Week 9: RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS Week 10: DEFINITION OF TERMS

Hypothesis Definition

- A statement of researcher’s predictions - In a research study, concept or

about what is expected from their study variables need to be defined based on how they
will be used in the study because a definition
- Posits a clear relationship between
from the dictionary will usually not suffice
different factors
- This is to further clarify the purpose of
Hypothesis Testing
the study
- A systematic process used to make
TWO TYPES OF DEFINITION
decisions about population parameters based on
sample data Conceptual Definition

Research Hypothesis - What a concept means in abstract or

theoretical terms; may be taken from the
- It is known as alternative or affirmative
dictionary
hypothesis
Operational Definition
Null Hypothesis (HO)
- Links a concept to the concrete world
- The statement “There is no significant
by telling you how to observe and/or measure
relationship between two variables or more”
the concept
- The assumption there is no relationship
- This is a definition made by the
or difference between the variables you are
researcher based on how the term(s) will be used
testing
in a particular field of study
Alternative Hypothesis
EXAMPLE:
- The statement “There is a significant
Concept Conceptual Operational
relationship between Parental Guidance and
Definition Definition
Academic Performance” Love A feeling of Number of
- If hypothesis is based on predicted intense positive times someone
result, what type of hypothesis is the following: emotion glances toward
toward another their loved one
Exposure to music affects the level of anxiety
individual. A
- A statement that suggests a significant desire to be
effect or difference in a statistical test with and
protect that
Simple Hypothesis person
- It states the relationship between one
independent variable and one dependent
variable REMEMBER THIS

Complex Hypothesis - The operational definition might also specify

that subjects’ height will be measured using a
- If hypothesis is based on number of meter stick without any footwear
variables, what type of hypothesis is the
following: illiteracy and unemployment lead to - There will be times that disagreement or
higher incidence of crime confusion might arise with how researchers
conceptually and operationally
Non-Directional Hypothesis
- This is the advantage of being precise with your
- It states that relationship or differences definition
exists between variables, but the direction of
that relationship is not explained

- If hypothesis is based on direction,

what type of hypothesis is the following: Health
affects the level of stress among senior high
school students
Week 11: METHODOLOGY POPULATION AND SAMPLING OR KEY
INFORMANT SELECTION
Research Methodology
- Describe the demographic characteristics of the
- Is a way to systematically solve the
respondents/participants
research problem
- Describe the sampling technique used
- It may be understood as a science of
studying how to research is done scientifically - Enumerate the inclusion and exclusion criteria
(C.R Kothari, 2004) used in the selection of the participants

GUIDELINES IN WRITING RESEARCH - For animal samples, the genus and species must
METHODOLOGY be specified

- The Research Methodology section is written - The researchers also need to specify the
with two purposes in mind: condition of the animals (i.e. castrated,
pregnant, etc.)
1) replicate
- The manner on how they were fed, and their
2) evaluate
environment (temperature, lighting) during the
- The scientific method requires that the results experiment
be reproducible, and the researcher must
RESEARCH ETHICS
provide a basis for repetition of the study by
others - This is the section where the researcher can
attest that the study was conducted with
- This ensures that the study has undergone
consideration to the rights of the human subjects
scientific process and that the tools utilized in
they will involve in the study
the study are valid and reliable
- In this section, the researchers must enumerate
- Flaws in this section usually result to rejection
the ethical principles maintained in the study,
in publication
and how it was maintained, including ethical
- This section has several subsections. The board reviews or permissions on animal usage
number of subsections will sometimes depend
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
on the format of the institution or the target
journal of the researcher - Each instrument or questionnaire used in the
study must be described in detail here
- To ensure that no section of this section will be
missed, it is advisable to follow the sections - Mention the number of parts, the types of
explicated in this manual questions, the number of items, and which item
or part will answer specific question
RESEARCH DESIGN
- Whether the instrument is borrowed or made
- Discuss the approach (qualitative/ quantitative)
by the researcher, it must be stated in this
and design (phenomenology, experimental,
section
descriptive, etc.) used in the study
- For borrowed questionnaires, permission to
- The reason why the design was chosen must be
use must be secured from the original author
justified
- The researcher also needs to mention how
- Just like in any problem or any question, there
validity and reliability testing were done
are several possible solutions or answers, but the
most appropriate one must be chosen - If equipment and materials were use, just like
in experiments, those available off the shelf
RESEARCH LOCALE
should be described exactly and the sources of
- Describe the geographic characteristics of the materials or specimens should be given
place of study
- Modifications to equipment or equipment
- In this section, anonymity must always be constructed specifically for the study must be
observed carefully described in detail

