UNIT – I

INTRODUCTION

Aerodynamics – I
23ASH-252
 Unit-I
Introduction

Basics of fluid flow, Vector relations – review, fluid models, Continuity,

momentum and energy equations, circulation, stream function, potential
function, relation between stream function and potential function.
Measurement of airspeed, pitot tube, venturi and compressibility correction.
Pressure coefficient, Aerodynamic forces and moments, Types of drag.

2
REVIEW OF VECTOR RELATIONS
 Typical Orthogonal Coordinate Systems

1. Cartesian coordinate system

A cartesian coordinate system is

shown in Figure 2.5a. The x, y, and
z axes are mutually perpendicular,
and i, j, and k are unit vectors in
the x, y, and z directions,
respectively. An arbitrary point P
in space is located by specifying
the three coordinates (x, y, z). The
point can also be located by the
position vector r, where
2. Cylindrical Coordinate System

A = Ar er + Aθ eθ + Azez
3. Spherical Coordinate System
A = A r e r + A θ e θ + A Φe Φ

or inversely,
 Scalar and Vector Fields

A quantity given as a function of coordinate space and time t is called a scalar field. For
example, pressure, density, and temperature are scalar quantities.
Similarly, a vector quantity given as a function of coordinate space and time is called a
vector field. For example, velocity is a vector quantity.
Scalar and Vector Products
 Gradient of a Scalar Field
Consider a scalar field
Divergence of a Vector Field
Curl of a Vector Field
Line Integrals
Consider a vector field
Surface Integrals
Consider an open surface S bounded by the closed curve C, as shown in Figure
2.11. At point P on the surface, let dS be an elemental area of the surface and
n be a unit vector normal to the surface.
• The orientation of n is in the direction
according to the right-hand rule for
movement along C. (Curl the fingers of your
right hand in the direction of movement
around C; your thumb will then point in the
general direction of n.)
• Define a vector elemental area as dS = ndS.
In terms of dS, the surface integral over the
surface S can be defined in three ways:
Volume Integrals
 Relations Between Line, Surface, and Volume
Integrals
The line integral of A over C is related to the surface integral of A over S by
Stokes’ theorem:
The surface and volume integrals of the vector field A are related through the
divergence theorem:

If p represents a scalar field, a vector relationship analogous to Equation (2.26) is given by

the gradient theorem:
MODELS OF THE FLUID: CONTROL VOLUMES AND FLUID ELEMENTS
• Finite Control Volume Approach
• Infinitesimal Fluid Element Approach
 • Molecular Approach

• The motion of a fluid is a ramification of the mean motion of its atoms and
molecules.

• Therefore, a third model of the flow can be a microscopic approach wherein

the fundamental laws of nature are applied directly to the atoms and
molecules, using suitable statistical averaging to define the resulting fluid
properties.
Physical Meaning of the Divergence of Velocity

∇.V is physically the time rate of change of the volume of a moving fluid
element of fixed mass per unit volume of that element.

• Consider a control volume moving with the fluid.

• This control volume is always made up of the same fluid particles as it

moves with the flow; hence, its mass is fixed, invariant with time. However,
its volume ‘V’ and control surface ‘S’ are changing with time as it moves to
different regions of the flow where different values of ρ exist.

• That is, this moving control volume of fixed mass is constantly increasing or
decreasing its volume and is changing its shape.
• This control volume is shown in Figure 2.15 at some instant in time. Consider an
infinitesimal element of the surface dS moving at the local velocity V, as shown in
Figure 2.15.

• The change in the volume of the control volume ∆V, due to just the movement of dS
over a time increment ∆t, is, from Figure, equal to the volume of the long, thin cylinder
with base area d S and altitude (V ∆t).n; that is,

Figure: Moving control volume used for the physical

interpretation of the divergence of velocity
Over the time increment ∆t, the total change in volume of the whole control volume is
equal to the summation of Equation over the total control surface.

