Economic Affairs, Vol. 63, No. 1, pp.

191-202, March 2018

DOI: 10.30954/0424-2513.2018.00150.24
©2018 New Delhi Publishers. All rights reserved

Impact of Mining on Tribal Socio-economic and

Environmental Risks in India
S. Narasimham1 and D.V. Subbarao2
Agricultural Officer, F.T.C. Peddapuram, Andhra Pradesh, India
1

Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University, Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh, India

2

Corresponding author: ftcaotrainings@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Post-independent India’s policies have resulted in development-induced displacement and
impoverishment of a large number of people. As a task of national building processes, planners were
focused more on economic development, which basically emphasized mainly on the growth of GNP. This
resulted in the establishment of Industries, dams, mega projects and mining etc. Introduction of these
projects has brought changes in the patterns of land use, water and other natural resources. Availability of
these minerals in tribal areas has brought huge changes with the opening of various mining companies.
The paper examined mining and its impact on tribals in India.
Keywords: Development, Mining, Displacement, Exploitation, Resettlement, and Livelihood.

Planned development in India brought in its impoverishment when their productive assets or
wake the establishment of large-scale projects in income sources are lost; people are relocated to
power generation, mining, industry, infrastructure environments where their productive skills may be
development, irrigation, in addition to creating new less applicable and the competition for resources is
urban settlements. However, these development greater; community institutions and social networks
projects also led to the displacement of people, are weakened; kin groups are dispersed; cultural
mostly the tribals, from their original habitat forcing identity, traditional authority, and the potential for
them to migrate to new areas. This involuntary mutual help are either diminished or lost; and as a
displacement of people from their productive assets result, violation of human rights (Sengupta, 2001).
(particularly land) and homes, due to industrial or The Scheduled Tribes constituted about 8.2 percent
infrastructure projects has been one of the social of the total population in the country according
issues leading to intense debate among academics, to the 2011 Census. They also constituted 55.16
social activists, and planners. Though the process percent of the total displaced population, which
of land acquisition for setting up mining, irrigation, indicates the extent of victimization of the tribes.
transportation, or mega-industrial projects (mostly Development-induced involuntary displacement
in the public sector) is not new, the intensity of the tribes take place in most states, mainly in
of adverse effects was never comprehended the tribal concentrated regions of Bihar, Orissa,
in the past as it is done today. The problem of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and
Mining-Induced Displacement and Resettlement Maharashtra. Further, it has been observed that
(MIDR) poses major risks to societal sustainability. during the last 60 years, for various dam projects,
Involuntary resettlement under development about 6 crore people have been displaced, out of
projects, if unmitigated, often germinates into which 4 crores have practically turned into beggars
severe economic, social and environmental risks: in the streets (Fernades, 1994; Tripathy, 2003;
productive systems are dismantled; people face Rangachari, 2006).
 Narasimham and Subbarao

A significant number of tribal people, who are their own rules for mineral concessions with respect
generally dependent on the natural and common to minor minerals. Accordingly, most States have
resources, are displaced, and their ethos and framed their own Minor Mineral Concession Rules.
lifestyle is dismantled and denigrated for the sake The first amendment of the MMRD Act was made
of developmental projects. Apart from the loss of in 1972, enhancing government control through
land, living conditions, and lifestyle (of generations), such measures as premature termination of mining
displacement causes other traumatic, psychological leases (ML), lowering of ceiling on individual
and socio-cultural consequences, making life more holdings, for the Central Government to undertake
miserable and impoverished (Mohanty, 2005). prospecting and mining in certain areas and the
In view of the above problems, the present paper removal of ceiling on royalty. The next amendment
is aimed to provide basic information on mining made in 1986 was even more regressive. When prior
and its importance as well as reasons for mining approval of the Central Government that had to
in tribal areas. Besides, it also aims to highlight the be obtained for the mining of scheduled minerals
impact of mining on tribal people and the problems increased from 27 to 38, the Central Government
of rehabilitation programmes. was authorized to reserve areas for Public Sector
Undertakings (PSU’s) and approval of mining plan
HISTORY OF MINING INDUSTRY IN was made mandatory. The MCDR was revised in
INDIA 1988 to enable IBM to monitor and regulate all
mining activities (Pichamuth, 2011).
India has a long history of commercial coal
mining beginning from 1774 with M/s Sumner & The development of this industry is undoubtedly
Heatly of the East India Company in the Ranigunj a milestone in the field of industrial development
area — a portion of undivided Bengal-Bihar of the country. The Indian Bureau of Mines in its
and Orissa unit. This unit was administrated by “Indian Minerals at a Glance”, revealed that India
the Bengal Presidency under the leadership of earned ` 59509 crores from mineral production
Warren Hastings. During the 1800s many private alone.
individuals and companies obtained coal mining Through the new economic policy of 1991, the
leases from the colonial government and started Government of India encouraged privatization
digging and transporting outside India. There were and globalization. At the policy level there was
only 91 mining companies during the 1891 Census, a great shift from the public to the private sector
but by 1942, there were as many as 725 coal mines and from state monopoly to the opening up of the
operating in the whole country at different places market to global trading. The Mines and Mineral
(Premananda Panda, 2011). Regulation and Development Act was amended
After Independence, the country embarked in 1993 in line with the new economic policy of
upon 5-year development plans and the need for the Government of India. This was again amended
increasing coal production by systemic & scientific in 1994 and 1999 to accommodate private parties
development resulted in the setting up of the mostly of foreign origin with a hope of inflow of
National Coal Development Corporation (NCDC) foreign funding. Subsequently, states like Orissa,
in 1956. On account of burgeoning energy needs, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and
unscientific mining practices and poor working Andhra Pradesh etc. are accelerating further today
conditions adopted by the private mine owners than ever before in terms of extraction of mineral
of the central government decided to nationalize deposits, MoUs with the cooperate bodies, and
the private coal mines. In pursuance of the IPR, also unwanted disturbing forces such as the naxals.
the Parliament enacted the Mines and Minerals Compared to the colonial forces that subjugated the
(Regulation and Development) Act, 1957 [MMRD native Adivasis, the country after independence
Act] applicable to all minerals except mineral oil. has been more exploitative in nature in terms
Mineral Concession Rules (MCR) and Mineral of the extraction of commercially viable mines
Conservation and Development Rules (MCDR) and minerals without foreseeing the social cost
were framed under the Act. MCR deals with major incurred by the communities living in and around
minerals but the State governments are free to frame the natural resources. The snow clad mountains

