Past Paper (2018,19,22)

 Research Methodology
Research methodology is the systematic process of planning, executing, and evaluating a
study to acquire reliable information. It involves the application of specific techniques
and approaches to gather and analyze data in order to answer research questions or test
hypotheses.
 Types of Hypotheses
I. Simple Hypothesis: Posits a relationship between two variables.
II. Complex Hypothesis: Suggests a relationship involving more than two variables.
III. Directional Hypothesis: Predicts the direction of the relationship between
variables.
IV. Non-directional Hypothesis: Predicts the existence of a relationship without
specifying its direction.
V. Null Hypothesis (H0): States no significant difference or relationship exists.
VI. Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha): Asserts a significant difference or
relationship.
 Research Question
A research question is the exact thing a researcher aims to find out. It's a clear and
specific query that guides their study, helping them gather information and uncover
insights about a particular topic.
 Oral History
Oral history is when we talk to people and listen to their stories to learn about the past.
Instead of reading it in books, we hear about their personal experiences and memories,
helping us understand history from their perspective.
 Action Research
Action research is like learning by doing. It's when people actively study and solve
problems in their own everyday situations, making improvements based on what works
best in practice.
 Sample size
Sample size refers to the number of individuals or items chosen for a research study. It's
crucial for drawing reliable conclusions, aiming to represent the larger population under
investigation.
 Feminist Research
Feminist research is a type of study that focuses on understanding and addressing gender-
related issues, inequalities, and the experiences of women. It's about studying and fixing
things that aren't equal, so everyone gets a fair chance, regardless of gender.
 Research Design
Research design is the plan that outlines how a study will be conducted, specifying the
methods and steps to gather and analyze data. It's like a roadmap for researchers, guiding
them on how to answer their research questions or test hypotheses.
 Primary Vs Secondary data collection
 Primary data collection involves gathering firsthand information directly from original
sources, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments.
Secondary data collection, on the other hand, involves using existing data that was
previously collected by someone else for a different purpose, such as official statistics,
research reports, or historical.
 Testing of hypothesis
Hypothesis testing is a systematic procedure for deciding whether the results of a
research study support a particular theory which applies to a population. Hypothesis
testing uses sample data to evaluate a hypothesis about a population. It involves
comparing sample data to the expectations set by a hypothesis, helping researchers make
informed conclusions about the broader population based on the observed sample
information.
 Types of variables
There are two main types of variables:
Independent Variable (IV): It's the thing you change or control in an experiment. It's
like the "cause" you're testing.
Dependent Variable (DV): It's what you measure or observe in an experiment, and it
responds to the changes you made. It's like the "effect" you're studying.
 Conference papers
Conference papers are short presentations of research findings shared at academic
conferences, allowing researchers to showcase their work, exchange ideas, and receive
feedback from peers. They serve as a platform for quickly sharing new insights before
formal publication in journals.
 Mixed Multiple Method Approach
A mixed-methods approach in research involves using both qualitative and quantitative
methods to gain a comprehensive understanding of a study. By combining words and
numbers, researchers can gather richer insights and validate findings from different
perspectives.
 The service administrator
In research, a service administrator is like the organizer who makes sure everything runs
smoothly. They handle practical tasks and keep things organized for the research team.
 Writing a research report
Writing a research report involves summarizing what you discovered in your study,
explaining how you did it, and sharing your key findings—like telling a story about your
research journey. Make it clear, simple, and honest so others can understand and learn
from your work.
 Problems in data collection
Problems in data collection are like obstacles or challenges when gathering information.
They can happen when surveys are confusing, people don't answer accurately, or there
are difficulties in recording the data, making it important to plan and manage data
collection carefully.
 Replicability
 Replicability in research means that the study's findings can be duplicated or repeated by
other researchers using the same methods and data. If a study is replicable, it suggests
that the results are reliable and not just a one-time occurrence, contributing to the
credibility of scientific knowledge.
 Categorical Variable
In research, a categorical variable refers to a characteristic that places individuals into
distinct groups or categories. For example, gender (male, female) or education level (high
school, college) are categorical variables often studied in research.
 Content Validity
Content validity means ensuring that a measurement tool (like a survey or test)
thoroughly and accurately covers the entire range of what it aims to assess. It's about
making sure the questions or items in the tool are relevant and representative of the
concept being studied.
 Experimental design
Experimental design in research refers to the structured plan or blueprint that researchers
follow to conduct a scientific investigation. It outlines the methods and procedures for
testing hypotheses and making valid and reliable inferences about cause-and-effect
relationships.
 Alternate Hypothesis (H1)
The alternative hypothesis or H1, is a statement that suggests there is a significant effect,
relationship, or difference within the variables being studied. It contrasts with the null
hypothesis (H0), which posits no effect or no difference.
E.g. Alternate Hypothesis: Eating apples every day leads to better memory compared to
not eating apples.
 Null Hypothesis (Ho)
The null hypothesis is a statement in research that suggests there is no significant effect,
relationship, or difference between the variables being studied. Researchers aim to either
accept or reject the null hypothesis based on the evidence gathered during the study.
E.g. Null Hypothesis (H0): Eating apples has no effect on memory.
 Correlation Analysis
Correlational analysis is a statistical method used in research to examine the relationship
between two or more variables. It helps researchers understand whether changes in one
variable are associated with changes in another. The result is expressed as a correlation
coefficient, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship.
 Element
An element in research refers to a specific part or aspect being studied, like a person,
group, or object. Researchers analyze and gather information about these elements to
draw conclusions or make observations in their studies.
 Delphi technique
The Delphi technique is like a survey for experts where they share ideas anonymously,
discuss them, and refine their opinions to reach an agreement without meeting in person.
 Sample
A sample is a smaller group chosen from a larger group (population) in research. It
represents the whole group, helping researchers make conclusions about the larger
population based on the characteristics of the sample.
 Measure of dispersion
A measure of dispersion in research shows how spread out or closely packed the values in
a set of data are. It helps understand if the data points are scattered or clustered, providing
insight into variability.
 Central Tendency
Central tendency is a way to find the middle or average value in a set of data. It helps to
understand where most of the data points are centered, either around the average (mean),
the middle value (median), or the most frequent value (mode).
 Rigor
Rigor in research means doing the study carefully and thoroughly, making sure the
methods are precise and the results are reliable. It's about being strict and accurate in the
way you plan, conduct, and analyze your research to ensure the findings are trustworthy.
 Moderative Variable
A moderate variable in research is a factor that has a measurable effect on the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables, but it is not the main focus of the
study. It influences the strength or direction of the observed relationship.
 Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is an approach that explores the depth and details of human
experiences, opinions, and behaviors. It relies on non-numeric data, such as interviews
and observations, to gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.
 Proposal
A research proposal is like a roadmap that explains what, why, and how you plan to study
something. It's a way to get approval and support by outlining the details of your research
project before you start.
 Case Study Research
Case study research means deeply looking at one thing to understand it better. It uses
different information sources like interviews and observations to learn a lot about that one
specific thing. People often do this kind of research in social sciences and business to get
a really good understanding of a particular situation.
 Business Research
Business research is a systematic investigation that aims to gather relevant information
and insights to support decision-making within a business context. It involves the
analysis of data and market trends to enhance understanding and improve strategic
planning.
 Type I & Type II Error
Type I Error:
Type I error is like a false alarm. It happens when researchers mistakenly conclude there
is an effect or difference when there isn't one in reality. Example: Declaring a new drug
effective when it actually has no impact.
Type II Error:
Type II error is like missing the mark. It occurs when researchers fail to detect a real
effect or difference that exists. Example: Failing to recognize the effectiveness of a
treatment that genuinely works.
 Ordinal Scale
In research, an ordinal scale puts things in order without using specific numbers for the
gaps between them. It just shows which comes first, second, and so on, without needing
exact measurements for the differences. Example: Arranging animals by size, like small,
medium, and large, is using an ordinal scale.
 Sampling Frame
In research, a sampling frame is the list or group that researchers choose from when
selecting participants for a study, making it the starting point for forming a sample. It
helps make sure the study's findings can be applied to a larger group of similar people.
 Primary Data & Secondary Data
Primary data is information collected directly from original sources for a specific
research purpose. It involves firsthand data collection methods, such as surveys,
interviews, or experiments, to gather data tailored to the research needs. For example, if
a researcher conducts surveys to collect information about people's preferences for a new
product, the responses obtained constitute primary data.
Secondary data refers to information that has already been collected by someone else for
a different purpose but can be used for a new research inquiry. It involves utilizing
existing data sets, reports, or publications. An example is using government statistics or
academic studies conducted by others to gather information about historical trends or
background data for a research project without directly collecting new information.
 Probability Sampling
Probability sampling in research is giving everyone in a group a fair and equal chance of
being selected for the study. It ensures that each member has a known probability of
being included, making the sample more representative of the entire population.
 Self-administered questionnaire
A self-administered questionnaire in research is a survey where participants answer
questions on their own, without an interviewer. It's like a written or online set of
questions that people fill out by themselves, providing data for the study.
 Data Matrix
A data matrix in research is a structured arrangement of information, typically organized
in rows and columns, where each row represents an individual observation or unit, and
each column represents a specific variable or characteristic being measured. It serves as a
comprehensive framework for storing and analyzing data in studies and experiments.
 Covariance
Covariance in research shows how two variables change together. If they tend to increase
or decrease at the same time, the covariance is positive; if one goes up while the other
goes down, it's negative.
 Induction
In research, induction is a way of reasoning where we make general conclusions based on
specific observations or examples. It involves deriving broader principles or patterns
from specific instances.
 Research Problem
A research problem is a concise statement that defines the specific issue or question a
researcher aims to investigate, providing a clear focus for the study and guiding the
research process. It outlines the context, scope, and objectives of the research.
 Reliability
Reliability in research refers to the consistency, stability, or repeatability of measurements
or findings. A reliable study produces consistent results when the same methods are
applied under similar conditions, ensuring that the outcomes are dependable and can be
trusted for accuracy.
 Deduction
Deductive research is a type of research in which the researcher starts with a theory,
hypothesis, or generalization and then tests it through observations and data collection.
General Idea (Theory): "All mammals have a backbone."
Specific Prediction (Hypothesis): "Dogs are mammals and should have a backbone."
 Concurrent validity
Concurrent validity in research is like checking if a new test gives similar results to a
trusted one when both are taken at the same time. It helps ensure the new test is reliable
and measures what it's supposed to.
 (Long Questions)