In the limit as dS → 0, the sum becomes the surface integral

If this integral is divided by ∆t, the result is physically the time rate of change of the control
volume, denoted by DV/Dt; that is,
Applying the divergence theorem

Now let us imagine that the moving control volume in Figure is shrunk to a very small
volume δV, essentially becoming an infinitesimal moving fluid element. Then above Equation
can be written as

“It states that ∇.V is physically the time

rate of change of the volume of a
moving fluid element of fixed mass per
unit volume of that element.
SUBSTANTIAL DERIVATIVE
Local Derivative Convective Derivative
For Example
CONTINUITY EQUATION

Figure: Finite control volume fixed in space.

the elemental mass flow across the area d S is

dS always points in a direction out of the control volume. Hence, when V also points out
of the control volume, the product ρV · dS is positive
To Find C
The mass contained within the elemental volume dV is
In turn, the time rate of decrease of mass inside V is the negative of the above; that is
Equation (2.52) is the continuity equation in the form of a partial differential equation

For steady flow, ∂/∂t = 0

MOMENTUM EQUATION
Left Side of the above:
where the negative sign indicates that the force is in the direction opposite of dS
The complete pressure force is the summation of the elemental forces over the entire control
surface

In a viscous flow, the shear and normal viscous stresses also exert a surface force.
Now consider the right side of Equation (2.56). The time rate of change of momentum of
the fluid as it sweeps through the fixed control volume is the sum of two terms:

To obtain an expression for G, recall that the mass flow across the elemental area dS is
(ρV · dS); hence, the flow of momentum per second across dS is

(ρV · dS)V
The net flow of momentum out of the control volume through S is the summation of the
above elemental contributions

Now consider H from Equation (2.60b). The momentum of the fluid in the elemental volume
dV shown in Figure 2.19 is
In Differential Form:
Apply the divergence theorem

X- Direction
Y- Direction

Z- Direction
Euler Equation
 ENERGY EQUATION
Physical principle: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can
only change in form

From our physical principle that energy is conserved, we have for the system

Thermodynamics 1st Law

Heat added Work done Change in internal energy

the mass contained within an elemental volume is ρ dV; hence, the rate of heat
addition to this mass is q˙(ρ dV). Summing over the complete control volume, we
obtain
Where:

q˙ - heat rate per unit mass

In addition, if the flow is viscous, heat can be transferred into the control volume by
means of thermal conduction and mass diffusion across the control surface.
 Rate of doing work on moving body = F x V

Consider the elemental area dS of the control surface in Figure 2.19. The
pressure force on this elemental area is −p dS. From the above result, the rate
of work done on the fluid passing through dS with velocity V is (−pdS).V
Hence, summing over the complete control surface, we have
 If the flow is viscous, the shear stress on the control surface will also perform work on the
fluid as it passes across the surface. Let us denote this contribution simply by Wviscous.
Then the total rate of work done on the fluid inside the control volume is the sum of
Equations (2.89) and (2.90) and Wviscous

The elemental mass flow across dS is ρV.dS, and therefore the elemental flow of total energy
across dS is(ρV.dS)(e+V2/2). Summing over the complete control surface, we obtain
In Differential form
 FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS IN TERMS OF THE
SUBSTANTIAL DERIVATIVE
Continuity Equation
 Momentum Equation

Next, consider the x component of the momentum equation given in the form of
Equation
In a similar manner
Energy Equation
 PATHLINES, STREAMLINES, AND STREAKLINES OF A
FLOW
Consider an unsteady flow with a velocity field given by V = V(x, y, z, t). Also,
consider an infinitesimal fluid element moving through the flow field, say,
element A as shown in Figure 2.27a.
Element A passes
through point 1. Let
us trace the path of
element A as it
moves downstream
from point 1, as
given by the dashed
line in Figure 2.27a
• Now, trace the path of another fluid element, say, element B as shown in
Figure 2.27b. Assume that element B also passes through point 1, but at
some different time from element A. The pathline of element B is given by
the dashed line in Figure 2.27b.