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 Impact of Mining on Tribal Socio-economic and Environmental Risks in India

are increasing in area every day. This places compensation is, therefore, inadequate, usually
mother earth at great environmental risk, causes based on national market value. The subsequent
a huge loss to the cultural ecology of the people value of the land after implementation of the project
at the grassroots, and generates a threat to the is enormous but is never taken into account. This
symbiotic relationship between the resources and encourages the tendency to acquire land in excess
the people that has existed since time immemorial. of the requirement. Mining companies in particular
Sustainability is inherent in the practice of tribal acquire land far in excess of requirements.
communities. However, it has altered through the
history of political and economic subordination with BRIEF OUTLINE ON SCALE OF
the customary rights of the people on the common DISPLACEMENT
property resources being ignored and mutilated. Asian countries record the highest incidence of
Finding no other alternative, the people resort to displacement. In India, around 21 million people
non-traditional sources of income. This results in were affected during the last four decades. Though
the increasing participation of people in the labour millions of people have been displaced by various
market as diggers, lifters, and other labour intensive planned development schemes since independence,
engagements, while a few unfortunates who fail to no reliable data exists on the extent of displacement
secure any employment migrate across the state and rehabilitation. Only a few official statistics are
borders to work in brick kilns, construction units, available. Some case studies indicate that official
etc. sources, by and large, tend to underestimate the
number of persons displaced by development
WHY TRIBAL LAND FOR MINING projects. Among the displacing agents like dams,
There has been a steady exploitation of natural industries and mines, dams occupy the top position.
resources from tribal areas for the purpose of nation An estimate in eight states of India, viz. Andhra
building. The pressure on forests mostly come from Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Goa, Jharkhand, Kerala,
outside the forestry sector and among them the Orissa and West Bengal, shows that about 19,781,109
most important cause is mining. Mines can occupy people were displaced by projects effected between
and spoil large tracts of land. Many mines have been 1947 and 2004. If other states of the country are to
opened during the last decades and still more are on be added, the figure becomes double. A significant
the way. These affect the forest ecosystem to which number of the displaced people are the tribal and
the tribal communities “social support system” is economically marginal rural populations who
intimately connected. depend on natural resources such as forests and
The mines are located largely in the traditional rivers for their livelihoods.
habitats of the tribes and have been looked upon A total of 213 lakh people have been displaced
as the resources of the entire country. Tribal areas by various development projects (Femandes and
produce most of the country’s coal, mica, bauxite Paranjpye, 1997: 15). These figures do not include the
and other minerals. They have been exploited in sizeable number of people who are acknowledged as
the name of national interest, unfortunately by being ‘project affected’ (by loss of livelihood caused
extinguishing the rights of the scheduled tribes, and by natural resources extraction or degradation),
by paying nominal monetary compensation only those displaced in urban areas and those victimized
for land. Tribal communities quite often had their by the phases of secondary displacement. If they are
habitats and homelands fragmented, their cultures tallied, the number of displaced since independence
disrupted, their communities shattered, and have would be as high as 4 crore (Kothari, 1996). The
been converted from owners of the resources within number of people permanently up-rooted from their
well knit contented communities to individual homes is equal to or larger than the population of
wage earners in urban agglomerates with uncertain many major sovereign countries. Of the 213 lakh
futures and threatened existence. Since, tribal land displaced people estimated by Walter Fernandes
is generally non transferable, the land markets and V Paranjpye, 25.5 lakh people have been
are underdeveloped and the cost of acquiring displaced by mines, 12.5 lakh by industries, 164
land in tribal areas is extremely low. The rate of lakh by large and medium dams, six lakh by park

