Internet Of Things

22ETC15H
Module 1 Notes

Prepared By:
Vyshali Rao K P
Assistant Professor
Dept of ISE
CMR Institute of Technology
Bangalore
 Module 1
IOT Introduction
1.1 Introduction

In the present era of data- and information-centric operations, everything—right from agriculture
to military operations—relies heavily on information. The quality of any particular information
is as good as the variety and strength of the data that generates this information.

Typically, networking refers to the linking of computers and communication network devices
(also referred to as hosts), which interconnect through a network (Internet or Intranet) and are
separated by unique device identifiers (Internet protocol, IP addresses and media access control,
MAC addresses). These hosts may be connected by a single path or through multiple paths for
sending and receiving data. The data transferred between the hosts may be text, images, or
videos, which are typically in the form of binary bit streams

1.2 Network Types

Computer networks are classified according to various parameters:

1) Type of connection,
2) physical topology, and
3) reach of the network.
These classifications are helpful in deciding the requirements of a network setup

1.2.1 Connection types

Depending on the way a host communicates with other hosts, computer networks are of two
types.
Point-to-point and Point-to-multipoint.

(i) Point-to-point: Point-to-point connections are used to establish direct connections

between two hosts.
(ii) Day-to-day systems such as a remote control for an air conditioner or television is a
point to point connection, where the connection has the whole channel dedicated to it
only.
(iii) These networks were designed to work over duplex links and are functional for both
synchronous as well as asynchronous systems.
(iv) Regarding computer networks, point to point connections find usage for specific
purposes such as in optical networks.
(ii) Point-to-multipoint: In a point-to-multipoint connection, more than two hosts share the
same link.
 This type of configuration is similar to the one-to-many connection type.
 Point-to-multipoint connections find popular use in wireless networks and IP telephony.
 The channel is shared between the various hosts, either spatially or temporally.

1.2.2 Physical topology

Depending on the physical manner in which communication paths between the hosts are
connected, computer networks can have the following four broad topologies—
Star, Mesh, Bus, and Ring.

1. Star: In a star topology, every host has a point-to-point link to a central controller
or hub. The hosts cannot communicate with one another directly; they can only do
so through the central hub.
The hub acts as the network traffic exchange.
 Advantages:
1. This topology is cheaper and easier to set up.
2. Ease of fault identification within the network.
The main Disadvantage of this topology is the danger of a single point of failure. If the hub
fails, the whole network fails.

2. Mesh: In a mesh topology, every host is connected to every other host using a
dedicated link (in a point-to-point manner).
This implies that for n hosts in a mesh, there are a total of n(n−1)/2 dedicated full
duplex links between the hosts.
Advantages:
 The massive number of links makes the mesh topology expensive.
 The robustness and resilience of the system. Even if a link is down or broken, the
network is still fully functional as there remain other pathways for the traffic to flow
through.
 The security and privacy of the traffic as the data is only seen by the intended recipients
and not by all members of the network.
 The reduced data load on a single host, as every host in this network takes care of its
traffic load.
Disadvantages:
 The complexities in forming physical connections between devices
 The cost of establishing the redundant links is high,
 3. Bus: A bus topology follows the point-to-multipoint connection.
A backbone cable or bus serves as the primary traffic pathway between the hosts.
The hosts are connected to the main bus employing drop lines or taps.
Advantages:
 Ease of installation.
 It has a simple cabling procedure in which a single bus (backbone cable) can be used for
an organization.
 Multiple drop lines and taps can be used to connect various hosts to the bus, making
installation very easy and cheap.
Disadvantages:
 There is a restriction on the length of the bus and the number of hosts that can be
simultaneously connected to the bus due to signal loss over the extended bus.
 It is difficult to fault localization within the network.

4. Ring: A ring topology works on the principle of a point-to-point connection.

Here, each host is configured to have a dedicated point-to-point connection with
its two immediate neighboring hosts on either side of it through repeaters at each
host.
The repetition of this system forms a ring. The repeaters at each host capture the
incoming signal intended for other hosts, regenerate the bit stream, and passes it
onto the next repeater.
Advantages:
 Fault identification and set up of the ring topology is quite simple and straightforward.
Disadvantages:
 High probability of a single point of failure.
 If even one repeater fails, the whole network goes down.
1.2.3 Network reachability
Computer networks are divided into four broad categories based on network reachability:
personal area networks, local area networks, wide area networks, and metropolitan area
networks.

Personal Area Networks (PAN): PANs, as the name suggests, are mostly restricted to
individual usage.
 A good example of PANs may be connected wireless headphones, wireless
speakers, laptops, smartphones, wireless keyboards, wireless mouse, and printers
within a house.
  Generally, PANs are wireless networks, which make use of low-range and low-
power technologies such as Bluetooth.
 The reachability of PANs lies in the range of a few centimeters to a few meters.