• Because the flow is unsteady, the velocity at point 1 (and at all other points
of the flow) changes with time. Hence, the pathlines of elements A and B are
different curves in Figure 2.27a and b. In general, for unsteady flow, the
pathlines for different fluid elements passing through the same point are not
the same
• Streamline is a curve whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the
velocity vector at that point. Streamlines are illustrated in Figure 2.28.
• The streamlines are drawn such that their tangents at every point along the
streamline are in the same direction as the velocity vectors at those points.
• If the flow is unsteady, the streamline pattern is different at different times
because the velocity vectors are fluctuating with time in both magnitude and
direction
The velocity at point 2 is V, and by definition of a streamline, V is parallel to ds.

Where
Streamlines are different from pathlines?

You can visualize a pathline as a time-exposure photograph of a given

fluid element, whereas a streamline pattern is like a single frame of a
motion picture of the flow. In an unsteady flow, the streamline pattern
changes; hence, each “frame” of the motion picture is different
Streakline
• Consider a fixed point in a flow field,
such as point 1 in Figure 2.31.

• Consider all the individual fluid

elements that have passed through
point 1 over a given time interval t2 −
t1. These fluid elements, shown in
Figure 2.31, are connected with each
other, like a string of elephants
connected trunk-to-tail.

• Element A is the fluid element that

passed through point 1 at time t1.
• Element B is the next element that
passed through point 1, just
behind element A.

• Element C is the element that

passed through point 1 just behind
element B, and so forth. Figure
2.31 is an illustration, made at time
t2, which shows all the fluid
elements that have earlier passed
through point 1 over the time
interval (t2 − t1).

• The line that connects all these

fluid elements is, by definition, a
Streakline.
ANGULAR VELOCITY, VORTICITY, AND STRAIN
• Consider an infinitesimal fluid element moving in a flowfield.

• As it translates along a streamline, it may also rotate, and in addition,

its shape may become distorted as sketched in Figure 2.32.

• The amount of rotation and distortion depends on the velocity field

since line AB is shown with a clockwise rotation in Figure 2.33, the angular displacement is
negative, − ∆θ1.) At present, consider just the line AC. It has rotated because during the time
increment t, point C has moved differently from point A. Consider the velocity in the y
direction. At point A at time t, this velocity is v, as shown in Figure 2.33. Point C is a distance dx
from point A; hence, at time t the vertical component of velocity of point C is given by
v+(∂v/∂x)dx. Hence,
The resulting angular velocity of the fluid element in three-dimensional space is

Vorticity
 CIRCULATION

The circulation is simply the negative of the line integral of velocity around a closed curve in
the flow; it is a kinematic property depending only on the velocity field and the choice of the
curve C.
In aerodynamics, it is convenient to consider a positive circulation as being clockwise.
Hence, a minus sign appears in the definition given by Equation (2.136) to account for the
positive-counterclockwise sense of the integral and the positive-clockwise sense of
circulation

Circulation is also related to vorticity as follows

 STREAM FUNCTION
The differential equation for a streamline is

If u and v are known functions of x and y ,then Equation(2.118)can be integrated

to yield the algebraic equation for a streamline:
The mass flow through the streamtube per unit depth perpendicular to the page is
 In Cylindrical Coordinates System:

Velocity Components:
VELOCITY POTENTIAL
For an irrotational flow,
In cylindrical coordinates
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE STREAM FUNCTION AND
VELOCITY POTENTIAL
For an irrotational flow

V =∇φ

We see that a line of constant φ is an isoline of φ; since φ is the velocity potential, we

give this isoline a specific name, equipotential line.

In addition, a line drawn in space such that ∇φ is tangent at every point is defined as a
gradient line; however, since ∇φ = V, this gradient line is a streamline.

A streamline is a line of constant ψ (for a two-dimensional flow). Because gradient lines

and isolines are perpendicular. equipotential lines (φ = constant) and streamlines ( ψ =
constant) are mutually perpendicular
Consider a two-dimensional, irrotational, incompressible flow in cartesian coordinates. For a
streamline, ψ(x, y) = constant. Hence, the differential of ψ along the streamline is zero; that is,
AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS
The aerodynamic forces and moments on the body are due to only two
basic sources:
1. Pressure distribution over the body surface
2. Shear stress distribution over the body surface

p acts normal to the surface, and τ acts tangential to the surface

The net effect of the p and τ distributions integrated over the complete body surface is a
resultant aerodynamic force R and moment M on the body, as sketched in Figure 1.16. In turn,
the resultant R can be split into components, two sets of which are shown in Figure 1.17

• V∞ is the relative wind, defined as

the flow velocity far ahead of the
body.