1. What are the characteristics and requirements in research Process to

qualify for research? Explain in detail with examples.
 Clear Purpose:
 Characteristic: Every research should have a clear goal or
purpose. What do you want to find out or achieve through your
research?
 Example: If you're researching the effects of a new drug, your
purpose could be to determine its effectiveness in treating a
specific medical condition.
 Systematic Approach:
 Characteristic: Research is organized and follows a systematic
plan or method. This means you don't just collect data randomly;
there's a structured approach.
 Example: In a survey, you might start by defining your target
audience, creating a questionnaire, collecting responses, and
then analyzing the data in a step-by-step manner.
 Relevance:
 Characteristic: Good research is relevant to the field or topic it
is addressing. It should contribute to existing knowledge or
address a real-world problem.
 Example: If you're studying climate change, your research
should provide new insights into the causes or impacts of climate
change, or propose solutions to mitigate it.
 Objectivity:
 Characteristic: Research should be unbiased and objective,
meaning the researcher's personal opinions or feelings don't
influence the results.
 Example: In a study about the effects of a diet on weight loss,
the researcher should report the data objectively without letting
personal beliefs about diets affect the findings.
 Rigorous Methodology:
 Characteristic: Research requires a robust and well-defined
methodology. This involves the specific procedures and
techniques used to collect and analyze data.
 Example: In an experiment testing a new technology, the
methodology would include details on how the technology is
applied, how data is measured, and how results are analyzed.