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 Narasimham and Subbarao

and wildlife operations and five lakh by other Involuntary displacement of the tribals from their
projects. Among development projects, dams are habitat through the government’s acquisition of land
the biggest agents of displacement. India has the and forest to facilitate processes of industrialization
distinction of having the largest number of river such as mining, heavy industries and dams etc;
valley projects in the world. For rapid irrigation have threatened the voiceless masses. Hence,
and hydroelectricity production, there are a total of tribal people who have lived for centuries in their
3,643 dams (major and medium), which have been ecology are now in the process of transformation.
constructed during the period of 1951-90. Together In addition, it has also been observed that there
with 53.9 lakh displaced by medium dams, a total has been a shift in the use of land and forest for
of 164 lakh people have been displaced by all dams non-agriculture and non-forest activities. During
during the period of 1951-90. Thus, backward the post 1990 period, land and forest in states
communities, and more particularly people in tribal such as Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
regions have been most affected in this process Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand have been acquired for
of development since they live in resource-rich industrialization, especially for mining.
regions. Due to rapid industrialization in tribal
areas, 3.13 lakh people have been displaced due to IMPACT OF MINING ON SCHEDULED
mining operations, and a total of 13.3 lakh tribals TRIBES
have been displaced from their ancestral lands. In For centuries, indigenous people lived in a
addition to direct displacement, mining activity harmonious relationship with their environment.
also affects the livelihoods of thousands more as Since their lives are closely related to nature, any
water tables get disrupted, an excessive burden is adverse impact on the environment in which they
dumped on fertile agricultural land and forests are live will adversely affect their lives as well, and
cut (Mohapatra, 1991). Not only are communities vice versa. The concept of displacement should be
deprived of their vital subsistence resources, their seen from the wider perspective of this symbiotic
long-term sustainability is also jeopardized. relationship between environment and people.
Otherwise, it may lead to further deterioration
LEGAL AND POLICY ASPECT ON of natural resources available in tribal areas. The
DISPLACEMENT large-scale exploitation of the natural resources of
To carry out the process of expropriation and tribal areas through the development of mines has
alienation from landholding rights, the state is various negative impacts on their socio-economic
well equipped with a set of colonial laws under life. Some of the important issues are highlighted
the Land Acquisition Act (LAA) amended in 1984. in the following.
The British were all set to modernize the then
capital city, Calcutta, but they were ill equipped, Physical Environment
without acquiring the state rights over individual In spite of the existence of strict environment laws
land. The first All India Act VI of 1857 was passed and regulations like the Forest Conservation Act
where land owners were required by the legislature and the Environment Protection Act, there are
to surrender some of the rights they possessed serious violations of these legislations. Tribal areas,
over their land for the purpose of public utility. A being remote and inaccessible and tribals being
comprehensive LAA covering the whole of British illiterate and ignorant, mining companies can easily
India became an Act on March 1st, 1894. Under the violate all environmental rules and regulations.
clause of “Eminent Domain” and “Public Purpose” The mining companies normally go ahead with
the state acquires private land. The Central LAA mining operations without any environment impact
enables the acquisition of land. On the other hand, assessment studies or environment management
the matter of state’s provision for compensation plans submitted prior to the commencement of
and R&R measures differ from state to state. In mining activity. This also contributes to over
addition to LAA, the Coal-Bearing Areas Act, 1957, exploitation of natural resources in tribal areas. The
occupies a prominent place in land acquisition and exploitation of mineral resources through surface
displacement (Bahera N.K. 2012). and underground mining has caused wide ranging

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 Impact of Mining on Tribal Socio-economic and Environmental Risks in India