Local Area Networks (LAN): A LAN is a collection of hosts linked to a single network through
wired or wireless connections.
 However, LANs are restricted to buildings, organizations, or campuses. Typically, a few
leased lines connected to the Internet provide web access to the whole organization or a
campus;
 The lines are further redistributed to multiple hosts within the LAN enabling hosts. The
hosts are much more in number than the actual direct lines to the Internet to access the
web from within the organization. This also allows the organization to define various
access control policies for web access within its hierarchy.
 Typically, the present-day data access rates within the LANs range from 100 Mbps to
1000 Mbps, with very high fault-tolerance levels. Commonly used network components
in a LAN are servers, hubs, routers, switches, terminals, and computers.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): The reachability of a MAN lies between that of a LAN
and a WAN.
 MANs connect various organizations or buildings within a given geographic location or
city.
 An excellent example of a MAN is an Internet service provider (ISP) supplying Internet
connectivity to various organizations within a city.
 As MANs are costly, they may not be owned by individuals or even single organizations.
 Typical networking devices/components in MANs are modems and cables. MANs tend to
have moderate fault tolerance levels.

Wide Area Networks (WAN): WANs typically connect diverse geographic locations. However,
they are restricted within the boundaries of a state or country.
 The data rate of WANs is in the order of a fraction of LAN’s data rate.
 Typically, WANs connecting two LANs or MANs may use public switched telephone
networks (PSTNs) or satellite-based links.
 Due to the long transmission ranges, WANs tend to have more errors and noise during
transmission and are very costly to maintain. The fault tolerance of WANs are also generally
low.

1.3 OSI Layered Network Models:

 OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.
 It has been developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for Standardization‘, in the year
1984.
 It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform.

1. Physical Layer:
 It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
 The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
 The functions of the physical layer are as follows:
Bit synchronization:
Bit rate control:
Physical topologies:
Transmission mode:

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) :

 The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one
node to another, over the physical layer.
 Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers:
Logical Link Control (LLC)
Media Access Control (MAC)
• The functions of the Data Link layer are :
Framing:
Physical addressing:
Error control:
Flow Control:
Access control:

3. Network Layer :
 The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks.
 It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit
the packet, from the number of routes available.
 The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer.
 The functions of the Network layer are :
Routing:
Logical Addressing:

4. Transport Layer:
 The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services
from the network layer.
 The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
 The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
 At sender’s side: Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper
layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to
ensure proper data transmission.
 At receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and
forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also
performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
 The functions of the transport layer are as follows:
Segmentation and Reassembly:
Service Point Addressing:
 The services provided by the transport layer :
A. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
Connection Establishment
Data Transfer
Termination / disconnection
  In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement,
back to the source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of
transmission is reliable and secure.

5. Session Layer:
 This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, authentication, and also ensures security.
 The functions of the session layer are :
Session establishment, maintenance, and termination:
Synchronization:
Dialog Controller:

6. Presentation Layer:
 The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network.
 The functions of the presentation layer are :
Translation:
Encryption/ Decryption:
Compression:

7. Application Layer:
 This layer serves as a window for the application services to access the network
and for displaying the received information to the user.
 The functions of the Application layer are :
FTAM-File transfer access and management
Mail Services
Directory Services

1.4 Internet protocol suite:

 The Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model and provides only four levels
of abstraction: 1) Link layer, 2) Internet layer, 3) transport layer, and 4)
application layer.
 This collection of protocols is commonly referred to as the TCP/IP protocol suite
 
1. Link layer:
 The first and base layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite is also known as the network
interface layer. This layer is synonymous with the collective physical and data
link layer of the OSI model.
 It enables the transmission of TCP/IP packets over the physical medium.
 According to its design principles, the link layer is independent of the medium in
use, frame format, and network access, enabling it to be used with a wide range of
technologies such as the Ethernet, wireless LAN, and the asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM).

2. Internet Layer:
 Internet Layer: Layer 2 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is somewhat synonymous to
the network layer of the OSI model.
 It is responsible for addressing, address translation, data packaging, data
disassembly and assembly, routing, and packet delivery tracking operations.
 Some core protocols associated with this layer are address resolution protocol
(ARP), Internet protocol (IP), Internet control message protocol (ICMP), and
Internet group management protocol (IGMP).

3. Transport Layer:
 Transport Layer: Layer 3 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is functionally synonymous
with the transport layer of the OSI model.
 This layer is tasked with the functions of error control, flow control, congestion
control, segmentation, and addressing in an end-to-end manner; it is also
independent of the underlying network.
 Transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram protocol (UDP) are the
core protocols upon which this layer is built, which in turn enables it to have the
 choice of providing connection-oriented or connectionless services between two
or more hosts or networked devices.

4. Application Layer:
 Application Layer: The functionalities of the application layer, of the TCP/IP
protocol suite are synonymous with the collective functionalities of the OSI
model’s session, presentation, and application layers.
 This layer enables an end-user to access the services of the underlying layers and
defines the protocols for the transfer of data.
 Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), file transfer protocol (FTP), simple mail
transfer protocol (SMTP), domain name system (DNS), routing information
protocol (RIP), and simple network management protocol (SNMP) are some of
the core protocols associated with this layer.