 Validity and Reliability:

  Characteristic: Validity refers to the accuracy of the research,
while reliability is about the consistency of results. Both are
crucial for trustworthy research.
 Example: If a survey is designed to measure stress levels, it
should ask questions that truly reflect stress, and if the same
survey is repeated, it should produce similar results.
 Ethical Considerations:
 Characteristic: Research must adhere to ethical guidelines.
This includes ensuring the well-being of participants and being
transparent about the research's purpose and potential impacts.
 Example: In a study involving human subjects, informed
consent should be obtained, and privacy and confidentiality
should be maintained.
 Logical Analysis and Interpretation:
 Characteristic: Researchers should logically analyze and
interpret the data collected, drawing meaningful conclusions.
 Example: If analyzing economic trends, a researcher might
interpret data to conclude whether a specific policy has
positively or negatively impacted the economy.
 Communication of Findings:
 Characteristic: Research is not complete until the findings are
communicated to others. This can be through academic papers,
presentations, or other means.
 Example: A scientist publishing a paper on a new discovery
shares the findings with the scientific community and the public.
 Continuous Review and Improvement:
 Characteristic: Research is an iterative process. It involves
continuous review and improvement based on feedback and new
information.
 Example: After publishing a study on a medical treatment, a
researcher might receive feedback from peers, leading to further
studies or refinements in the treatment approach.

In essence, good research is purposeful, well-planned, unbiased, relevant,

and contributes to our understanding of the world around us.

2. What is Study design? What are 3 different prospectives in study design

in quantitative research? Explain in details its 3 groups.
Study Design:
Study design refers to the overall plan or structure that guides the collection
and analysis of data in a research study. It is like a roadmap that outlines
how the research will be conducted to answer the research question or test a
hypothesis.

Three Perspectives in Study Design in Quantitative Research:

 Descriptive Studies:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Descriptive studies aim to paint a
detailed picture of a situation, phenomenon, or group. It's like
taking a snapshot to understand what is happening.
 Example: Suppose you want to describe the eating habits of
teenagers in a specific region. You would collect data on what
they eat, how often, and in what quantities without trying to
manipulate any variables. This helps in creating a clear, detailed
picture without changing anything.
 Analytical Studies:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Analytical studies go a step
further. They not only describe a situation but also analyze
relationships between variables. It's like figuring out the 'why' or
'how' behind something.
 Example: If you are interested in understanding whether there
is a relationship between smoking and the incidence of lung
cancer, you would conduct an analytical study. You might
compare the rates of lung cancer between smokers and non-
smokers to see if there's a correlation.
 Experimental Studies:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Experimental studies involve
intentionally manipulating one or more variables to observe the
effect. It's like conducting a controlled experiment to understand
cause and effect relationships.
 Example: Imagine you want to test the effectiveness of a new
teaching method on student performance. You could divide
students into two groups - one exposed to the new method and
another following the traditional method. By comparing the
outcomes, you can determine if the new method has a significant
impact on performance.

In summary:

 Descriptive Studies: Provide a detailed snapshot without

manipulating variables.
  Analytical Studies: Analyze relationships between variables to
understand the 'why' or 'how'.
 Experimental Studies: Involve intentional manipulation of variables
to observe cause and effect relationships.

Each perspective serves a different purpose, and researchers choose the

design that best fits their research question and objectives. Descriptive
studies help in painting a picture, analytical studies help in understanding
relationships, and experimental studies help in establishing cause-and-effect
connections.

3. What is data collection? Explain in details all categories of methods

used for data collection in qualitative research.
Data Collection:

Data collection is the process of gathering information or data for research

purposes. In qualitative research, this involves collecting non-numerical
information to explore and understand the complexities of human behavior,
culture, or social phenomena.

Categories of Methods for Data Collection in Qualitative Research:

 Interviews:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Interviews are like conversations
where a researcher asks open-ended questions to gather
detailed information. It's like having a friendly chat to understand
someone's thoughts and experiences.
 Example: If you are researching people's experiences with a
new healthcare policy, you might conduct interviews where
participants share their feelings, opinions, and personal stories
related to the policy.
 Focus Groups:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Focus groups involve bringing
together a small group of people to discuss a specific topic. It's
like having a group conversation where participants can share
their perspectives and interact with each other.
 Example: If you are studying attitudes towards a new product,
you might organize a focus group where participants discuss
their opinions, providing a range of viewpoints.
 Observation:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Observation is about watching
and noting down what people do in a natural setting. It's like
 being a silent observer to understand behavior without direct
questioning.
 Example: If you are studying children's play behavior, you might
observe them in a playground, taking notes on how they interact,
what games they play, and how they communicate with each
other.
 Documents and Artifacts:
 Explanation in Easy Words: This involves analyzing existing
documents, texts, or artifacts to gather information. It's like
being a detective, examining written or visual materials to
understand a context or culture.
 Example: If you're researching the history of a community, you
might analyze old letters, newspapers, photographs, or any
documents that provide insights into the past.
 Surveys and Questionnaires:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Surveys and questionnaires
involve asking participants a set of predefined questions. It's like
filling out a detailed form to provide information on specific
aspects.
 Example: If you want to understand public opinion on a political
issue, you might distribute a questionnaire asking people to
express their views, preferences, or concerns.
 Ethnography:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Ethnography involves immersing
oneself in a specific culture or community to understand its
social dynamics. It's like being a participant-observer, living
among the people you're studying.
 Example: If you are researching a subculture within a city, you
might spend an extended period living with the community,
participating in their activities, and documenting your
observations.
 Case Studies:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Case studies involve in-depth
exploration of a single case or a few cases. It's like diving deeply
into a particular situation to understand its complexities.
 Example: If you are studying the impact of a social program on
a specific family, you might conduct a case study, collecting
detailed information about their experiences, challenges, and
changes over time.