environmental problems such as land degradation, its banks. A study of the area showed that a single
air, water and noise pollution, etc. These problems coal washery was discharging about 40 tonnes of
are accentuated by the multiplier effect of mining fine coal into the Damodar every day. There are as
in the tribal areas, which has acted as a catalyst for many as eleven coal washeries in the region with
urbanization and industrialization. an annual installed capacity of 20.52 million tonnes.
Land degradation: Large-scale mining and allied It is also important to note that the Damodar is
activities have caused severe damage to the land considered as a sacred river by the Santal tribals.
resources of the tribal areas. The forests and Unfortunately, it has become quite like a sewage
agricultural lands belonging to the tribal people canal, shrunken and filled with filth and rubbish,
have been laid waste because of haphazard mining. emanating obnoxious odours. Other major rivers of
Underground mining operations, especially of coal, the region are also seriously polluted for instance,
have created unsafe surface conditions in many the Karo River in west Singhbhum is polluted with
areas warranting diversion of roads, railway lines, red oxide from the iron ore mines of Noamundi,
etc, and the shifting of a number of townships. Over Gua and Chiria. The Subarnarekha shows a different
49 localities have been declared unsafe for human type of pollution, even more hazardous than this.
habitation in the Raniganj coalfield area alone. Metallic and dissolved toxic wastes from Tata Iron
The union government is reportedly planning to and Steel Company (TISCO), Jamshedpur and HCL,
rehabilitate people in the new town of Mangalpur Ghatsila; radioactive wastes from the uranium mill
near Raniganj, where 60,000 people are affected by and tailing ponds of the Uranium Corporation
mine-related subsidence (Anon, 1994). According of India Limited (UCIL) at Jaduguda flow into
to the Chari Committee report, 6,055.5 hectares of Subarnarekha and its tributaries. Millions of people
land in Raniganj coalfield and 4,561.14 hectares in living along the banks of these rivers are compelled
Jharia coalfield have been severely damaged due to to drink water which contains both radioactive
subsidence, abandoned quarries and spoil dumps and chemically contaminated wastes. Mining and
(Chari et al. 1989). Of the 2.13 million hectares of allied operations are causing serious air pollution
land in which coal is found in India, over 0.36 in the region. Open cast quarries, coal washeries,
million hectares (16.9 per cent) have been damaged thermal power plants, coke-oven plants, cement
due to the past coal mining activities (Rehana and factories, fertilizer plants, etc., contribute to serious
Saxena, 1994). According to B P Baliga (1994), in air pollution (Areeparampali: 1996). In Orissa, The
the 1980s the coal mining industry was identified River Brahmani (Its tributaries) gets about 98000
as a major cause of damage to the environment, crore litres of polluted water that are discharged
with more than 75 sq km of land being destroyed from the mine (MCL) every year (and on an average
every year. 10000 litre from the Jagannath colliery alone). The
level of heavy metals in this water, is higher than that
Water and Air pollution: Large-scale mining
in water from industrial waste water and exceeds
operations going on in the tribal areas have
the limits prescribed by the State Pollution Control
adversely affected the ground water table in many
Board. According to the board, the water quality
areas with the result that the yield of water from
of the Brahmani River at several stations under the
the wells of adjoining areas has drastically reduced.
MINAR (Monitoring of Indian National Aquatic
Further, effluents discharged from mine sites have
Resources) programme and the level of suspended
seriously polluted the streams and underground
solids in the Brahmani river water, remains fairly
waters of the area. Acid mine drainage, liquid
high through-out the year and “very high” during
effluents from coal handling plants, colliery
the monsoon. Studies conducted by the College
workshops and mine sites as well as suspended
of Veterinary science, OUAT, Bhubaneswar show
solids from coal washeries have all caused serious
that 23.7% of domestic animals in Talcher mining
water pollution by adversely affecting fish and
area were affected with muscular skeletal system
aquatic life. As stated by Singh J. (1985), the
disorder and 25% of domestic animals in Talcher
Damodar River, the major source of water in the
mining area were affected with mouth disease. The
region, is perhaps the most polluted river in India.
primary study of the College of Veterinary science,
It receives waste from many industries situated on
OUAT indicates that most of the animals exhibited