- It is also imperative to state the reasons why

the specific locale was chosen

- The locale or the place where the study will be

conducted must be fit to address the needs of
the study
DATA COLLECTION DATA ANALYSIS

- The step-by-step process must be explained - The statistical tests used in the study will be
comprehensively by the researcher mentioned here

- For experimental studies, the methods used to - When and how each statistical test was used
prepare reagents, fixatives, and stains should be must be specified
stated exactly, though often, references to
- The researcher must be precise in describing
standard recipes in other will suffice
measurements and he must include errors of
- For studies where subjects are exposed to a measurements
certain intervention, the intervention must be
- Ordinary statistical methods could be used
described in detail
without citations, while advanced or unusual
- The type of intervention, how it was designed, methods may require a literature citation
who designed it, the duration and frequency of
- Basic formulas are not needed to be included,
exposure, the manner on how observations will
unless originally created by the researcher, or
be measured or tested, and who will measure
the formula is unusual
the observations need to be explained in this
section - If a statistical software was utilized, it is
advisable to specify the software used and the
- The usual order or presentation of methods
version in this section
may need to be described together and strict
chronological other cannot always be followed

- If the methods are new, the researcher must

provide all of the details required to repeat the
methods

- However, of a method has been previously

published in standard journal, only the name of
the method and a literature reference need to be
cited

- There are two main types of data that users find

themselves working with- and having to collect

- Qualitative Data

- Quantitative Data

Qualitative Data

- Can data be counted: NO

- Data type: Words, Objects, Pictures,

Observations, and Symbole

Quantitative Data

- Can data be counted: YES

- Data type: Number and Statistics

- A larger sample size is usually required when

collecting quantitative data

- This is in contrast with qualitative data which

does not require a big sample
Week 12: RESEARCH INSTRUMENT INTERVIEWS

WHAT IS THE REQUIREMENT IN DEVELOPING AN - In collecting quantitative data, the interview is

INSTRUMENT? more structured than when gathering qualitative
data, comprised of a prepared set of standard
- Clearly define the construct of the
questions
measurement instrument;
- ADVANTAGE: Allows the researcher to make
- Conduct a pilot study to test the measurement
clarifications on any answer given by the
instrument;
interviewee
- Determine the validity of the measurement
- DISADVANTAGE: not realistic for a large
instrument
number of samples. Interviewing a big number of
WHAT DO I NEED TO DOCUMENT AS I DEVELOP respondents require a lot of time, effort and
THE INSTRUMENT? money

- Clear description of the construct or attribute OBSERVATION

that you want to measure
- Systematic observation may be used to collect
- Several (old and new) versions of items data

- Formulation because certain scorings were - Example, you may do this by counting the
chosen frequency of a specific observation that you
want to see
- Results of pilot testing
- This technique involves the use of the senses
- Final version of the measurement instrument
- ADVANTAGE: Simple, easy to use, cheap
STEPS IN INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT
- DISADVANTAGE: Bias may be present; senses
Step 1: Definition and elaboration of the are not always reliable
construct intended to be measured
EXPERIMENTS
Step 2: Choice of measurement method
- Experiments involve manipulation of
Step 3: Selecting and formulating items independent variables while maintaining varying
Step 4: Scoring issues degrees of control over other variables, most
likely the dependent ones
Step 5: Pilot study
- Quantitative researches often make use of
Step 6: Field-testing experiments to gather data
QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS - Experiments may be done in the laboratory, in
- A larger sample size is usually required when the field, or in a naturalistic setting
collecting quantitative data LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
- This is in contrast with qualitative data which - This experiment is conducted in a confined,
does not require a big sample closed and controlled environment (the
WAYS TO COLLEC QUANTITATIVE DATA laboratory), with the data collector being able to
have strict control over all the variables
SURVEYS
- In this setting, researcher can fully and
- Surveys ask close-ended questions with deliberately manipulate the independent
variable
provided options

- The respondents will have to choose their

answer among the choices provided on the
questionnaire

- ADVANTAGE: Ideal for large number of

respondents, questions are standardized making
it easier for researchers to make generalizations

- DISADVANTAGE: Limiting to the respondents

FIELD EXPERIMENTS Week 13: SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

- This takes place in the “field” where the data SAMPLING

collector may still control the variable up to a
- Is the process of selecting the sample or a
certain extent
portion of the population
- Manipulation is still possible, although not as
SAMPLE
deliberate as in a laboratory setting
- is a subset of the population elements
NATURAL EXPERIMENTS
REPRESENTATIVENESS
- This time, the data collector has no control over
the independent variable whatsoever, which - An important characteristic of a sample that
means it cannot be manipulated must be considered
- The data collector can only gather data by - This refers to how well the sample represents
letting the independent variable occur naturally, the population
and observe its effects
- One whose key characteristics closely
approximate those of the population