In qualitative research, these methods help researchers gather rich, in-depth

information, allowing for a nuanced understanding of the social phenomena
under investigation. Depending on the research question, a combination of
these methods may be employed to triangulate and enhance the validity of
the findings.
4. What is concept of Validity. Explain its all types in details. Also mention
the factors affecting the reliability of a research instrument?
Concept of Validity:
Validity in research refers to the extent to which a test or instrument measures what it claims
to measure. It's like making sure your measurements are accurate and actually reflect the
concept you're interested in.
Types of Validity:
 Content Validity:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Content validity checks if a test or instrument
covers all relevant aspects of the concept being measured. It's like making sure
you're not missing any important pieces.
 Example: If you're creating a test to measure knowledge of a subject, content
validity ensures that the questions cover the entire range of topics within that
subject.
 Construct Validity:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Construct validity looks at whether a test is
measuring the intended theoretical concept. It's like checking if your test is truly
capturing the abstract idea you're interested in.
 Example: If you're measuring intelligence, construct validity ensures that your
test is indeed assessing intelligence and not something else, like creativity.
 Criterion-Related Validity:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Criterion-related validity compares the results of a
test with an external criterion (a standard measure). It's like checking if your test
aligns with an already established measure.
 Example: If you're creating a test to predict job performance, criterion-related
validity would involve comparing the test scores with actual job performance data
to see if there's a correlation.

 Face Validity:
  Explanation in Easy Words: Face validity is about whether a test looks like it's
measuring what it's supposed to measure. It's like a superficial check to see if, at
first glance, the test seems relevant.
 Example: If you show your test to someone and they immediately think it's a
good measure of what you're studying, it has face validity.
Factors Affecting Reliability of a Research Instrument:
Reliability refers to the consistency or stability of a measurement. If you measure something
multiple times, a reliable instrument should give you similar results each time.
 Consistency of Measurement:
 Explanation in Easy Words: A reliable instrument should give similar results
when used under consistent conditions. It's like using the same ruler each time
you measure something.
 Example: If a bathroom scale consistently gives the same weight for an object,
it's considered reliable.
 Scoring Consistency:
 Explanation in Easy Words: If different people score the same test, they should
come up with similar results. It's like making sure that even if different
individuals grade a student's paper, the scores should be close.
 Example: If two teachers grade the same essay and give it similar scores, the
scoring process is reliable.
 Test-Retest Reliability:
 Explanation in Easy Words: If you use the same instrument on the same group
of people at different times, you should get consistent results. It's like checking if
your watch shows the same time every day.
 Example: If a personality test gives the same results when administered to the
same individuals a few weeks apart, it has good test-retest reliability.
 Internal Consistency:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Internal consistency looks at how well the items
within a test are correlated. It's like checking if all the questions in a survey are
measuring the same thing.
 Example: If you have a set of questions about job satisfaction, internal
consistency would ensure that people who answer positively to one question tend
to answer positively to others as well.
In summary:
 Validity: Ensures your measurement is accurate and measures what it claims to measure.
 Content Validity: Covers all relevant aspects.
 Construct Validity: Measures the intended theoretical concept.
 Criterion-Related Validity: Compares with an external criterion.
 Face Validity: Looks like it's measuring what it's supposed to measure.
 Reliability: Ensures your measurement is consistent and stable.
 Consistency of Measurement: Gives similar results under consistent conditions.
 Scoring Consistency: Different scorers produce similar results.
 Test-Retest Reliability: Consistent results over time.
 Internal Consistency: Items within a test are correlated.

5. What is literature review? What are 4 main sources for searching

existing literature? Explain how theoretical and conceptual frameworks
are developed.
Literature Review:
A literature review is like a summary of all the existing knowledge on a particular topic. It's
similar to reading a bunch of books and articles about a subject and then explaining what you
found. In research, it helps to see what's already known, identify gaps, and build a foundation
for your study.
Four Main Sources for Searching Existing Literature:
 Books:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Books are like big, detailed sources of information.
They're like going to the library and finding comprehensive explanations about
your topic.
 Example: If you're studying the history of space exploration, you might find
books written by experts that cover the entire timeline of space missions.