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 Narasimham and Subbarao

the clinical signs of respiratory system failure in Plan period. More than 32,750 families have been
villages near the mining area. Significantly high displaced. But Coal India could offer jobs only to 11,
rates were recorded in abnormalities of respiratory 901 displaced people (Government of India 1985).
system and eye (Panda, Debadutta Kumar, 2010). (b) A study by CMPDI has envisaged that between
1994 and 95, the total land requirement for coal
ACQUISITION OF LAND projects in Jharkhand area would be 62,642 hectares
The indigenous people have a special relationship of which 22,843 ha (37 per cent) would be forest
with their land. To them land is not simply a factor land. Out of this, 11,909 hectares of forest land and
of production. It has a spiritual significance as well. 26,576 hectares of non-forest land would be taken
With regard to ownership of land, the indigenous up by coal projects in the Karanpura valley alone
people have concepts different from ours. Often, (Tandon G L 1990:29).
ownership of land is vested in the community (c) The Rajmahal Coal Mining project of ECL in the
and no individual has the right to permanently Godda district will displace about 6,000 people from
alienate the land from the community. The tribe is seven villages. In this project the pit area under
the trustee of the land it occupies. The community proposed mining covers 5.5 sq km. The Piparwar
or tribe includes not only the living members but Coal Project, located in the North Karanpura valley,
also their ancestors and future generations. Their covers an area of 6.38 sq km with mineable coal
society, culture, religion, identity and their very reserves of 197 million tonnes. The Piparwar open
existence are intimately linked to the land they pit mine that started in January 1990 is the first of
hold. To separate the indigenous people from their what could be no less than 24 new coal mines, which
land is tantamount to tearing them away from would rip the valley from one end to the other
their life-giving source. However, there has been to yield 29 tonnes of coal annually. According to
continuous exploitation of land, which is the main official claims, the project will displace 460 families
source of livelihoods for many of the tribal people from two villages. However, unofficial reports say
in the country. The following cases will provide that at least 15,000 people from 14 villages and
better understanding on how tribal lands have been hamlets will be severely affected by the mines,
acquired by mining companies. the washery and other auxiliaries. The project is
(a) In Jharkhand region, many have been illegally causing severe damage to the environment - 289
dispossessed of their land. Many have been forced hectares of reserved forests are being clear-felled
to leave their homes to work in the brick kilns for the construction of the mine and other facilities.
and stone quarries of north Bihar, West Bengal, The coal produced at Piparwar will be transported
UP, Punjab and other places as contract and even to two thermal plants near Delhi for generating
bonded labourers. Although the exact extent of electricity for the use of industry and domestic
land alienation and displacement is difficult to consumers in Delhi.
ascertain, the major causes of land alienation and All this would happen at the terrible cost of
displacement in the area is the mining industry, environmental destruction and social damage in the
particularly coal. In the past, vast tracts of the coal entire north Karanpura valley. The north Karanpura
bearing areas of Damodar Valley had been acquired valley contains some of the best rice lands and
by private firms often by fraud and had been turned forests in Hazaribagh district. The valley is also
into waste-lands by haphazard mining. After the unique in its archaeological significance. Recently,
nationalization of the coal industry, the coal mining exquisite prehistoric rock paintings have been
in this region was entrusted to Coal India (CIL) and discovered in cave shelters at Isco and Thethangi in
its subsidiary companies BCCL, ECL, and CCL. the eastern part of the valley. Further, ancient stone
These coal companies are at present acquiring implements, iron slag and burial grounds have been
extensive land areas and displacing a large number found at several places close to the Piparwar mine
of families. According to an estimate, between site. All these remnants of a rich and long cultural
1981 and 1985, the Central Coalfields acquired 1, history are threatened with imminent destruction
20,300 acres of land. Similarly, Eastern Coalfields due to the project. According to the Directory of
has acquired about 30,000 acres during the Sixth Mines and Mine Leases published in 1976 by the

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 Impact of Mining on Tribal Socio-economic and Environmental Risks in India

Indian Bureau of Mines, there were about 300 the expansion of the industrial-urban sector further
mines operating in Singhbhum and more than resulted, in many cases, in the migration of tribal
1,51,000 acres of land were leased out, which were people to outside regions in search of livelihood.
owned mostly by private agencies. However, the The immigrant outsiders have legally or by fraud
total land area affected by mining is many times displaced the tribal people from their habitat. In
greater than the simple lease area. A lot of land Singhbhum, the proportion of STs and SCs fell from
is illegally mined by private contractors. Besides, 58.54 per cent in 1931 to 47.38 per cent in 1991;
land is also converted into roads, townships for the proportion of ST alone fell from 54.08 per cent
miners, infrastructure for administrative purposes, in 1931 to 42.28 per cent in 1991. The situation is
stockyard for preliminary processing operations, etc. similar in other parts of Jharkhand. Districts like
Further, disposal of mining debris creates pollution Dhanbad, Ranchi and Hazaribagh have also had a
and makes agricultural fields infertile forcing the very great increase in the number of immigrants.
people to abandon or alienate their lands and move About 32 per cent of the people living in Dhanbad
out to other areas (Areeparampali: 1996). district in 1981 were in-migrants.
(d) For Langigarh Project, the Government of During 1981-91 alone the proportion of STs to the
Orissa has signed up with the Vedant Company of total population in the whole of Chhotanagpur and
the UK for extracting aluminium from bauxite in Santhal Parganas fell from 30.26 per cent to 27.67
Niyamgiri Hills. A total of 1444.666 hectares of land per cent. This clearly shows the rapid increase in the
was acquired, of which 723.34 hectares was for the influx of outsiders. The displacement of indigenous
alumina refinery, and 721.323 hectares for the mines. people can also occur through indirect pressure on
This includes 730.961 hectares of forest land, and the their lives by the establishment of industries, mines,
project displaces a little more than 100 families. The towns, etc. One such factor which forces them to
tribals have been apprehensive of being deprived of move out of their habitats is the pollution of air
232.75 hectares of their land. Further, the Dangaria and water. For example, the cement dust from the
Kondhs of Kalahandi District are likely to lose their ACC cement factory at Jhinkpani in Singhbhum
homes and sources of livelihood. Similarly, the is polluting the air and making vast areas of
Doraguda plant alone affects 2500 persons, while agricultural and practically useless. Besides this,
open cast mining in Baphlimali is likely to affect the adivasis have an aversion towards the dikus
2500 families in 24 villages in three Panchayats and move out of their areas because of the conflict
namely; Chandragiri, Maikanch and Kodipari of cultures when the dikus became the majority
(Premananda Panda, 2012). (Areeparampil, Mathew, 1996). The increasing
It is clear that many tribal families were displaced criminalization of society in the industrial-urban
from their ancestral lands due to the construction sector due to robbery, goondaism, prostitution,
of mines. They have not yet been properly resettled, communal riots, etc, is another reason why the
nor have they received full compensation for their simple tribal people opt out of such areas. This
lands. The further expansion of mining activities negative urban pressure is accompanied by rising
in tribal areas has acted as the most powerful price offers by speculators for their land. These push
stimulant in the emergence of new industries and in and pull effects have indirectly forced the tribal
the growth of new urban centres. This in turn have people to move out of their hearths and homes.
caused further alienation of indigenous people’s
land and their displacement.
JOBLESSNESS
In the process of development, tribal areas are
MIGRATION OF TRIBAL PEOPLE witnessing not development but the exploitation
The rapid expansion of industries and mines of its people and of its natural wealth through a
in tribal areas was followed by a phenomenal process of colonialist and capitalist exploitation. The
growth in urbanization and a large-scale influx brutality inherent in the process of industrialization
of outsiders to the area. This in turn has resulted - the plundering of mineral wealth, and the
in increased land alienation and displacement of decimation of forests which provided much of the
indigenous people. This displacement, caused by livelihood for their people, has not only reduced