METHODS OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

- There are several ways in sampling techniques

that one can apply in selecting the sample
without being accused as biased

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

- Is just a method or procedure for specifying

how a sample will be taken from a population

- We will focus our attention on these two

methods:

A. Random Sampling

B. Non-Random Sampling

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROBABILITY AND NON-

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON-PROBABILITY

SAMPLING
There is random There is a form of bias in
selection of sample the selection of sample

Each element in the There is no assurance

population has the same that each element in the
equal chance of being population has the same
selected as a sample equal chance of being
selected as a sample

There is greater There is no assurance

representation in each that each unit in the
unit in the population population is properly
represented
The findings can be The finding is limited to
generalized to the the sample
population
PROBABILITY SAMPLING (Unbiased Sample) STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

- Simple Random Sampling - This sampling technique used if the population

in the study are normally consists of different
- Systematic Sampling
identifiable subgroups
- Stratified Random Sampling
- Example:
- Cluster Sampling
- Based on gender
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
- Age
- This is the most basic probability sampling
- Educational attainment
technique
CLUSTER SAMPLING
- A types of sampling technique, where everyone
has the chance to be chosen as representative of - This sampling used every time that there is a
the population well-defined cluster already existed within the
population of interest
ACCORDING TO Gravetter & Forzano in 2011
THERE ARE TWO PRIMARY METHODS OF - Sampling of units is done in several stages
RANDOM SAMPLING:
- ADVANTAGES:
- Sampling with replacement
- This is quite a simple and fast way to get
- This type of procedure requires that a large sample
each sample selected individual be registered as
- Sample measurements can also be
a sample member and returned to the
performed in groups, which can significantly
population prior to the next selection
promote the entire research project
- Sampling without replacement
NON-RANDOM SAMPLING (Biased Sample)
- Method of removal from population for
- A sampling procedure where the participants
each selected individual before proceeding to
are selected based on judgement of the
the next selection
researcher
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
- Convenience Sampling
- This type is most likely similar to simple random
- Purposive Sampling
sampling
- Quota Sampling
- This sampling begins by writing done all the
individual in population, then randomly choosing - Snowball Sampling
a starting point on the list
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
- This method uses the kth interval formula
- Most widely used method of analyzing the
behavioral sciences

- It is also called as Accidental Sampling

- In this sampling researchers simply select

individuals to be a participant who are easy to
get

SNOWBALL SAMPLING

- Works the same way as the referral system

- With this sampling technique, initial sample

members are asked to refer other people who
meet the criteria required by the researcher

- This is based on the assumption that people

who share the same traits or experiences know
each other
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING IMPLEMENTING A SAMPLING PLAN IN
QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
- In this technique, the selection of the sample is
based on the selective judgment of the STEPS IN SAMPLING IN QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
researcher (Polit and Bech, 2007)

- This is also called Judgement Sampling Step 1: Identify the population

QOATA SAMPLING Step 2: Specify the eligibility criteria

- This is a sampling technique where the Step 3: Specify the sampling plan
researcher identifies population sections or
Step 4: Recruit the sample
strata and decides how many participants are
required from each section

- This technique allows better representation

from each of the unit in the population

SIZE IN QUANTITATIVE STUDIES

- In a quantitative study, the sample size is an

important aspect that must carefully considered

- There are existing procedures that can be used

to estimate the appropriate sample size but
statistical knowledge is required to understand
this procedure there is no fixed rules nor simple
formulas

RECOMMENDATIONS:

- The larger the sample size, the better.

- Smaller sample size tends to produce less

accurate estimates

- If the sample is homogenous, a small size may

be adequate

- Homogeneity means that the population

elements were all identical with respect to key
attributes

- If there is justification to expect the

independent and dependent variables to be
closely related, then a fairly small sample would
be adequate to statistically demonstrate the
relationship

- Researchers will be a factor in expected loss of

subjects over time for studies that will take a
long time to finish (longitudinal traits)

- Thus, a bigger sample size is required

- And the sample size would still be sufficient in

case there is a high turnover or drop from the
analysis
Week 14: DATA PRESENTATION TIME SERIES GRAPH

METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION - It is used to represent data that occur over a

specific period of time
3 WAYS
PIE GRAPH
- Textual or Narrative
- Its is a circle that is divided into sections of
- Graphical Presentation
wedges according to percentage of frequencies
- Tabular/Frequency Distribution in each category of the distribution