 Academic Journals:
  Explanation in Easy Words: Academic journals are like magazines for smart
people. They're filled with articles written by experts, and they're like finding out
the latest and most in-depth research.
 Example: If you're interested in climate change, you might read articles in a
journal that explain recent scientific studies on the topic.
 Websites of Educational Institutions:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Educational institutions have websites with
valuable information. It's like visiting the official page of a school or university to
get trustworthy details.
 Example: If you want to know about educational policies, you might look at the
websites of education departments in universities or government education
bodies.
 Databases and Search Engines:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Databases and search engines are like magical tools
that help you find information from all over the internet. It's like having a super-
smart friend who knows where everything is.
 Example: If you're researching the impact of social media, you might use a
database or search engine to find articles, reports, and studies from various
sources.
Developing Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks:
 Theoretical Framework:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Theoretical framework is like building the skeleton
of your study. It's a set of ideas or concepts that explain what you're studying and
why. It's like creating the main structure of a building before adding the details.
 Example: If you're studying how people make decisions, your theoretical
framework might include theories about decision-making, like rational choice
theory or behavioral economics.
 Conceptual Framework:
 Explanation in Easy Words: Conceptual framework is like adding flesh and
muscles to your study's skeleton. It's a visual representation of your main concepts
and how they relate to each other. It's like drawing a map of the main ideas in
your research.
 Example: If you're studying the impact of technology on education, your
conceptual framework might show how technology, teaching methods, and
student outcomes are connected.
 How They Are Developed:
 Reading and Synthesizing Literature:
 Explanation in Easy Words: You read lots of books and articles about your
topic, like a detective gathering clues. Then, you put together all these clues to
understand the big picture.
 Example: If you're researching climate change, you read studies on rising
temperatures, melting ice caps, and extreme weather events. Then, you connect
these pieces to form a comprehensive understanding.
 Identifying Key Concepts:
 Explanation in Easy Words: You figure out the most important ideas related to
your topic. It's like finding the main ingredients for a recipe.
 Example: In a study about happiness, you might identify key concepts like
positive psychology, life satisfaction, and well-being.
 Establishing Relationships:
 Explanation in Easy Words: You decide how your key concepts are connected.
It's like understanding how different parts of a machine work together.
 Example: If you're studying the impact of exercise on mental health, you
establish a relationship between exercise, mood, and stress reduction in your
conceptual framework.
 Refining and Testing:
 Explanation in Easy Words: You keep adjusting and improving your framework.
It's like refining a recipe based on feedback until it's just right.
 Example: If you find more studies that support or challenge your framework, you
might adjust it to make sure it accurately reflects the current knowledge on your
topic.
In short, the theoretical framework provides the big ideas guiding your study, and the
conceptual framework turns those ideas into a visual map of how everything fits together.
Developing them involves reading lots of existing literature, identifying key concepts,
establishing connections, and refining based on what you discover.

6. Write a detail note on structured and un-structured interview? Explain

the advantages and disadvantages of interviews.
 Structured Interview:

Definition: A structured interview is like following a script or a set of predetermined

questions. The interviewer asks the same questions in the same order to all candidates.
Advantages:
1. Consistency: Every candidate is assessed using the same criteria, making it fair and
objective.
2. Reliability: Results are more reliable because all candidates are measured against a
consistent standard.
3. Easy Comparison: Facilitates easy comparison of candidates, simplifying the decision-
making process.
4. Reduced Bias: Minimizes the impact of personal biases as the process is standardized.
Disadvantages:
1. Rigidity: Might miss out on exploring unique aspects of a candidate due to a strict set of
questions.
2. Limited Adaptability: Less flexible in adapting to unexpected insights or circumstances
during the interview.
3. Formality: May create a formal atmosphere that could make candidates nervous.
Unstructured Interview:
Definition: An unstructured interview is more like a conversation, with the interviewer
having a general idea of the topics to be covered but not following a strict set of questions.
Advantages:
1. Flexibility: Allows for a more natural and flexible conversation, uncovering unexpected
insights.
2. Exploration: Encourages exploration of unique qualities and experiences of each
candidate.
3. Relationship Building: Helps in building a rapport with the candidate, creating a
comfortable environment.
4. Adaptability: Can adapt to the flow of the conversation, exploring interesting avenues as
they arise.
 Disadvantages:
 Inconsistency: Results may vary as different candidates may be asked different
questions.
 Bias: Personal biases of the interviewer may play a role in the evaluation.
 Subjectivity: Decisions may be subjective, as there is no standardized criteria for
assessment.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Interviews in General:
Advantages:
1. Personal Insight: Provides an opportunity to gauge a candidate's personality,
communication skills, and interpersonal abilities.
2. Clarifications: Allows for clarifications on the resume or application information.
3. Real-time Evaluation: Assesses how well a candidate thinks on their feet and handles
unexpected questions.
Disadvantages:
1. Bias: Interviews can be influenced by personal biases, leading to unfair evaluations.
2. Limited Scope: Might not fully capture a candidate's actual skills and capabilities.
3. Nervousness: Some candidates may not perform at their best due to nervousness or
anxiety.
In conclusion, both structured and unstructured interviews have their pros and cons. The
choice between them often depends on the specific goals of the hiring process and the
organization's preferences.

7. Describe ranking scale and explain its different types with example.
A ranking scale in research is a tool that assigns positions or orders to items based on
specific criteria. It helps gather information about preferences, opinions, or attributes by
allowing participants to indicate the relative importance or preference of different items in a
structured manner.
 Ordinal Ranking Scale:
1. In this scale, items are ranked based on their relative position or order, but the
differences between the ranks are not standardized.
2. Example: Ranking your favorite ice cream flavors from 1st to 5th without
indicating the specific level of preference between each flavor.
 Interval Ranking Scale:
1. Similar to ordinal scales, but with standardized intervals between ranks, allowing
for the measurement of the difference between each rank.
2. Example: Rating different brands of smartphones on a scale of 1 to 10, where the
difference between a rating of 5 and 6 is the same as the difference between 8 and
9.
 Likert Scale:
1. Participants express their agreement or disagreement with a series of statements
using a scale, typically ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree.
2. Example: "On a scale of 1 to 5, how satisfied are you with the customer service
received?" (1 being very dissatisfied, 5 being very satisfied)
 Visual Analog Scale (VAS):
1. Respondents mark a point along a continuous line to indicate their position on a
particular trait or attribute.
2. Example: A pain scale from 0 to 10, where participants mark a point on a line to
represent their pain level, with 0 being no pain and 10 being the worst possible
pain.
 Rank-Order Centrality Scale:
1. Participants rank items based on their perceived centrality or importance within a
set.
2. Example: Ranking a list of factors contributing to job satisfaction, such as salary,
work-life balance, and job security, from most to least important.
 Paired Comparison Scale:
1. Items are presented in pairs, and participants choose which item they prefer or
find more favorable.
2. Example: Comparing pairs of advertising slogans and choosing which one is more
appealing or memorable.
These ranking scales help researchers gather and analyze data in a structured way, providing
insights into preferences, opinions, and relative importance of different elements within a
study.
8. What ae the components of research report. describe each briefly.
A research report is a detailed document that explains the purpose, methods, and findings of
a research study in a structured format, helping others understand and evaluate the research.
It includes sections like introduction, methodology, results, and conclusion.