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 Narasimham and Subbarao

the majority of the inhabitants of these areas to DISRUPTION OF FORMAL

destitution but has also brought the area to the brink EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES
of an ecological disaster. The large-scale exploitation
Mining induced displacement also disrupts
of mineral resources in tribal areas require casual
education and routine socialization. Cernea,(1999)
labour.
notes that displacement and relocation often cause a
The indigenous people who are reduced to significant interruption in the functioning of schools
destitution are forced to accept this role. Capitalist and in child access to education during the year of
development and exploitation thus form a vicious transfer or for longer periods of time. Empirical
circle for the tribal people. On the one hand, it has studies show that a number of these children never
rendered ever increasing numbers of them destitute return to school and instead join the labour force
through eviction, destruction of their sources of at an early age. The process of relocation distracts
livelihood, etc, and on the other, it has utilized their parents from focusing on their children’s education
destitute condition to employ them for a specific as they struggle to reconstruct their physical and
role in this process, namely, that of sweat labour productive environment.
or proletariat.
It is further stated that use of sophisticated and LOSS OF CONTROL OVER COMMON
modern technologies with foreign investment PROPERTY RESOURCES AND SCARCITY
helps to carry out mining activities with minimum OF FOOD
human resources, hence providing employment When mining companies take over not only patta
only to highly competitive and professional white lands but also forest and government lands, village
collar employees. The few jobs available relate to commons, etc, the local people lose all control
supervisory and skilled work, which are given to over the resources. Houses and places of worship
non tribals as the literacy rate among the tribals are demolished, forests are cleared, grazing lands,
is very low. A study conducted by Pandey (1998) burial grounds, etc are occupied, thus leaving the
discovered that before displacement about 56% communities with no scope for following their
of women were unemployed; the figure rose to earlier livelihood patterns. Migration to other
84% after displacement. In the primary sector, areas makes the host communities hostile to the
employment dropped from 37 to 12 percent, while newcomers who would not be willing to share their
in the secondary sector it fell from 6% to nil. As a common property. People, especially women, have
result, women who were already marginal in the to walk longer distances and spend more hours of
production process were deeply downgraded. work for grazing cattle, gathering food and fuel
wood, etc. when these common properties are
LOSS OF HOME destroyed. By losing their lands, trees and forest,
The pattern of new poverty persists in displacement the tribals are deprived of food security leading
risk and homelessness is defined as the “loss of to starvation just as the tribals of Orissa. Forest
house-plots, dwellings and shelter.” For many produce which fulfils the tribals’ food, domestic
people homelessness may be only temporary, but in and consumption requirements like fodder, fuel
poorly executed displacements, it remains chronic. wood, housing, medicinal needs is the main
New poverty becomes a problem when the losses go source of income though the collection of NTFP
beyond the simple loss of a structure. Homelessness gets destroyed as a result of mining activity. Water
or the replacement of a house with a structure for drinking, domestic purposes and irrigation is
that its occupants may not consider “a home” is diverted to serve the needs of the industry.
often associated with a profound loss of identity
and cultural impoverishment as the symbolic DESTRUCTION TO SOCIAL SYSTEM
importance of place, in terms of family cohesion and One of the major risks of forced displacement is the
a remembered location for mutual support, not only fracture of the social fabric. Communities are torn
from the household but neighboring households as apart and family members can be separated from
well, is disturbed. each other. As a result, the loss of what constitutes
their social capital leads to serious decline in people’s

