operations on Graphs

 Consider two graphs G1=(V1,E1) and G2=(V2,E2).
 The graph whose vertex set is V1 U V2 and the edge set is E1 U E2 is called the union of G1 and G2. It is
denoted by G1UG2.
Thus, G1UG2=(V1UV2,E1UE2)
 Similarly, if V1∩V2≠Ø, the graph whose vertex set is V1∩V2 and edge set is E1∩E2 is called the
intersection of G1 and G2. It is denoted by G1∩G2. Thus,
G1∩G2=(V1∩V2, E1∩E2), if V1∩V2≠ Ø
 Suppose that the graph has vertex whose vertex set is V1U V2 and the edge set is E1ΔE2, where E1ΔE2 is
symmetric difference of E1 and E2. This graph is called the ring sum of G1 and G2, and it is denoted by
G1ΔG2.
Thus, G1ΔG2=( V1UV2, E1ΔE2).
Example:
1. For the two graphs G1 and G2 shown in figure 5.51 find the Union, intersection and ring sum.

Figure 5.51
Sol:
The union, intersection and ring sum are shown in figure 5.52 (a), (b) and (c).
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 Graph Theory

Figure 5.52

Complement of a sub graph

 Given a graph G and a subgraph G1 of G, the subgraph of G obtained by deleting from G all the edges
that belong to G1 is called the complement of sub graph of G1 in G. It is denoted by G-G1 or G1.
 For example, consider the graph G shown in figure 5.53(a). Let G1 be the subgraph of G shown by thick
lines in this figure. The complement of G1 in G, namely G1, is as shown in figure 5.53(b).

Figure 5.53

Complement of a simple graph

 We know that, every simple graph of order n is a subgraph of the complete graph Kn.
 If G is a simple graph of order n, then the complement of G in Kn is called the complement of G and it
is denoted by G.
 The complement of a simple graph G with n vertices is that graph which is obtained by deleting those
edges in Kn which belong to G. Thus G = Kn-G=KnΔG.
 Figure 5.54 (i) shows the complement of G in Kn denoted by G.

Figure 5.54(i)
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 Graph Theory
Decomposition
 We say that a graph G is decomposed ( or partitioned) into 2 subgraphs G1 and G2 if G1UG2 = G and
G1∩G2=Null graph.

Deletion
 If v is a vertex in a graph G, then G-v is denotes the subgraph of G, obtained by deleting v and all edges
incident on v from G. This sub graph, G-v is referred to as vertex-deleted subgraph of G.
 It should be noted that deletion of a vertex always includes the deletion of all edges incident on that
vertex.
 If e is an edge in a graph G, then G-e denotes the subgraph of G obtained by deleting e from G. This
subgraph G-e, is referred to as an edge-deleted sub graph of G.
 An edge-deleted sub graph of a graph is a spanning sub graph of the graph.
 For the graph G shown in figure 5.54(ii)(a), the subgraphs G-v and G-e are shown in figures 5.54(ii) (b)
and (c) respectively.

Figure 5.54(ii)

Problem:
1. Let G be a simple graph of order n. if the size of G is 56 and the size of G is 80, what is n?
Sol: We know that, G =Kn-G
Therefore size of G = (size of Kn) – (size of G)
80 = (size of Kn)- 56
1
We know that, the no. of edges in a complete graph Kn= 2 n(n − 1)
1
80 = 2 n(n − 1) – 56
1
80+56= n(n − 1)
2
1
136 = 2 n(n − 1)

272 = n(n-1)
n=17
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 Graph Theory
5.6 Connected and Disconnected Graphs
 Consider a graph G of order greater than or equal to 2.
 Two vertices in G are said to be connected if there is at least one path from one vertex to the other.
 A graph G is said to be
i) Connected if there is at least one path between every two distinct vertices in G.
ii) Disconnected, if G has at least one pair of distinct vertices between which there is no path.
 For example, the graph shown in figure 5.55(a) is connected where as the graph shown in figure 5.55(b)
is disconnected, because, for example, there is no path from v1 to v4.

Figure 5.55

5.7 The Konigsberg bridge problem

 In eighteenth century city named Konigsberg in east Europe, there flowed a river named
Piegel River, which divided the city into four parts. Two of these were the banks of the river
and two were islands.
 These parts were connected with each other through seven bridges.
 The citizens of the city seemed to have posed the following problem: By starting at any of
the four land areas, can we return to that area after crossing each of the seven bridges exactly
once?
 This problem is called Konigsberg bridge problem.
 Euler analyzed the problem with the help of a graph and gave the solution.

Figure 5.75

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Sol: Denote the land area of the city by A,B,P,Q.

Where A,B are the banks of the River and P and Q are the islands as shown in figure 5.75.
Construct a graph by treating the four lands areas as four vertices and seven bridges
connecting them as seven edges.
The graph is shown as,

Figure 5.76
We note that in this graph
deg(A)=deg(B)=deg(Q)=3 deg(P)=5.
Which are not even.
Therefore the graph does not have an Euler circuit. This means that there does not exist a
closed walk that contains all the edges exactly once. This amounts to saying that it is not
possible to walk over each of the 7 bridges once and return to the starting point.

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