• The flow far away from the body is

called the freestream, and hence V∞
is also called the freestream velocity.
Pressure Coefficient
For incompressible flow, Cp can be expressed in terms of velocity only. Consider
the flow over an aerodynamic body immersed in a freestream with pressure p∞
and velocity V∞. Pick an arbitrary point in the flow where the pressure and
velocity are p and V, respectively. From Bernoulli’s equation
Consider an airfoil in a flow with a freestream velocity of 150 ft/s.
The velocity at a given point on the airfoil is 225 ft/s. Calculate the
pressure coefficient at this point.

Solution:
Types of Drag
Drag is a restrictive force which opposes the motion of an aircraft. There are
various types of drag depending upon their sources.

• Parasite drag
• Form drag or pressure drag
• Skin friction drag
• Profile drag
• Interference drag
• Lift induced drag
• Wave drag
1. Parasite drag

Parasite drag is a drag produced due to the motion of an object

through a fluid. With respect to aviation, the object is an aircraft
and the fluid is the atmospheric air.

Parasite drag occurs due to air molecules. Parasite drag is

classified as form drag or pressure drag, skin friction drag and
interference drag.
2. Form drag or pressure drag
Form drag is produced due to the shape of the object moving through
the fluid. It depends on the cross section of an object. An object with a
larger cross section and blunt shape will have a larger form drag
whereas an object with a smaller cross section area and a sharper
shape will have a lesser form drag.

How is form drag reduced?

It can be reduced using smaller cross section area for making wings and
by using aerodynamic shape for an aerofoil.
3. Skin friction drag

Skin friction drag is a drag produced due to friction between an object

(aircraft) & fluid (atmospheric air). The rough surface will have high skin
friction drag and conversely a smooth surface will have less skin friction
drag.

How is skin friction drag reduced?

Making the aircraft skin smooth will reduce skin friction.
 4. Profile drag
Profile drag is a sum of the form drag & skin friction drag.

5. Interference drag
Interference drag is produced due to the interference of two or more airflows
having different speeds. And this drag is produced by the interference of different
aircraft parts, that is, due to a mixture of airflow around wing and the airflow
around the fuselage.

How interference drag is reduced?

This can be reduced by keeping the angle between these two below 90 degrees
6. Lift Induced drag
Lift is another aerodynamic force. It is a force which keeps an aircraft in
the air and its magnitude is equal to the weight of the aircraft during
stable flight.
The direction of lift is perpendicular to the oncoming airflow towards the
aircraft. Lift induced drag, as the name suggests, is a drag produced due
to lift.
At slower speed & higher angle of attack, aircraft will have more lift. But
as the angle of attack increases, the air pushes the aircraft in the
backward direction. This backward push is the induced drag. Technically
speaking change in a vector direction of lift of the aircraft results in the
formation of this type of drag.
Other types of induced drag are due to a mixture of airflow above and below
the wing. The air flow mixes at the tips of the aircraft.

At the wing tips, these two air flows with variable speed, get mixed with
each other which produces vortices at wing tips. The Reason for production
of vortices is that high-pressure airflow gets pulled toward low-pressure
airflow.

How is lift induced drag reduced?

Using winglet or shark-lets at wing tips.

Winglets to
reduce the
induced drag
8. Wave drag

Wave drag is generally produced at transonic speed (speed almost

equals to speed of sound) & Supersonic speed (speed greater than
speed of sound). Due to high speed of airflow, shock waves are
produced. Shockwaves are nothing but the disturbance in the air. This
disturbance increases drag of the aircraft known as wave drag.
How wave drag is reduced?
Shock wave drag is one of the reason that at present time there are no
supersonic passenger aircraft. Hence scientists are looking for the way
to reduce shock wave drag. NASA is trying to reduce the shock wave
drag by making aircraft noses sharp. NASA's quite spike F-15 is aircraft
somewhat reduced the shockwave drag

This drag curve shows the

variation of different types of
drag with respect to airspeed.