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 Impact of Mining on Tribal Socio-economic and Environmental Risks in India

power to face their new situation. This has long- experiencing a slow, agonizing death due to
term consequences on the displaced population. radiation and contamination of their environment.
There is a severe strain on the social system as tribal Life-giving resources such as air, water, animals,
communities follow very distinct social practices fishes, plants, etc, have been affected. Known and
which get eroded due to the intrusion of non tribal unknown diseases have spread into the villages
communities. Social evils like dowry, alcoholism, ringing the knell of death (Areeparampil, 1993).
wife battering, beggary, destitution, etc., which do
not exist in tribal society get introduced by non- STATUS OF TRIBAL WOMEN
tribals. The destruction of their social system also Women hold a respectable position in tribal societies
threatens the displaced tribal population as they slip and there is no evidence of harassment of women
into lower socio-economic status relative to their in traditional practices. However, tribal women in
local areas. Such marginalization is accompanied by India were most adversely affected due to mining.
a loss in self-esteem, especially when the displaced The loss of authority and right was compounded
become “outsiders” and “newcomers” in host by the breakup of families, weakening of kinship
communities. ties, loss of the security and insurance created
by family and kinship relationships. They were
LOSS OF RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL severely affected socially, economically and in
IDENTITY health. Besides, women would have to walk longer
The tribal’s religious and cultural practices are distances for gathering food and fuel wood as the
affected badly due to mining projects. The aesthetic forest would be cut down for mining. Women are
cultural practices of the tribal community are the first victims of food insufficiency leading to
completely under threat. With the degeneration serious health problems. Women are often thrown
of association from nature has originated the out of their economic role when land is alienated for
degeneration in cultural values, ceremonies mining. Any employment provided by companies
and social celebrations and common property is rarely being given to women. They are forced
management practices. Festivals have lost their to give up their life of dignity for performing
significance as association is with mine-pits and not menial tasks in the industrial townships. Any
forests. The deities of the tribals, sacred groves, hills compensation or skills training is given to the men
and caves, traditional forms of tribal folklore and in the displaced villages and not to the women.
wisdom are also greatly affected, along with the Tribal women suffer from an increase in domestic
degradation in their oral and traditional law and violence as their productive activities in farm work,
order systems that ensure protection of forests and kitchen gardens, and the collection and sale of
community relationships. minor forest produce and other cottage industries
decreases or ceases entirely. Women are no longer
HEALTH PROBLEMS productive contributors to their households, and
Health problems associated with displacement lose social status within the community where
are well documented. The already marginal they once held recognized roles. The authority and
health status of tribal people is worsened by the right they enjoyed in decision-making as income
stress and trauma of involuntary displacement. earners is weakened. With the shift from traditional
Recurring problems are reported with resettled to modern lifestyle, the women find it extremely
populations not gaining access to safe potable water difficult to adapt and face severe social and cultural
and safe sewage; increased diarrhoea, dysentery exploitation.
and epidemic infections. The health impacts fall
disproportionately on infants, children, expecting ILLEGITIMISATION AND POLITICAL
mothers and the elderly. For example, due to the UNREST
mining and processing of uranium in their area, Encroachment on to forest lands after displacement
the tribal people and others living at Jaduguda make the tribals criminals in the eyes of the law.
and nearby villages have become the immediate Displaced tribals are not given any alternate land or
victims of the hazards of radioactivity. They are are given land unfit for cultivation, forcing them to