1.5 History of IoT:

• The modern-day advent of network-connected devices has given rise to the popular
paradigm of the Internet of Things (IoT).
• “The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects that contain embedded
technology to communicate and sense or interact with their internal states or the external
environment.”
• Each second, the present-day Internet allows massively heterogeneous traffic through it.
• This network traffic consists of images, videos, music, speech, text, numbers, binary
codes, machine status, banking messages, data from sensors and actuators, healthcare
 data, data from vehicles, home automation system status and control messages, military
communications, and many more.

• The original Internet intended for sending simple messages is now connected with all
sorts of “Things”.
• These things can be legacy devices, modern-day computers, sensors, actuators, household
appliances, toys, clothes, shoes, vehicles, cameras, and anything which may benefit a
product by increasing its scientific value, accuracy, or even its cosmetic value.
• IoT is an anytime, anywhere, and anything network of Internet-connected physical
devices or systems capable of sensing an environment and affecting the sensed
environment intelligently.
• Typically, IoT systems can be characterized by the following features:
• Associated architectures, which are also efficient and scalable.
• No ambiguity in naming and addressing.
• Massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes, mobile devices, and non-IP
devices.
• Intermittent and often unstable connectivity.

IoT is speculated to have achieved faster and higher technology acceptance as

compared to electricity and telephony. These speculations are not ill placed as evident
from the various statistics shown in Figures below.
1.6 Evolution of IoT:
• The IoT, as we see it today, is a result of a series of technological model shifts over a few
decades.

• The technologies that laid the foundation of connected systems by achieving easy
integration to daily lives, popular public acceptance, and massive benefits by using
connected solutions can be considered as the founding solutions for the development of
IoT.

• Figure shows the sequence of technological advancements for shaping the IoT as it is
today.
• The first ATM became operational and connected online for the first time in 1974.
• The Web became operational for the first time in 1991.
• The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became operational in early 2000.
• The present-day IoT spans across various domains and applications.
• The major highlight of this paradigm is its ability to function as a cross-domain
technology enabler.
• IoT is being used in vivid and diverse areas such as smart parking, smartphone detection,
traffic congestion, smart lighting, waste management, smart roads, structural health,
urban noise maps, river floods, water flow, silos stock calculation, water leakages,
radiation levels, explosive and hazardous gases, perimeter access control etc..
• Figure 4.7 shows the various technological interdependencies of IoT with other domains
and networking paradigms such as M2M, CPS, the Internet of environment (IoE), the
Internet of people (IoP), and Industry 4.0.
• Each of these networking paradigms is a massive domain on its own, but the omnipresent
nature of IoT implies that these domains act as subsets of IoT.
 1.7 Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of
Technologies

The IoT paradigm is divided into four planes:

• Services,
• Local connectivity,
• Global connectivity, and
• Processing.

The service plane is composed of two parts:

1) Things or devices and
2) low-power connectivity.

• Typically, the services offered in this layer are a combination of things and low power
connectivity.
• For example, any IoT application requires the basic setup of sensing, followed by
rudimentary processing (often), and a low-power, low-range network, which is mainly
built upon the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol.
• The things may be wearable's, computers, smart phones, household appliances, smart
glasses.
• The immediate low-power connectivity, which is responsible for connecting the things in
local implementation, may be legacy protocols such as WiFi, Ethernet, or cellular.

• The local connectivity is responsible for distributing Internet access to multiple local IoT
deployments.
• This distribution may be on the basis of the physical placement of the things, on the basis
of the application domains, or even on the basis of providers of services.
• Services such as address management, device management, security, sleep scheduling,
and others fall within the scope of this plane.
• Global connectivity plays a significant role in enabling IoT in the real sense by allowing
for worldwide implementations and connectivity between things, users, controllers, and
applications.
• This plane also falls under the purview of IoT management as it decides how and when to
store data, when to process it, when to forward it, and in which form to forward it.
• The final plane of processing can be considered as a top-up of the basic IoT networking
framework.
• The continuous rise in the usefulness and penetration of IoT in various application areas
such as industries, transportation, healthcare, and others is the result of this plane.
• The members in this plane may be termed as IoT tools, simply because they wring-out
useful and human-readable information from all the raw data that flows from various IoT
devices and deployments.

1.8 IoT Networking Components:

1) IoT node
2) IoT router
3) IoT LAN
4) IoT WAN
5) IoT gateway and
6) IoT proxy.
• IoT Node: These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN. Each of these devices
is typically made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio, which communicates with the
network infrastructure.
• IoT Router: An IoT router is a piece of networking equipment that is primarily
tasked with the routing of packets between various entities in the IoT network; it keeps
the traffic flowing correctly within the network.
• A router can be repurposed as a gateway by enhancing its functionalities.
• IoT LAN: The local area network (LAN) enables local connectivity within the purview
of a single gateway.
• IoT WAN: The wide area network (WAN) connects various network segments such as
LANs.
• They are typically organizationally and geographically wide, with their operational range
lying between a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometers.
• IoT Gateway: An IoT gateway is simply a router connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN or
the Internet.
• Their primary task is to forward packets between LANs and WANs.
• IoT Proxy: Proxies actively lie on the application layer and performs application layer
functions between IoT nodes and other entities.