Module 4 The Integral Equation
Module 4 The Integral Equation
Module 4 The Integral Equation
Energy: The rate of heat transfer to a system minus the work rate
done by a system equals the rate of change of the energy E of the
system.
• where the dot over Q and W signifies a time rate and e is the specific energy. It is
very difficult to apply the above equations directly to a collection of fluid particles
as the fluid moves along in a simple pipe flow as well as in a more complicated
flow, such as flow through a turbine.
• We convert these integrals that are expressed using a Lagrangian description to
integrals expressed using a Eulerian description. This is a rather tedious derivation
but an important one.
System-to-Control-Volume Transformation
(1)
where we have simply added and subtracted E1 (t + Δt) in the last line.
System-to-Control-Volume Transformation
Note that the first ratio in the last line above refers to the control volume so
that
where “c.s.” is the control surface that surrounds the control volume. Substituting
Eqs. These into Eq. (1) results in the Reynolds transport theorem, a system- to-
control-volume transformation:
where, in general, e would represent the specific property of E. Note that we could
have taken the limit as Δt→0 to make the derivation more mathematically rigorous.
System-to-Control-Volume Transformation
Energy equation
Conservation of mass
And finally, if we replace e in with the velocity V Newton’s second law results:
System-to-Control-Volume Transformation
• These three equations can be written in a slightly different form by recognizing
that a fixed control volume has been assumed.
• That means that the limits of the first integral on the right-hand side of each
equation are independent of time.
• Hence, the time derivative can be moved inside the integral if desired.
• Note that it would be written as a partial derivative should it be moved inside the
integral since the integrand depends, in general, on x, y, z, and t. For example, the
momentum equation would take the form
Application of Integral forms
Continuity Equation
Since the limits on the volume integral do not depend on time, this can be
written as
If the flow of interest can be assumed to be a steady flow so that time does not enter
the above equation, the equation simplifies to
Those flows in which the density is uniform over an area are of particular interest
in our study of fluids. Also, most applications have one entrance and one exit. For
such a problem, the above equation can then be written as
where an over bar denotes an average over an area, i.e., . Note also that at
an entrance we use ˆnV1=− V1 . Since the unit vector points out of the volume, and the
velocity is into the volume. But at an exit, ˆnV = V2 since the two vectors are in the same
direction.
Application of Integral forms
Continuity Equation
For incompressible flows in which the density does not change between the
entrance and the exit, and the velocity is uniform over each area, the
conservation of mass takes the simplified form:
We refer these equations as the continuity equation. These equations are used
most often to relate the velocities between sections. The quantity AV is the mass
flux and has units of kg/s. The quantity VA is the flow rate (or discharge) and has
units of m3/s. The mass flux is usually used in a gas flow and the discharge in a
liquid flow. They are defined by
Ans: t = 46 s
The Energy Equation
The first law of thermodynamics, or simply, the energy equation, is of use whenever
heat transfer or work is desired. If there is essentially no heat transfer and no external
work from a pump or some other device, the energy equation allows us to relate the
pressure, the velocity, and the elevation. We will begin with the energy equation in its
general form:
The work rate term results from a force moving with a velocity: W= F.V. The force can
be a pressure or a shear multiplied by an area. If the flow is in a conduit, e.g., a pipe or
a channel, the walls do not move so there is no work done by the walls. If there is a
moving belt, there could be an input of work due to the shear between the belt and
the fluid. The most common work rate terms result from the pressure forces at the
entrance and the exit (pressure is assumed to be uniform over each area) and from any
device located between the entrance and the exit. The work rate term is expressed as
The Energy Equation
• where power output is considered positive and WS is the shaft power output from
the control volume (a pump would provide a negative power and a turbine, a
positive power output).
• The energy E considered in a fluids course consists of kinetic energy, potential
energy, and internal energy:
The heat transfer term and the internal energy terms form the losses in the flow
(viscous effects result in heat transfer and/or an increase in internal energy). Divide
above Eq by mg and simplify
The Energy Equation
where we have included the loss term as hL , called the head loss; it is
(A)
• When applying this equation to a control volume, we must be careful to include all
forces acting on the control volume, so it is very important to sketch the control
volume and place the forces on the sketch. The control volume takes the place of
the free-body diagram utilized in mechanics courses.
Most often, steady, uniform flows with one entrance and one outlet are encountered.
For such flows, above Eq. reduces to
The Momentum Equation
Using continuity the momentum equation takes the
simplified form
• This is the form most often used when a force is involved in a calculation. It is a
vector equation that contains the following three scalar equations (using
rectangular coordinates):
• If the profiles at the entrance and exit are not uniform, momemtum Eq. A must be
used and the integration performed or, if the momentum-correction factor β is
known, it can be used. The momentum equation for a steady flow with one
entrance and one outlet then takes the form
The Momentum Equation
where V1 and V2 represent the average velocity vectors over the two areas. For
parabolic profiles, β =1.33 for a pipe and β =1.2 for parallel plates. For turbulent
flows (most flows in engineering applications), β ≅1.
Assumptions
One of the more important applications of the momentum equation is on the
deflectors (or vanes) of pumps, turbines, or compressors. The applications involve
both stationary deflectors and moving deflectors. The following assumptions are
made for both:
Vr2
A series of vanes.
For a series of vanes, the nozzles are typically oriented such that the fluid enters the
vanes from the side at an angle β1 and leaves the vanes at an angle β2 , as shown in Fig.
The vanes are designed so that the relative inlet velocity Vr1 enters the vanes tangent to a
vane (the relative velocity always leaves tangent to the vane) as shown in Fig. It is the
relative speed that remains constant in magnitude as the fluid moves over the vane, i.e.,
Vr2 = Vr1
.
The Momentum Equation
So, the expression to determine the x-component of the force is
It is this x-component of the force that allows the power to be calculated; the y-
component does no work and hence does not contribute to the power. The power is
found from
where N is the number of jets in the device and we have observed that the force Rx
moves with velocity VB
.
Problem
In Fig. the jet strikes a vane which moves to the right at constant velocity Vc on a
frictionless cart. Compute (a) the force Fx required to restrain the cart and (b) the
power P delivered to the cart. Also find the cart velocity for which (c) the force Fx is
a maximum and (d) the power P is a maximum.
Problem
A 10-cm-diameter hose maintained at a pressure of 1600 kPa provides water from a
tanker to a fire. There is a nozzle on the end of the hose that reduces the diameter
to 2.5 cm. Estimate the force that the water exerts on the nozzle. The losses can be
neglected in a short nozzle.
Ans: FN = 11090 N
Problem
A steam turbine contains eight 4-cm-diameter nozzles each accelerating steam to
200 m/s, as shown. The turbine blades are moving at 80 m/s and the density of the
steam is 2.2 kg/m3 . Calculate the maximum power output.
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