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 Narasimham and Subbarao

cut down fresh patches of forests. They face constant many projects of the agencies formulating them,
harassment from the forest department either in India’s civil society has also played an active role
the form of extortion of money or by arrest and in the development of these policies. The following
criminal proceedings. The poor tribal is accused principles emerged from that broad public debate:
of destroying the forest through podu cultivation, 1. Minimize displacement
while the government sanctions the cutting down of
2. People’s livelihood should become the
large tracts of forest lands in tribal areas for mining
fundamental consideration in all decisions
companies.
about displacement.
Politically, the tribal area in the Eastern Ghats is
3. The public purpose should be defined in a
already disturbed due to the presence of extremist
restrictive manner as public interest.
forces. Exploitation and displacement of tribals by
the state would only lead to tribals joining militant 4. No democratic society can accept a decision
groups and taking up arms. Mining regions in the without the participation of the affected
country like Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, the north east persons.
and Orissa are already facing serious problems of 5. The policy should recognize the historically
unrest as a result of mining. established rights of the tribal and rural
communities over natural resources and their
REHABILITATION AND RESETTLEMENT sustenance.
POLICIES IN INDIA 6. The principle of compensation should be
The content of any national policy for resettlement replacement value and not the market value
and rehabilitation has to be considered primarily or present depreciated value.
from the perspective of those communities who 7. Even if the principle is accepted that DPs/
suffer the brunt of displacement and face the terrible PAPs should receive a share in the benefits
risks of getting even poorer. Till now, India as a of projects that displace them.
whole has not had a national rehabilitation law
8. A policy has to have a positive tribal/
or policy. Several states and some public sector
Dalit/gender bias and should ensure that
companies have adopted their own policies for
their special needs are met and their
displacement and resettlement.
marginalization is prevented.
The Indian government began the policy drafting
9. Regional planning is required to avoid
process only in 1985 when the National Commission
multiple displacements.
for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes indicated
that about 40 per cent of the DPs/PAPs were tribals. 10. Rehabilitation is a right of the DPs so the
The Central Ministry of Welfare appointed a project that displaces them has a duty to
committee to prepare a rehabilitation policy for ensure it. It may delegate its implementation
tribal DPs. However, the committee said, correctly, to someone else, it may take the form of land
that the policy should cover all the DPs, not tribal’s for land, but the people’s right is sacred.
alone, that rehabilitation should be integral to 11. A policy is not legally binding. So there
every project above a certain size in the public should be a new law based on its principles
as well as private sectors, and that undertaking (Fernandes and Paranjpye, 1997: 22-30).
rehabilitation must be binding on the state and the
project implementing agencies (GOI, 1985). Policy However, the states have failed to provide adequate
formulation took a new turn in 1993 when in the compensation for land and house, and basic
wake of the World Bank withdrawal from the Sardar amenities such as water, schools, hospitals and
Sarovar project on the Narmada, the Ministry of employment opportunities for landless labour. The
Rural Development prepared a draft, revised it in common property resources of the people in the
1994 and again in 1998. It was finalized in 2003 and tribal areas are not valued in the right perspective,
published in 2004. and the titles of the house plots have not been made
Though most rehabilitation policies and laws were available to the displaced. Moreover, traditional
probably prompted by the World Bank that funds rights are never given importance at the time of

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 Impact of Mining on Tribal Socio-economic and Environmental Risks in India

deciding compensation, and there has been failure impact on forest-dependent tribals the most. The
to provide land for land and subsistence allowance greatest impact of displacement due to mining
during transition periods. There has been no public has been the transformation of tribals from a
hearing or open discussion with the affected people close association and symbiosis with nature to
before they were displaced. Besides, social security culturally and ecologically degraded communities.
based on kinship relations has never been taken The situation in these areas are already disturbing,
into account while rehabilitating and resettling the with massive mining leading to the displacement
displaced and affected people. There were neither of tribals, destruction of their livelihood support
selective consultancies nor consultations made with system including forests and water sources, large
the villagers and local NGOs. scale air and water pollution, and destruction
On the whole, it is found that everywhere the of socio-cultural life through massive influx of
affected population is under-estimated and not paid outsiders. Besides, the R&R Act, 2007, GOI is
proper attention to by the project which takes away inadequate to safeguard the economic, cultural and
their land and thereby their livelihood. Experience social interests and identities of the tribal people.
has proved that rehabilitation and resettlement is This has strongly affected the mindset of the tribal
always second in priority to the construction and people. Undoubtedly, mining induced displacement
execution of the project. Some key reasons why has brought a drastic change in socio-economic and
resettlement projects fail to achieve their own stated cultural life of the tribal people, which provide
goals are: symbolic meaning to their existence, social control,
and interaction. Subsequently, it also has resulted
(a) Weak implementing institutions. These
in emergence of many revolutionary movements
lack a clear policy mandate, organizational
in tribal areas which act as counterproductive in
capacity, and professional social engineering
nation building process. Therefore, there is an
skills. This relates to a lack of commitment
urgent need for re-examining the rehabilitation
to the resettlement aspect of the broader
project by considering the people’s socio-economic
development project, and is correspondingly
and cultural needs and immediate attentions are
often coupled with an authoritarian approach
required from corporate sectors to provide basic
towards the management of settlement.
needs of the displaced people who sacrificed for
(b) The complexities inherent in the resettlement the growth of the industry. Such initiatives will
process. Weak implementing institutions are help in reviving the relationship between the tribal
even less able to deal with this complexity, and people and the state from a contractual type to a
often respond in a simplistic, authoritarian symbiotic type. Considering the fact, it is desirable
manner. to rethink and reformulate our policy for a justified
(c) Resistance: Weak institutions and the distribution of development benefits and to protect
complexities of the resettlement process tend the due share of the poor tribal’s. Especially
to give rise to resistance, which depending separate set of development measures are needed
on its trajectory can result in project capacity for tribes who mostly depend on their land and
becoming even more compromised, and forest resources. In the wake of unrest problems,
failure even more likely there is more need to enlist people’s participation
by creating employment opportunities and income
CONCLUSION generation activities through industry and other
To sum up, mining has become one of the most service sectors.
important sources for the nation’s development.
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