TABULAR PRESENTATION FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

- Numerical values are presented using tables - It is a collection of observations produced by

sorting them into classes and showing their
- Information are lost in tabular presentation of frequency (or numbers) of occurrences in each
data class
- Also applicable for qualitative variables

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

- Trends are easily seen in graphs compares to

tables

- It is good to present data using pictures or

figures like the pictograph

- Pie charts are used to present data as part of

one whole

- Line graphs are for time-series data

- It is better to present data using graphs than

tables as they are much better to look at

GRAPHS

HISTOGRAM

- This is the graph that displays the data by using

vertical bars of various heights to represent the
frequencies

FREQUENCY POLYGON

- This graph displays the data by using lines that

connect points plotted for the frequencies at the
midpoints of the classes

OGIVE

- This is a graph that represents the cumulative

frequencies of the classes

PARETO GRAPH

- It is used to represent a frequency distribution

for a categorical or qualitative data, and the
frequencies are displayed by the heights of
vertical bars
Week 15: DATA ANALYSIS RELATIONSHIP

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS - In statistics between two or more variables can

be negative or positive
- It is the statistics that includes statistical
procedures that the researcher uses to describe NEGATIVE RELATIONSHIP
the population they are studying
- Also called as inverse relationship
HYPOTHESIS
- As the amount of one variable increases, the
NULL HYPOTHESIS “H0” level of another variable decreases

- A type of hypothesis which states that POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP

there is no statistical significance/relationship or
- Or a direct relationship whereas the amount of
effect existed between two or more groups
one variable increases, the amount of a second
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS “Ha” also increases

- Also known as the research hypothesis, SAMPLE

it is the propose hypothesis or expected
- A sample is a relatively small subset of people,
outcome of the research
objects, groups of events that is selected from
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS the population

- It is the statistics that is concerned with making TEST STATISTIC

predictions or inference about a population from
- It is considered as numerical summary of a
observations and analyses of a sample
data-set that reduces the data to one value that
LINEAR RELATIONSHIP can be used to perform a hypothesis test

- Statistical term used to describe the - A test where the alternative hypothesis does
relationship between two sets of data not specify the direction of the effect

NONPARAMETRIC STATISTICS INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

- Non parametric Statistics is the type statistics - Inferences or generalizations are made beyond
that should be use when the data violated the the sample data
requirements for a parametric test
INFERENTIAL SATISTICS INCLUDE:
- When the data are in interval and are
- Independent T-test
*Normally Distributed, parametric statistics is a
type of statistics that should be use - Correlation Analysis (Peardon’s r moment of
Correlation)
- Parametric statistics is always superior to its
non-parametric counterpart for decidedly - One-Way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)
Normal population
- Paired T-test
P VALUE
INDEPENDENT T-TEST
- When performing a hypothesis test, a p
(probability) value helps to determine the - Used in determining significant group
significance of the results differences between two unrelated samples

- In decision making, a p-value that has a value - Example

which is less than 0.05 (a) indicates significance - Math grades of male and female
students

ONE-WAY ANOVA

- Used in determining group differences between

three or more unrelated samples

- Example:

- Consumer’s buying decision by marital

status)
PAIRED T-TEST WEEK 16: STATISTICAL TERMS

- Used in determining significant group SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL

differences between related or matched
- The probability of making a Type I error in
samples
hypothesis testing
- Example:
TYPE 1 ERROR
- Weight before and after 3-month
- Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true
exercise programs
TYPE II ERROR
Pearson’s r
- Failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is
- Measures the strength of the linear relationship
false
between two variables
ONE TAILED TEST
- Is always between -1 and 1
- A test where the alternative hypothesis
specifies the direction of the effect

- Example

- Greater than or less than

TWO TAILED TESTS

- A test where the alternative hypothesis does

not specify the direction of the effect

CRITICAL REGION

- The set of sample outcomes that would lead to

the rejection of the null hypothesis

REJECTION REGION

- The region in the distribution of the test

statistic that leads to the rejection of the null
hypothesis

CONFIDENCE INTERVAL

- Range of values within which the population

parameter is likely to fall

TEST STATISTIC

- A calculated value used to determine whether

to reject the null hypothesis

- The p-value is less than 0.05 it indicates that the

results are statistically significant

- A strong positive correlation was found

suggests that as one variable increases, the other
also increases significantly

- The sample mean is not significantly different

from the population mean it confirms that the
sample mean is not significantly different from
the population mean