A research report typically consists of several key components, and here's a brief description
of each in simple terms:
 Title Page:
1. What it is: The cover page of your report.
2. What it includes: Title of the research, your name, the name of your institution,
and the date.
 Abstract:
1. What it is: A summary of your entire research.
2. What it includes: Briefly outlines your research question, methods, results, and
conclusion.
 Introduction:
1. What it is: The beginning of your report, where you introduce your topic.
2. What it includes: Background information, the research question or problem
statement, and the purpose of your study.
 Literature Review:
1. What it is: A review of existing research on your topic.
2. What it includes: Summarizes relevant studies and provides context for your
research.
 Methodology:
1. What it is: Describes how you conducted your research.
2. What it includes: Details on your research design, participants, materials, and
procedures.
 Results:
1. What it is: Presents the findings of your research.
2. What it includes: Data, charts, graphs, or any other information that helps
illustrate your results.
 Discussion:
 1. What it is: Interpretation and analysis of your results.
2. What it includes: Explains what your results mean, discusses their implications,
and compares them to previous research.
 Conclusion:
1. What it is: The wrap-up of your report.
2. What it includes: Summarizes your key findings and offers any
recommendations or suggestions for future research.
 References:
1. What it is: A list of all the sources you cited in your report.
2. What it includes: Books, articles, websites, or any other materials you referred to
during your research.
 Appendices:
1. What it is: Additional materials that support your main text.
2. What it includes: Any supplementary information, such as raw data,
questionnaires, or extra details not included in the main sections.
Remember, these components provide a structured way to present your research, making it
clear and understandable for others who want to learn from or build upon your work.

9. Why is sampling important? Describe the sampling process in research.

Sampling is important in research because it allows researchers to study a
subset of a larger population, making the research more manageable, cost-
effective, and practical. Here's a simple explanation of the sampling process
in research:

 Define the Population:

 Identify the entire group that you want to study, known as the
population. This could be people, objects, events, or any other
elements relevant to your research.
 Select a Sampling Method:
 Choose a method for selecting a subset, or sample, from the
population. Common methods include random sampling,
stratified sampling, and convenience sampling.
 Determine Sample Size:
  Decide how many individuals or elements will be included in the
sample. The sample size should be large enough to provide
meaningful results but small enough to be manageable.
 Randomize (if using random sampling):
 If using random sampling, ensure that every individual or
element in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
This minimizes bias and increases the representativeness of the
sample.
 Collect Data from the Sample:
 Gather information or observations from the selected individuals
or elements in the sample. This data is then used to draw
conclusions about the entire population.
 Analyze and Interpret Results:
 Analyze the data collected from the sample and draw
conclusions. Researchers can then make generalizations about
the larger population based on the findings from the sample.

Sampling is crucial because it's often impractical or impossible to study an

entire population due to factors like time, cost, and logistics. By studying a
representative sample, researchers can make informed predictions and draw
conclusions about the entire population with a reasonable level of
confidence.

10.Explain the activities involved in getting the data ready for analysis.
Getting data ready for analysis in research involves several activities. Here's
a simplified explanation of the process:

 Data Collection:
 Gather information or observations relevant to your research
question. This could involve surveys, experiments, observations,
interviews, or any method that collects data.
 Data Entry:
 If your data is collected on paper or in a non-digital format, you'll
need to enter it into a computer. This can be done manually or
through automated processes.
 Data Cleaning:
 Review the data for errors, inconsistencies, or missing values.
Correct any mistakes and ensure that the data is accurate. This
step is crucial for reliable analysis.
 Coding and Categorizing:
  Assign codes or categories to different variables in your data.
This step helps in organizing the information and facilitates
analysis. For example, if you have a "gender" variable, you might
code "1" for male and "2" for female.
 Data Transformation:
 Sometimes, the raw data may need to be transformed to make it
suitable for analysis. This could involve converting units,
calculating percentages, or creating new variables based on
existing ones.
 Data Formatting:
 Ensure that your data is in a format compatible with the analysis
tools you plan to use. This may involve converting data types,
standardizing date formats, or making other adjustments.
 Handling Missing Data:
 Decide how to deal with missing values. You might choose to
omit the incomplete entries, estimate missing values, or use
statistical techniques to impute them.
 Data Exploration:
 Conduct exploratory data analysis to better understand the
characteristics of your data. This involves creating visualizations
and summary statistics to identify patterns and trends.
 Statistical Analysis:
 Apply appropriate statistical techniques to answer your research
questions. This could include descriptive statistics, inferential
statistics, regression analysis, or other methods depending on
your study design.
 Interpretation of Results:
 Finally, interpret the results of your analysis in the context of
your research question. Draw conclusions and consider the
implications of your findings.
By carefully preparing and cleaning the data, researchers ensure that
their analysis is based on accurate and reliable information, leading to
more valid and meaningful conclusions.
 11.Explain the process of Qualitative research in detail
Qualitative research is a method of study that explores and understands people's experiences,
behaviors, and perspectives through non-numerical data. It involves techniques like interviews,
observations, and content analysis to uncover rich, context-dependent insights.
Process
1. Formulating the Research Question:
 Start by identifying a specific topic or issue you want to explore.
 Formulate a clear and focused research question that will guide your study.
2. Literature Review:
 Review existing literature on your topic to understand what is already known.
 Identify gaps in the current knowledge that your research can address.
3. Designing the Study:
 Decide on the research method: Qualitative research often involves methods like
interviews, focus groups, observations, or content analysis.
 Determine the participants or subjects you will study (e.g., individuals, groups,
organizations).
4. Data Collection:
 Collect data through methods chosen in the design phase.
 Interviews: Conduct one-on-one or group interviews to gather in-depth information.
 Focus Groups: Bring together a group of people to discuss the topic.
 Observations: Observe and document behavior or events.
 Content Analysis: Analyze documents, texts, or other materials.
5. Data Analysis:
 Transcribe interviews or organize data from other sources.
 Identify themes, patterns, or trends within the data.
 Use coding to categorize and label different aspects of the information.
6. Interpretation:
 Interpret the findings in the context of your research question.
  Consider the implications and significance of your results.
7. Drawing Conclusions:
 Summarize the key findings and what they mean.
 Discuss how your results contribute to the existing knowledge in the field.
8. Writing the Report:
 Document your research process, methods, and findings.
 Present your results in a clear and organized manner.
 Use quotes, examples, and visuals to support your findings.
9. Peer Review:
 Share your research with others in your field for feedback.
 Consider their input and make revisions if necessary.
10. Dissemination:
 Share your findings through publications, presentations, or other appropriate channels.
 Contribute to the broader academic or professional discussion.
Qualitative research is valuable for exploring complex phenomena, understanding perspectives,
and generating rich, context-specific insights. It provides a deeper understanding of human
behavior, attitudes, and social phenomena compared to quantitative research, which focuses on
numerical data.

12. Elaborate the types of reliability and validity in tabular form.

In research, reliability and validity are crucial concepts that assess the
quality and consistency of measurements and the accuracy of research
findings. Here's a simplified tabular representation of different types of
reliability and validity:

Reliability:

Type of
Reliability Description
Test-Retest Assessing consistency by administering the same test to the same
Reliability group on two different occasions and comparing the results.
Involves using two equivalent forms of a test to measure
Parallel Forms consistency. The forms are designed to be equivalent in difficulty
Reliability and content.
 Type of
Reliability Description
Internal Evaluates the consistency of results across different items within
Consistency the same test. Common methods include Cronbach's alpha for
Reliability scale-based measures.
Inter-Rater Measures the degree of agreement among different raters or
Reliability observers who are evaluating the same set of data or behaviors.

Validity:

Type of
Validity Description
Content Ensures that the test or measurement tool adequately covers the
Validity entire range of behaviors or content it is supposed to measure.
Criterion- Assesses the extent to which the results of a test correlate with an
Related external criterion, which could be another established measure or a
Validity predicted outcome.
- Concurrent Determines the extent to which the test results correspond with the
Validity results of a previously established measure collected at the same time.
- Predictive Examines the ability of a test to predict future outcomes,
Validity demonstrating the test's ability to forecast relevant criteria.
Evaluates whether a test or measurement tool accurately measures
the theoretical construct or concept it claims to measure. It involves
Construct examining the relationships with other variables in a manner
Validity consistent with theoretical expectations.
Refers to the degree to which a test or measurement appears, on the
surface, to measure what it claims to measure. It is more about
Face Validity perception than statistical validation.

Remember that these concepts are often interrelated, and researchers use a
combination of these methods to ensure the robustness of their measures in
a study.

13. What are the sources of primary and secondary data.

Primary Data: Primary data is information that you collect firsthand for your specific
research purpose. It's like you are the first person to gather this data. Here are some
examples:
 Surveys and Questionnaires: You create a set of questions and directly ask people for
their responses.
 Interviews: Talking to individuals or groups to get information directly from them.
 Observations: Watching and recording behavior or events as they naturally occur.
  Experiments: Conducting tests or experiments to collect data under controlled
conditions.
 Focus Groups: Bringing a small group of people together to discuss a specific topic, and
collecting their insights.
Secondary Data: Secondary data, on the other hand, is information that has already been
collected by someone else for a different purpose. You are not the original collector of this
data. Examples include:
 Books and Articles: Information gathered and written by researchers or experts in the
field.
 Government Reports: Data collected by government agencies for various purposes,
such as census data or economic reports.
 Databases: Online repositories of information, like academic databases or industry-
specific databases.
 Newspapers and Magazines: Articles and reports that have been published in the media.
 Previous Research Studies: Data and findings from studies conducted by other
researchers.
In simple terms, primary data is like getting information directly from the source, while
secondary data is using information that others have already collected. Both types of data are
valuable in research, and researchers often use a combination of both to get a comprehensive
understanding of their topic.

14. What is measurement process? Elaborate measurement scales in detail.

In research, a measurement scale is a tool that helps us use numbers or

labels to talk about and compare different things. It's like putting a
measurement on ideas so we can understand them more clearly.