- No correlation exists between the variables

studied it indicates a lack of a statistical
relationship between the variables
TERMS: RESEARCH DESIGN - This discusses the approach
to be used in the study and why it is was chosen.
HYPOTHESIS - A statement of researcher’s
Discuss the approach (qualitative/ quantitative)
predictions about what is expected from their
and design (phenomenology, experimental,
study. Posits a clear relationship between
descriptive, etc.) used in the study.
different factors.
RESEARCH LOCALE - It describes the geographic
HYPOTHESIS TESTIG - A systematic process used
characteristics of the place of the study and the
to make decisions about population parameters
reason why the specific place was chosen.
based on sample data.
KEY INFORMANT SELECTION - It describes the
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS - It is known as
demographic characteristics of the
alternative or affirmative hypothesis
respondents/participants and the sampling
NULL HYPOTHESIS (HO)- The statement “There is technique to be used in the study.
no significant relationship between two
POPULATION AND SAMPLING - Describe the
variables or more”. The assumption there is no
demographic characteristics of the
relationship or difference between the variables
respondents/participants.
you are testing.
RESEARCH ETHICS - This is the section where the
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS - The statement
researcher can attest that the informed consent
“There is a significant relationship between
and necessary approval or permission were
Parental Guidance and Academic Performance”.
secured.
If hypothesis is based on predicted result, what
type of hypothesis is the following: Exposure to DATA COLLECTION - The section that describes
music affects the level of anxiety. A statement the usual order or methods of presentation on
that suggests a significant effect or difference in how the study was conducted.
a statistical test.
SURVEY - It is one way of collecting data where
SIMPLE HYPOTHESIS - It states the relationship the researchers provide a close ended questions
between one independent variable and one to their participants.
dependent variable.
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT - Mention the number
COMPLEX HYPOTHESIS - If hypothesis is based on of parts, the types of questions, the number of
number of variables, what type of hypothesis is items, and which item or part will answer specific
the following: Illiteracy and unemployment leads question.
to higher incidence of crime.
DATA ANALYSIS - The statistical tests used in the
NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS - It states that study will be mentioned here.
relationship or differences exists between
INTERVIEW - This type of collecting data is not
variables, but the direction of that relationship is
realistic for a large number of samples. It would
not explained. If hypothesis is based on
require a lot of time, effort and money.
direction, what type of hypothesis is the
following: Health affects the level of stress NON-RANDOM SAMPLING - A sampling
among senior high school students. procedure where the participants are selected
based on judgement of the researcher.
CONCEPTUAL - A type of definition where the
meaning of the concepts or terms used can be SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING - A type of sampling
taken from the dictionary. technique, where everyone has the chance to be
chosen as representative of the population.
OPERATIONAL - The meaning of the concepts or
variables used in the research is defined by the STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING - A type of
researcher’s own observation/measurement. sampling technique where the population will be
This is a definition made by the researcher based subdivided into subgroups and getting the
on how the term(s) will be used in a particular samples in random from each subgroup.
field of study. Objective was chosen proportionately drawn
from the different categories of the population
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY - It is a science of
studying how research is done scientifically. It is T-TEST - The statistical tool used to describe
a way to systematically solve the research differences.
problem. Flaws in this section usually result to
rejection in publication. PEARSON-PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATION -
measures the relationship or association
between two continuous variables
ONE-WAY ANOVA - Statistical tool used in
determining group differences between three or
more unrelated samples.

SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL - The probability of making

a Type I error in hypothesis testing.

TYPE II ERROR - Rejecting the null hypothesis

when it is true.

CRITICAL REGION - The set of sample outcomes

that would lead to the rejection of the null
hypothesis.

TWO-TAILED TEST - A test where the alternative

hypothesis does not specify the direction of the
effect.

ONE-TAILED TEST - A test where the alternative

hypothesis specifies the direction of the effect
(e.g., greater than or less than).

TYPE I ERROR - Failing to reject the null

hypothesis when it is false.

REJECTION REGION - The region in the

distribution of the test statistic that leads to the
rejection of the null hypothesis.

CONFIDENCE INTERVAL - range of values within

which the population parameter is likely to fall.

TEST STATISTIC - A calculated value used to

determine whether to reject the null hypothesis.

The p-value is less than 0.05 it indicates that the

results are statistically significant.

A strong positive correlation was found suggests

that as one variable increases, the other also
increases significantly.

The sample mean is not significantly different

from the population mean it confirms that the
sample mean is not significantly different from
the population mean.

No correlation exists between the variables

studied it indicates a lack of a statistical
relationship between the variables.