There are different types of measurement scales, each with its own
characteristics and level of precision. Here are the main types of
measurement scales:

1. Nominal Scale:
 This is the simplest form of measurement.
 It involves assigning labels or categories to different groups or
objects.
 The labels do not have inherent order or value.
 Examples include gender (male, female), colors, or types of cars.
2. Ordinal Scale:
 In this scale, objects or events are ranked in a specific order.
The intervals between the ranks are not equal, meaning the
differences between ranks are not consistent.
 Examples include education levels (e.g., high school, college,
graduate) or customer satisfaction ratings (e.g., poor, fair, good).
3. Interval Scale:
 This scale has equal intervals between values, but it lacks a true
zero point.
 The absence of a true zero means that ratios of measurements
are not meaningful.
 Examples include temperature measured in Celsius or
Fahrenheit.
4. Ratio Scale:
 This is the most sophisticated and precise scale.
 It has equal intervals between values and a true zero point,
allowing for meaningful ratios.
 Examples include height, weight, income, and age.

Understanding the type of scale used is essential because it dictates the

statistical analyses that can be applied to the data. Nominal and ordinal data
often use non-parametric tests, while interval and ratio data can be
subjected to more advanced parametric statistical methods.

In summary, the measurement process in research involves assigning

numerical values to characteristics, and the choice of measurement scale
depends on the nature of the variable being measured and the level of
precision required for the analysis.

15. Types Of variables. Also Explain conceptual framework in detail.

A quality that changes from person to person or others things is called variable.
In research, a variable is something that can change or vary, like qualities, traits, or
conditions that researchers measure and study to understand relationships and outcomes.
Examples include age, test scores, or levels of a substance in an experiment.

Types
 Dependent Variable (IV):
1. The variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher.
2. It is presumed to cause an effect on the dependent variable.
3. Example: In a study on the impact of studying techniques on exam scores, the
studying technique would be the independent variable.
 Dependent Variable (DV):
1. The variable that is measured or observed in response to changes in the
independent variable.
2. It is the outcome variable that researchers are interested in studying.
3. Example: In the same study, the exam scores would be the dependent variable.
 Control Variable:
1. A variable that is held constant to prevent its influence on the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables.
2. Helps ensure that observed effects are likely due to the independent variable.
3. Example: Controlling for the time spent studying to isolate the impact of the
studying technique.
 Moderator Variable:
1. A variable that influences the strength or direction of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables.
2. It helps identify under what conditions the relationship may change.
3. Example: In a study on the impact of mentoring on job performance, the level of
experience may moderate the relationship.
 Mediator Variable:
1. A variable that explains the process or mechanism through which the independent
variable influences the dependent variable.
2. It helps understand the "how" or "why" of the relationship.
3. Example: In a study on exercise and stress reduction, the release of endorphins
could be a mediator explaining how exercise reduces stress.
Conceptual Framework in Research:
A conceptual framework is like a map that guides a research study. Here's a simplified
explanation:
 Identify the Problem:
1. Clearly state the problem or issue you want to study. What's the main thing you're
curious about or want to understand?
 Review Existing Knowledge:
1. Look at what others have already found out about your problem. What do we
already know, and what questions still need answers?
 Develop a Conceptual Model:
1. Create a visual representation (diagram or chart) showing the key variables and
their relationships. This is your conceptual model.
 Hypotheses or Research Questions:
1. Based on your model, form specific hypotheses (for quantitative research) or
research questions (for qualitative research).
 Data Collection and Analysis:
1. Decide how you will collect and analyze your data to test your hypotheses or
answer your research questions.
 Interpretation of Results:
1. Once you've collected and analyzed your data, interpret the results in light of your
conceptual framework. Does your study support or challenge existing knowledge?
 Conclusion and Recommendations:
1. Conclude your study by summarizing your findings and suggesting areas for
future research or practical recommendations.
In easy words, a conceptual framework is a roadmap that helps researchers understand and
study a problem step by step. It guides them from identifying the problem to collecting and
interpreting data, providing a structured way to explore and learn about a topic.

16. Explain the process of Quantitative Research.

Quantitative research involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to understand
patterns, relationships, and trends. It uses statistical methods to draw conclusions and make
generalizations about a population based on a sample.
Process
 Define the Research Question:
 Clearly state the research question or hypothesis that you want to investigate
using numerical data.
 Literature Review:
 Review existing literature to understand what is known about the topic. This helps
in refining your research question and identifying gaps that your study can
address.
 Choose Research Design:
  Decide on the quantitative research design, such as experiments, surveys, or
observational studies, that best suits your research question.
 Sampling:
 Select a representative sample from the larger population. This sample should be
chosen in a way that ensures it reflects the characteristics of the entire group you
are interested in.
 Data Collection:
 Collect numerical data using structured methods, such as surveys, experiments, or
measurements. The data should be objective and quantifiable.
 Data Analysis:
 Analyze the collected data using statistical methods. This involves summarizing
the data, identifying patterns, and drawing conclusions.
 Statistical Analysis:
 Apply statistical tests or techniques to examine relationships between variables,
test hypotheses, or make predictions. Common statistical methods include t-tests,
chi-square tests, regression analysis, etc.
 Interpretation:
 Interpret the statistical results in the context of your research question. What do
the numbers tell you about the phenomenon you are studying?
 Report Findings:
 Communicate the results through a quantitative research report or paper. Include
details about the research question, methodology, statistical analyses, findings,
and interpretations.
 Peer Review:
 Share your work with peers or experts in the field for feedback and validation.
This helps ensure the reliability and validity of your quantitative research.
 Refinement or Further Research:
 Based on feedback and insights gained, refine your findings or consider areas for
further quantitative research.
Quantitative research aims to quantify and analyze data to uncover patterns and relationships.
It involves rigorous data collection and statistical analysis to draw objective conclusions
about the research question. The results are often generalizable to a larger population when
proper sampling techniques are employed.